Spatiotemporal Assessment of PM\textsubscript{2.5} in Senior High Schools in Kumasi, Ghana Using Low-Cost Sensors

Spatiotemporal Assessment of PM\textsubscript{2.5} in Senior High Schools in Kumasi, Ghana Using Low-Cost Sensors | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Spatiotemporal Assessment of PM\textsubscript{2.5} in Senior High Schools in Kumasi, Ghana Using Low-Cost Sensors Victoria Owusu-Tawiah, Thompson Annor, Edmund I. Yamba, James Nimo, and 6 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6941594/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract noindent Fine particulate matter (PM\textsubscript{2.5}) poses significant health risks, particularly to children; yet, ambient air quality studies in school environments across Kumasi, Ghana, remain limited. This study utilized low-cost Airnote sensors and meteorological data (wind speed and wind direction) from the ERA5-Land Reanalysis to assess levels of PM\textsubscript{2.5} pollution across six senior high schools in Kumasi between 2022 and 2023, capturing spatial and seasonal variability during both the dry and wet seasons. Results revealed an annual median PM\textsubscript{2.5} concentration of 17.18 \(\mu\) g/m \(^3\) , exceeding the WHO annual guideline of 5 $ \mu $ g/m $ ^3 $ . Diurnal patterns exhibited bimodal peaks aligned with morning and evening commuting and domestic activities, driven by traffic emissions, biomass burning, and informal waste burning. Pollution levels were notably elevated during weekdays and Saturdays but lower on Sundays. Median concentrations were highest at OKESS (20.91 $ \mu $ g/m $ ^3 $ ), followed by Adventist (19.22 $ \mu $ g/m $ ^3 $ ), Sakafia (18.16 $ \mu $ g/m $ ^3 $ ), and KWG (16.71 $ \mu $ g/m $ ^3 $ ), while Ibadur (15.32 $ \mu $ g/m $ ^3 $ ) and KASS (12.76 $ \mu $ g/m $ ^3 $ ) recorded the lowest levels. Seasonal differences were pronounced: the dry season showed significantly higher pollution (mean = 26.82 $ \mu $ g/m $ ^3 $ ) than the wet season (mean = 13.18 $ \mu $ g/m $ ^3 $ ), owing to reduced rainfall and limited atmospheric dispersion. Conditional Bivariate Probability Function (CBPF) analysis and HYSPLIT back-trajectory modeling identified dominant pollution sources, including nearby traffic corridors, domestic combustion activities, unmanaged waste burning, and long-range Saharan dust transport, with clear seasonal shifts in source directionality. Spatial variability in PM\textsubscript{2.5} concentrations was further influenced by land-use characteristics and topography surrounding each school. These findings underscore the need for localized air quality management strategies, particularly in vulnerable environments like schools, to mitigate health risks and enhance urban air quality governance. Spatiotemporal Assessment Source Attribution PM\textsubscript{2.5} Senor High School Kumasi Ghana Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplemantaryInformation.pdf Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 16 Sep, 2025 Reviews received at journal 16 Sep, 2025 Reviews received at journal 12 Sep, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 22 Aug, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 19 Aug, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 15 Aug, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 13 Jul, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 09 Jul, 2025 First submitted to journal 06 Jul, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6941594","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":504050887,"identity":"404f31b9-f2e2-4fca-b9f8-5aae4071db19","order_by":0,"name":"Victoria Owusu-Tawiah","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAxUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACZjYIzQ8iEgpI0SLZANJiQJQ1UC0GB8AkERoMjrMlPuZtq0vcfH514ocHBgzy/GIHCGg5zHbYmLftcOK2G283SwAdZjhzdgJ+LZLN7G3SuW0HgFrObgBpSTC4TZwWoMNmnN38gygt/Mxsx4BamBM38PduI84WoJZk4z/nDhvPuMG7zSLBQIKwX9j4jxk+nFFWJ9vff3bzzR8VNvL80gS0IIAEWKUEscrBTjxAiupRMApGwSgYSQAA1e9BnahYX7EAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Victoria","middleName":"","lastName":"Owusu-Tawiah","suffix":""},{"id":504050888,"identity":"1aa1a7b6-b9b2-4564-85ec-686aa37eac65","order_by":1,"name":"Thompson Annor","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Thompson","middleName":"","lastName":"Annor","suffix":""},{"id":504050889,"identity":"62db58d1-de80-4c54-8ee6-ae2f8f182556","order_by":2,"name":"Edmund I. Yamba","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Edmund","middleName":"I.","lastName":"Yamba","suffix":""},{"id":504050891,"identity":"3e99314d-fdc3-4e38-8699-8f2906d272aa","order_by":3,"name":"James Nimo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University at Albany, State University of New York","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"James","middleName":"","lastName":"Nimo","suffix":""},{"id":504050893,"identity":"b7563297-3747-4982-9f51-46cc524bcc21","order_by":4,"name":"Cosmos S. Wemegah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Energy and Natural Resources","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Cosmos","middleName":"S.","lastName":"Wemegah","suffix":""},{"id":504050894,"identity":"018da9ac-3cc1-4404-858a-78b0839c8d99","order_by":5,"name":"Collins G. 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Westervelt","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Columbia University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Daniel","middleName":"M.","lastName":"Westervelt","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-20 21:38:08","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6941594/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6941594/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89818524,"identity":"2c75384f-645d-4a40-aeb9-e9eeebb017a7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 10:57:29","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4877972,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SpringerNatureLaTeXTemplate1.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6941594/v1_covered_a9dd176f-8409-44c8-9fcc-1004c82b8006.pdf"},{"id":89815282,"identity":"e3d32fd8-25b3-49ef-a4c0-9cc263ef279d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-25 10:33:22","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":4614735,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplemantaryInformation.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6941594/v1/f7f4f304ace11934ad411731.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Spatiotemporal Assessment of PM\\textsubscript{2.5} in\nSenior High Schools in Kumasi, Ghana Using Low-Cost Sensors","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":false,"email":"","identity":"aerosol-and-air-quality-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Aerosol and Air Quality Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":false,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"VoR Journals","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Spatiotemporal, Assessment, Source Attribution, PM\\textsubscript{2.5}, Senor High, School, Kumasi, Ghana","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6941594/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6941594/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003enoindent Fine particulate matter (PM\\textsubscript{2.5}) poses significant health risks, particularly to children; yet, ambient air quality studies in school environments across Kumasi, Ghana, remain limited. This study utilized low-cost Airnote sensors and meteorological data (wind speed and wind direction) from the ERA5-Land Reanalysis to assess levels of PM\\textsubscript{2.5} pollution across six senior high schools in Kumasi between 2022 and 2023, capturing spatial and seasonal variability during both the dry and wet seasons. Results revealed an annual median PM\\textsubscript{2.5} concentration of 17.18 \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\mu\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003eg/m\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(^3\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e, exceeding the WHO annual guideline of 5 \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e\\mu\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003eg/m\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e^3\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e. Diurnal patterns exhibited bimodal peaks aligned with morning and evening commuting and domestic activities, driven by traffic emissions, biomass burning, and informal waste burning. Pollution levels were notably elevated during weekdays and Saturdays but lower on Sundays. Median concentrations were highest at OKESS (20.91 \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e\\mu\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003eg/m\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e^3\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e), followed by Adventist (19.22 \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e\\mu\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003eg/m\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e^3\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e), Sakafia (18.16 \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e\\mu\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003eg/m\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e^3\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e), and KWG (16.71 \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e\\mu\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003eg/m\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e^3\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e), while Ibadur (15.32 \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e\\mu\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003eg/m\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e^3\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e) and KASS (12.76 \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e\\mu\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003eg/m\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e^3\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e) recorded the lowest levels. Seasonal differences were pronounced: the dry season showed significantly higher pollution (mean = 26.82 \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e\\mu\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003eg/m\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e^3\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e) than the wet season (mean = 13.18 \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e\\mu\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003eg/m\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e^3\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e), owing to reduced rainfall and limited atmospheric dispersion. Conditional Bivariate Probability Function (CBPF) analysis and HYSPLIT back-trajectory modeling identified dominant pollution sources, including nearby traffic corridors, domestic combustion activities, unmanaged waste burning, and long-range Saharan dust transport, with clear seasonal shifts in source directionality. Spatial variability in PM\\textsubscript{2.5} concentrations was further influenced by land-use characteristics and topography surrounding each school. These findings underscore the need for localized air quality management strategies, particularly in vulnerable environments like schools, to mitigate health risks and enhance urban air quality governance.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Spatiotemporal Assessment of PM\\textsubscript{2.5} in\nSenior High Schools in Kumasi, Ghana Using Low-Cost Sensors","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-25 10:25:17","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6941594/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-09-16T09:48:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-16T09:03:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-12T09:12:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"121737467328124497058855726212207319367","date":"2025-08-22T07:25:28+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"218306857112296555154658880863074100077","date":"2025-08-20T00:17:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-15T23:04:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-14T01:27:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-07-09T04:46:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Aerosol and Air Quality Research","date":"2025-07-06T14:27:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":false,"email":"","identity":"aerosol-and-air-quality-research","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Aerosol and Air Quality Research","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":false,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"VoR Journals","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"29f66ded-932a-477d-94bf-d5262b339e8b","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 25th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-13T15:38:29+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-25 10:25:17","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6941594","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6941594","identity":"rs-6941594","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}