Sustainability through Language Education for Heritage Preservation and Global Participation

Sustainability through Language Education for Heritage Preservation and Global Participation | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Sustainability through Language Education for Heritage Preservation and Global Participation Shen Min, Yuki Akita, Norazmie Yusof, Yabit Alas This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7548287/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This paper explores how language education in Brunei supports sustainable development by balancing heritage preservation with global engagement. Guided by Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC), and linguistic ecology, it examines three emerging strands: workplace-oriented Mandarin, Japanese as a school initiative, and the revitalisation of indigenous languages. Using a qualitative case study approach, the analysis draws on policy documents, curricular practices, and existing research. Findings show that Mandarin education, shaped by Brunei–China collaboration, embeds intercultural learning into workplace communication. Japanese initiatives reflect a balanced approach, combining institutional policy with practitioner input to enhance youth motivation and regional ties. Indigenous language programmes promote cultural stewardship but remain fragile due to limited community transmission. Collectively, these cases highlight language education as a strategic means of advancing sustainability, requiring stronger teacher development, intercultural pedagogy, and community–institutional collaboration to secure linguistic diversity and equip learners for global participation. Medical Trial Registration: Not applicable . Language education Sustainability Intercultural communicative competence (ICC) Heritage preservation Global participation Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Language education has been increasingly recognised as a driver of sustainable development (UNESCO, 2013 ). Beyond equipping learners with linguistic skills, it develops intercultural competences that enable them to communicate effectively across cultural boundaries and participate as global citizens (UNESCO, 2015 ; Byram, 1997 , 2022 ; Deardorff, 2006 ). Research on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) similarly identifies competences such as communication, collaboration, critical reflection, and empathy as central to sustainability (Barth, Godemann, Rieckmann, & Stoltenberg, 2007 ; Wiek et al., 2011 ; Rieckmann, 2012 ; Lambrechts et al., 2013 ; Lozano et al., 2009). These competences are best cultivated through participatory and experiential pedagogies—role-plays, case studies, and group projects—rather than traditional lectures (Cotton & Winter, 2010 ; Ceulemans & De Prins, 2010 ). Recent studies have also examined how sustainability literacy can be fostered in language-related courses, such as writing instruction, highlighting the role of communication in sustainability education (Erguvan, 2024 ). Despite these theoretical advances, empirical studies remain limited on how language education simultaneously sustains cultural heritage and prepares learners for global engagement, particularly in multilingual societies of the Global South. Existing research often treats these aims separately, examining either global citizenship competences or heritage preservation, but rarely how both are negotiated within education systems. Addressing this gap is critical, as many multilingual nations face structural tensions: dominant languages are promoted for modernisation and economic mobility, while minority languages struggle for survival. Brunei offers a compelling test case for this inquiry. As a small but highly multilingual nation, it encapsulates the challenges of balancing national cohesion with global readiness. Its linguistic ecosystem is composed of Standard Malay as the official language, English as the main working and educational language, alongside Chinese varieties and multiple indigenous languages (Coluzzi, 2011 ; Haji-Othman, 2005 ; Noorashid & Chuchu, 2015 ). English dominates in education and international communication (O’Hara-Davies, 2010 ), while indigenous languages face decline due to limited institutional support and weakening intergenerational transmission (Yusof & Alas, 2021a ). These dynamics make Brunei a microcosm of wider multilingual tensions: the pressures of globalisation, the decline of minority languages, and the need to maintain national identity. At the same time, as an ASEAN member and signatory to the UN Sustainable Development Goals, Brunei’s efforts have broader regional significance, offering lessons for other multilingual contexts in Southeast Asia and the Global South grappling with similar challenges. Against this backdrop, this study examines how Brunei’s emerging strands of language education contribute to sustainability by balancing heritage preservation with global participation. Integrating the perspectives of ESD, Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC), and linguistic ecology, it analyses three significant cases: workplace-oriented Mandarin, Japanese as a school initiative, and the revitalisation of indigenous languages. In doing so, the study contributes one of the first empirical accounts of how language education advances sustainability competences in a multilingual Southeast Asian context, positioning Brunei as both a local case and a regional reference point for debates on language, identity, and sustainable development. Accordingly, this study addresses the following research question: How do emerging strands of language education in Brunei contribute to sustainable development by balancing heritage preservation with global engagement within its multilingual ecology? 2. Theoretical Framework The theoretical underpinnings of this study draw on three complementary perspectives: ESD, ICC and linguistic ecology. The theories of ESD and ICC provide a robust foundation for identifying the significant emerging strands of language education that support sustainability. Additionally, previous studies on Brunei’s linguistic ecosystem provide a critical lens for considering how sustainability oriented approaches to language education interact with the dynamics of the nation’s metalinguistic environment. 2.1 Education for Sustainable Development and Intercultural Communicative Competence Research on ESD has expanded considerably over the past decade, with increasing attention to what are the competences for SD and how such competences could be integrated into education. This body of work emphasises the need for a holistic set of multidimensional and transformative competences that combine knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes, thereby enabling learners to navigate complexity and act responsibly in diverse contexts (Barth et al., 2007 ; Hager & Beckett, 1995 ; Sturmberg & Hinchy, 2010 ). Among these competences, the capacity to communicate and collaborate effectively has been consistently highlighted, though expressed in different terms such as interpersonal competence (Wiek et al., 2011 ), empathy, tolerance of ambiguity, and participatory skills (Rieckmann, 2012 ; Lambrechts et al., 2013 ; Lozano et al., 2017). In addition, critical thinking has also been widely recognised as a key competence to support sustainability (Rieckmann, 2012 ). Importantly, studies indicate that these competences can only be meaningfully developed through active, participatory, and reflective pedagogies, such as roleplay, group discussion, case studies, and simulations, rather than through traditional lecture-based instruction (Cotton & Winter, 2010 ; Ceulemans & De Prins, 2010 ; Lozano et al., 2017). Although ESD offers robust theoretical guidance, there remains limited clarity on how its principles are enacted in practice, particularly regarding which pedagogies best foster sustainability competences in diverse contexts. Here, ICC education provides valuable insights here, as it emphasises active, participatory, and intercultural learning. Compared to the broader ESD literature, ICC theories offer a more practice-oriented perspective on cultivating such competences through education. ICC extends beyond linguistic proficiency to encompass meaningful engagement across cultural boundaries (Byram, 1997 , 2022 ; Deardorff, 2006 ). Byram’s ( 1997 , 2022 ) model, a cornerstone of ICC theory, identifies attitudes, knowledge, skills, and critical awareness as essential components, with critical cultural awareness regarded as the defining attribute of global citizenship. Deardorff’s ( 2006 ) process-oriented model complements this by emphasising adaptability, empathy, and behavioural flexibility. Together, these perspectives show that ICC is not confined to linguistic knowledge but requires the development of transformative competences. Learners are therefore positioned as intercultural mediators. They are responsible speakers capable of navigating differences, fostering mutual understanding, and acting ethically in cross-cultural encounters. ICC education thus emerges as a multidimensional construct that integrates cognitive, affective, and behavioural elements, echoing ESD’s call for holistic competences development. What makes ICC particularly valuable for ESD is its pedagogical orientation. Developed within language education, it provides clear teaching objectives and recognises that language learning is inherently intercultural. Studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of approaches such as cultural reflection, digital literacy projects, and virtual exchanges in developing intercultural competence (O’Dowd, 2021). Research in Asian higher education contexts shows that integrating intercultural learning enhances motivation, communication skills, and cultural awareness. For example, in Brunei, Shen, Chew, and Yap (2023) found that Mandarin teachers’ intercultural teaching beliefs significantly shaped their practices, underscoring the local relevance of ICC-oriented pedagogy. Taken together, these studies demonstrate that ICC has been both theorised and operationalised across diverse contexts through intercultural pedagogies that resonate with the principles of ESD. As discussed above, the overlap between ESD and ICC illustrates how shared competences can foster transformative outcomes such as critical reflection, active participation, and global citizenship. Table 1 provides a summary of this intersection, highlighting the dimensions common to both frameworks. Table 1 Intersection of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) Dimension ESD ICC Intersection Core Focus Sustainability competences for acting responsibly in complex contexts (Barth et al., 2007 ; Wiek et al., 2011 ; Rieckmann, 2012 ). Intercultural competences for meaningful engagement across cultural boundaries (Byram, 1997 , 2022 ; Deardorff, 2006 ). Holistic competence development integrating knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes. Key Competences Communication, collaboration, empathy, tolerance of ambiguity, critical thinking (Rieckmann, 2012 ; Lambrechts et al., 2013 ). Attitudes, knowledge, interpreting/relating, discovery/interaction, critical cultural awareness (Byram, 1997 , 2022 ; Deardorff, 2006 ). Critical reflection, adaptability, empathy, ethical action, global citizenship. Pedagogical Orientation Active, participatory, reflective learning: role-play, group projects, case studies, simulations (Cotton & Winter, 2010 ; Ceulemans & De Prins, 2010 ). Intercultural pedagogies: cultural reflection, digital literacy projects, virtual exchanges (O’Dowd, 2021; Phongsirikul, 2023) Transformative, participatory pedagogies that foster experiential and reflective learning. Outcomes Learners able to act responsibly for sustainable futures. Learners as intercultural mediators, ethical and responsible global citizens. Global citizenship, intercultural reflection, and active participation in diverse contexts. Building on this overlap, the intersection of ESD and ICC provides the basis for identifying the criteria by which key emerging strands of language education can be recognised. From this perspective, such strands are those that foster holistic competence development, combining knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes, while also cultivating critical reflection, adaptability, empathy, ethical action, and intercultural awareness. They employ transformative and participatory pedagogies—including experiential, reflective, and intercultural learning activities—that encourage active engagement and prepare learners to act as responsible global citizens. These criteria not only guide the identification of significant emerging strands but also serve as the analytical lens for examining how such strands address the dual demand of sustaining cultural identity and preparing learners for global engagement. 2.2 Language Ecology in Brunei’s Multilingual Context Previous studies on Brunei’s linguistic ecosystem provide a critical lens for considering how sustainability-oriented approaches to language education interact with the dynamics of the nation’s multilingual environment. Brunei Darussalam presents a rich and complex sociolinguistic landscape shaped by diverse ethnic groups and multiple language traditions. Seven indigenous groups, Brunei Malay, Kedayan, Murut, Dusun, Bisaya, Belait, and Tutong, are officially classified under the Malay category, each historically linked to distinct languages (Coluzzi, 2011 ; Haji-Othman, 2005 ). According to the 2021 Population and Housing Census, Malays comprised 67.4% of the population, Chinese 9.6%, and other ethnicities 23.0% (Department of Economic Planning and Statistics [JPES],2021). While Chinese linguistic communities such as Hokkien and Hakka enrich this multilingual environment, increasing bilingualism has contributed to the dominance of Brunei Malay, which now functions as the main vernacular across ethnic groups, symbolising both interethnic communication and everyday identity (Haji-Othman, 2005 ; Noorashid & Chuchu, 2015 ). This diversity operates within a functional hierarchy: Standard Malay, enshrined as the official language under the 1959 Constitution, is dominant in administration and religion; English, linked with education and modernisation, carries the highest prestige; and Brunei Malay prevails in informal communication (Coluzzi, 2011 ; O’Hara-Davies, 2010 ). At the same time, language planning has consistently prioritised Standard Malay and English, leaving indigenous tongues marginalised. More than 70% of Dusun and Tutong parents now speak Brunei Malay with their children, accelerating intergenerational language shift (Martin, 1995, as cited in Coluzzi, 2011 ). Similarly, Chinese dialects receive limited institutional support, while Mandarin, though taught in schools and higher education, remains constrained in development (Chew, Min, & Yap, 2023 ). Such dynamics contribute to the erosion of heritage languages and affect both cultural identity and social inclusion (Ho, 2008). From the perspective of linguistic ecology (Haugen, 1972 ; Hornberger, 2002 ), Brunei’s linguistic environment functions as an interconnected ecosystem in which languages interact dynamically with institutions, policies, and communities. Language vitality depends as much on institutional support as on community use (Haji-Othman, 2005 ). This ecological lens reveals how policy, education, and socio-economic forces can either sustain or erode linguistic diversity, with direct implications for cultural sustainability and national identity. When combined with the theories of ESD and ICC, the ecological framework highlights the dual function of language education in Brunei: it sustains national identity by supporting heritage languages and legitimising cultural diversity, while simultaneously preparing learners with intercultural competences required for meaningful global engagement. 3. Methodology 3.1 Research Design This study adopts a qualitative case study design, which is particularly suited to exploring complex educational phenomena in depth and within their real-life contexts (Yin, 2014 ). A case study approach allows for a comprehensive understanding of research questions and analytic insights that can inform both theory and practice in similar multilingual and multicultural contexts. 3.2 Case Selection and Rationale This study focuses on three strands of language education in Brunei Darussalam: Mandarin for professional training , which responds to the growing demand for communication with Chinese enterprises and reflects the rising economic significance of Chinese language competence; Japanese as a school initiative , introduced as an additional elective in government secondary schools, marking an important expansion of foreign language education beyond English and Malay; and Revitalisation of indigenous languages , which addresses urgent concerns of language shift and cultural continuity within Brunei’s multilingual ecology. These strands were identified using the criteria outlined in the theoretical framework. Thy are considered significant emerging strands because they extend beyond established priorities (Malay and English) to highlight professional, educational, and cultural dimensions of sustainability. 3.3 Data Sources The analysis of this study draws on three main data sources, which include policy and institutional documents, previous research and empirical studies, and institutional and curricular practices. These sources were chosen to provide a multi-layered perspective, capturing both the structural policy environment and the practical pedagogical initiatives. 3.4 Analytical Framework The study was guided by an integrated framework combining ESD, ICC, and linguistic ecology. ESD identifies core sustainability competences, ICC highlights intercultural and pedagogical dimensions; and linguistic ecology situates these strands within Brunei’s broader multilingual environment. This combined lens was applied to identify the significant and emerging strands and to examine how they support the dual demand of sustaining national identity while preparing learners for global engagement situated within Brunei’s linguistic ecology. 4. Findings: Emerging Strands of Language Education for Sustainability The following cases illustrate how language education in Brunei is evolving to address both linguistic proficiency and broader goals of intercultural competence and sustainability. According to the theoritcal criteria, three significant emerging strands were identified: workplace-oriented Mandarin teaching, the introduction of Japanese in schools, and the revitalisation of indigenous languages. Each represents a distinct pathway through which language education is contributing to national identity, intercultural engagement, and sustainable development. 4.1 Mandarin Language Education: Building Intercultural Competence for the Workplace Mandarin has long been taught in Brunei, first within Chinese communities and later as an elective in schools and universities (Shen, 2019 ). Recent Brunei–China collaboration in energy, infrastructure, education, and trade has created new demands for local graduates, with stakeholders stressing that linguistic proficiency alone is insufficient. Graduates often lacked the intercultural competences needed to navigate implicit communication styles, hierarchical structures, and culturally embedded practices in Chinese-managed workplaces. In response, reforms have been introduced in university Mandarin modules to embed intercultural learning alongside linguistic training. Evaluation Against the Criteria Core Focus : Official course outlines (UBD LC, 2025) emphasise speaking, reading, and writing, with benchmarks such as Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) A1, A2, B1 and B2. While this aligns with global standards, it shows limited attention to holistic competence development or intercultural reflection. Institutional framing remains language-centred, with sustainability-oriented objectives introduced mainly through practitioner initiatives. Key Competences : The course documents indicate a gradual broadening of objectives. While lower-level goals focus on proficiency, higher-order aims include: engage in interactive language activities, demonstrate an increased understanding of Mandarin society and culture,” and “communicate… in interviews, problem-solving, and narration “work co-operatively and handle social exchanges.” (UBD LC, 2025), These objectives resonate with the competences of adaptability, empathy, and critical reflection. Yet integration is uneven: some classes incorporate intercultural role-plays and reflective tasks, while others remain linguistically focused. Pedagogical Orientation : Classroom practices increasingly feature participatory and experiential approaches—role-plays, case studies, reflective discussions, and online exchanges with Chinese universities—moving beyond traditional pedagogy. However, these remain lecturer-driven rather than institutionally mandated. Outcomes : Graduates now working in Chinese-managed firms demonstrate both Mandarin proficiency and intercultural adaptability, contributing to effective teamwork and professional integration. Students report confidence in workplace Mandarin and awareness of cultural norms, showing progress toward sustainability-oriented outcomes. 4.2 Japanese Language Education: Fostering Youth Engagement and Regional Cooperation Japanese has recently emerged as a strategic addition to Brunei’s language education landscape, reflecting bilateral ties in trade, energy, education, and cultural exchange. In 2025, a pilot programme was launched across three government secondary schools, offering Japanese for Beginners to Year 7 and 8 students (2025–2027), with national rollout planned by 2028. The initiative also includes introducing the Japanese as a subject in Brunei’s national wide Student Progress Examination (SPE), a mandatory examination for students in Year 8. The pilot programme was developed jointly by the Ministry of Education’s Curriculum Development Department and Universiti Brunei Darussalam’s Language Centre, combining national education priorities with academic and intercultural expertise. Evaluation Against the Criteria Core Focus : The project’s draft curriculum document frames Japanese as both a practical skill and a tool for intercultural engagement. It states: “The introduction of Japanese Language… aims to enhance the linguistic and cultural competencies of students” and reflect “the government’s commitment to… fostering international cooperation through language learning” (MOE & CDD, 2024, p.1). The dual emphasis of the curriculum, linguistic and cultural competencies, demonstrates alignment with sustainability-oriented objectives. Key Competences : The draft curriculum states teaching objectives include preparing students for careers in tourism, trade, and diplomacy; providing a competitive edge in the global job market; and fostering intercultural understanding of Japanese society, traditions, and values (MOE & CDD, 2024). However, detailed learning outcomes remain heavily focused on grammar, vocabulary, and the four macro-skills, revealing a gap between aspirational competences and operationalised classroom targets. This gap echoes the broader challenge in shifting from a linguistic to an intercultural and sustainability-oriented language education paradigm. Pedagogical Orientation : The pilot project balances structured drills with experiential and intercultural learning. The intended student exchanges, cultural festivals, and project-based tasks have the potential to complement macro-skill instruction. Local Bruneian teachers, trained in Japanese language, contribute intercultural insights by linking classroom learning to Brunei–Japan relations, though such practices are not strongly reflected in official documentation. These dynamics resonate with broader findings on how foreign language teachers mediate between linguistic proficiency and cultural awareness in diverse learning environments (Shen, Peng, Teng, & Hua, 2022b ). Outcomes : Early results show high student motivation and increased intercultural awareness, particularly regarding politeness conventions and communication styles. While outcomes are still developing, the pilot demonstrates potential to cultivate both linguistic proficiency and sustainability competences. 4.3 Revitalising Indigenous Languages: Sustaining Cultural Continuity The revitalisation of indigenous languages represents a vital strand of Brunei’s language education for sustainability, directly addressing endangered linguistic heritage. In 2010, a university in Brunei launched a Borneo Language Programme, introducing Dusun, Tutong, and Iban as elective modules taught by native-speaking lecturers and supported by cultural documentation projects. Courses were structured around CEFR beginner levels (A1–A2), with emphasis on daily oral communication. The teaching combined various approaches, both in and outside the classroom, enabling students to learn folklore, farming, music, and crafts while engaging with speakers in authentic contexts. Evaluation Against the Criteria Core Focus : The Borneo Language Programme was established to preserve endangered local languages and foster awareness of Brunei’s linguistic diversity (Yusof & Alas, 2021b ). The language modules were designed with beginner levels shows that its primary emphasis is on sustaining cultural heritage and daily communicative use rather than achieving high levels of linguistic proficiency. This reflects a dual core focus: safeguarding intangible cultural heritage while positioning indigenous languages within a global framework of language teaching. Key Competences : The programme cultivates competences beyond language knowledge. Students gain cultural stewardship, empathy, and critical reflection through role-plays, folklore learning, and direct engagement with community practices such as farming, crafts, and music. These align with ESD and ICC, as learners are encouraged to value diversity, engage in intercultural encounters, and reflect on language endangerment. However, competence development is uneven: while some students develop confidence and appreciation of heritage, limited materials and lack of real-life usage constrain deeper competence formation. Pedagogical Orientation : The pedagogy combines classroom role-play, community visits, and experiential learning, reflecting participatory and sustainability-oriented approaches.Yet, the absence of standardised teaching materials and reliance on trial-and-error methods create inconsistencies. The scarcity of qualified lecturers and the challenges of dialect variation further limit systematic pedagogy, meaning the orientation is innovative but fragile. Outcomes : The programme has achieved notable outcomes in raising awareness of Brunei’s internal diversity, generated strong student interest (ever reached 70–100 enrolments per semester), and strengthened community recognition of heritage. Students report enjoyment and cultural learning, while communities value their engagement. Thus, outcomes demonstrate progress toward cultural sustainability and intercultural understanding, but systemic obstacles hinder the consolidation of these gains. 5. Discussion: Situating Language Education for Sustainability within Brunei’s Linguistic Ecology The findings show that Brunei’s emerging strands of language education underscore the significant potential and pressing need for integrating sustainability oriented perspectives into Brunei’s evolving language education. Mandarin combines workplace relevance with intercultural adaptability, as community demand fosters interactive tasks that build empathy and communication skills. This supports the view that language education must adapt to new communicative practices while preserving linguistic integrity (Cui & Hou, 2025 ), showing how pedagogy can balance practical demands with sustainability competences. Japanese reflects a more balanced approach, where institutional policy and practitioner input jointly promote linguistic proficiency alongside intercultural awareness, thereby aligning more explicitly with sustainability competences. Indigenous languages foreground cultural stewardship and critical reflection, encouraging learners to value linguistic diversity and heritage. However, their reliance on institutional intervention underscores the fragility of sustaining intercultural and sustainability competences when community transmission is weak. Situating these findings within the broader context of sustainability education, it becomes clear that language education is a powerful leverage point for balancing heritage preservation with global engagement (Shen, Peng, Teng, & Hua, 2022a). Language shapes values, attitudes, and awareness; thus language education has a vital role to play in nurturing a more sustainable future. However, realising this potential requires addressing asymmetries within the linguistic ecology by aligning community transmission with institutional support. The three strands illustrate these dynamics: Mandarin as community-driven, Japanese as balanced, and indigenous languages as institutionally dependent. Rather than functioning independently, each strand reflects a different ecological mode of survival and growth, revealing how sustainability in language education is unevenly distributed across the system. As illustrated in Fig. 1 , Innovation in Mandarin teaching is fuelled primarily by socio-economic demand from Brunei–China collaboration. Its strength lies in workplace relevance and community uptake, though institutional frameworks remain weaker and uneven, particularly in embedding intercultural competences beyond linguistic proficiency. Japanese, by contrast, occupies a balanced position, supported both by policy initiatives (pilot programmes, national curriculum planning) and by practitioner engagement. Indigenous languages, meanwhile, stand at the opposite end of the spectrum as an institutional-supported strand, relying on educational programmes to compensate for the loss of intergenerational transmission. While these efforts raise awareness and provide cultural engagement opportunities, weak community use continues to constrain their ecological vitality. This spectrum highlights a crucial ecological insight: sustainability in Brunei’s linguistic ecosystem depends not only on whether languages are taught but also on how the balance of community demand and institutional support is managed. In ecological terms, Brunei’s language education can act either as a stabilizer, diversifying the ecology and legitimising marginalised voices, or as a homogeniser, reinforcing existing hierarchies that privilege dominant languages. By situating these strands within the ecological spectrum, the analysis underscores that sustainability requires more than curriculum reform: it demands ecological balance. Strengthening teacher development, embedding intercultural pedagogy, and fostering stronger links between community practices and institutional frameworks are not only educational goals but also ecological strategies. 6. Conclusion This study demonstrates that language education in Brunei functions as a strategic leverage point for sustainability by mediating between heritage preservation and global engagement. Through an integrated lens of Education for Sustainable Development, Intercultural Communicative Competence, and linguistic ecology, it shows that Mandarin thrives as community-driven, Japanese reflects a balanced model of policy and practice, and indigenous languages remain institutionally dependent. These contrasting ecological positions reveal that sustainability is contingent on the alignment of community transmission and institutional support, rather than curriculum alone. Brunei’s case underscores the need for policies that embed intercultural pedagogy, invest in teacher development, and strengthen community–institutional links, offering insights for other multilingual societies seeking to balance linguistic diversity with global participation. Declarations Clinical trial number Not applicable. Consent to participate Not applicable. Consent to publish Not applicable. Conflicts of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Ethical approval This study did not involve human participants and therefore did not require ethics approval. Author Contribution S.M. wrote the main manuscript text and led the overall study. Y.A.(1) , N.A. and Y.A (2) contributed substantially through data collection, analysis, and interpretation. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript, meeting the criteria for authorship. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the Language Centre, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, and the Curriculum Development Department, Ministry of Education, Brunei Darussalam for providing support and access to institutional resources that contributed to this research. Data Availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from the Language Centre, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, but restrictions apply to the availability of these data, which were used under licence for the current study and are not publicly available. The data are, however, available from the authors upon reasonable request and with the permission of the Language Centre, Universiti Brunei Darussalam. References Barth M, Godemann J, Rieckmann M, Stoltenberg U. Developing key competencies for sustainable development in higher education. 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IGI Global Scientific Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-8852-9.ch004 Sturmberg JP, Hinchy J. Borderline competence – From a complexity perspective: Conceptualization and implementation for certifying examinations. J Eval Clin Pract. 2010;16(5):867–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2753.2009.01241.x . UNESCO. (2013). Intercultural competence: Conceptual and operational framework . UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org UNESCO. Rethinking education: Towards a global common good? UNESCO; 2015. Darussalam UB, Language Centre. (2025). LM-2404 Mandarin III: Course outline [Syllabus]. Universiti Brunei Darussalam. https://lc.ubd.edu.bn/?page_id=58 Wiek A, Withycombe L, Redman CL. Key competencies in sustainability: A reference framework for academic program development. Sustain Sci. 2011;6(2):203–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-011-0132-6 . Yin RK. Case study research: Design and methods. 5th ed. Sage; 2014. Yusof N, Alas Y. Benefits and students’ perception on role-play teaching technique: Progressive and fun learning experiences in Brunei. Indonesian J Learn Adv Educ. 2021a;3(3):225–34. https://doi.org/10.23917/ijolae.v3i3.12364 . Yusof N, Alas Y. (2021b). Using role-play to teach minority ethnic languages: A case study at Universiti Brunei Darussalam. In M. E. Lopez, A. Hu, & J. Tsung, editors, Teaching minority languages in Asia (pp. 177–196). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77119-5_9 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7548287","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":539517929,"identity":"0b48fa0e-1dfd-4b12-9ee2-e9761c3e437f","order_by":0,"name":"Shen 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65408,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSpectrum of Language Vitality in Brunei’s Linguistic Ecology\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1SpectrumofLanguageVitalityinBrunei.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7548287/v1/5cc3dcb41822ff819435112e.jpg"},{"id":100787794,"identity":"3d6f4ab1-ff9a-4c35-9c57-4990293840f5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 12:03:54","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1060328,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7548287/v1/af6cb1d7-7406-4849-8a71-bd63b43d20b8.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Sustainability through Language Education for Heritage Preservation and Global Participation","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eLanguage education has been increasingly recognised as a driver of sustainable development (UNESCO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Beyond equipping learners with linguistic skills, it develops intercultural competences that enable them to communicate effectively across cultural boundaries and participate as global citizens (UNESCO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Byram, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Deardorff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Research on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) similarly identifies competences such as communication, collaboration, critical reflection, and empathy as central to sustainability (Barth, Godemann, Rieckmann, \u0026amp; Stoltenberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Wiek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Rieckmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Lambrechts et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Lozano et al., 2009). These competences are best cultivated through participatory and experiential pedagogies\u0026mdash;role-plays, case studies, and group projects\u0026mdash;rather than traditional lectures (Cotton \u0026amp; Winter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Ceulemans \u0026amp; De Prins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Recent studies have also examined how sustainability literacy can be fostered in language-related courses, such as writing instruction, highlighting the role of communication in sustainability education (Erguvan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite these theoretical advances, empirical studies remain limited on how language education simultaneously sustains cultural heritage and prepares learners for global engagement, particularly in multilingual societies of the Global South. Existing research often treats these aims separately, examining either global citizenship competences or heritage preservation, but rarely how both are negotiated within education systems. Addressing this gap is critical, as many multilingual nations face structural tensions: dominant languages are promoted for modernisation and economic mobility, while minority languages struggle for survival.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBrunei offers a compelling test case for this inquiry. As a small but highly multilingual nation, it encapsulates the challenges of balancing national cohesion with global readiness. Its linguistic ecosystem is composed of Standard Malay as the official language, English as the main working and educational language, alongside Chinese varieties and multiple indigenous languages (Coluzzi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Haji-Othman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Noorashid \u0026amp; Chuchu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). English dominates in education and international communication (O\u0026rsquo;Hara-Davies, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), while indigenous languages face decline due to limited institutional support and weakening intergenerational transmission (Yusof \u0026amp; Alas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021a\u003c/span\u003e). These dynamics make Brunei a microcosm of wider multilingual tensions: the pressures of globalisation, the decline of minority languages, and the need to maintain national identity. At the same time, as an ASEAN member and signatory to the UN Sustainable Development Goals, Brunei\u0026rsquo;s efforts have broader regional significance, offering lessons for other multilingual contexts in Southeast Asia and the Global South grappling with similar challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgainst this backdrop, this study examines how Brunei\u0026rsquo;s emerging strands of language education contribute to sustainability by balancing heritage preservation with global participation. Integrating the perspectives of ESD, Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC), and linguistic ecology, it analyses three significant cases: workplace-oriented Mandarin, Japanese as a school initiative, and the revitalisation of indigenous languages. In doing so, the study contributes one of the first empirical accounts of how language education advances sustainability competences in a multilingual Southeast Asian context, positioning Brunei as both a local case and a regional reference point for debates on language, identity, and sustainable development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccordingly, this study addresses the following research question:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow do emerging strands of language education in Brunei contribute to sustainable development by balancing heritage preservation with global engagement within its multilingual ecology?\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Theoretical Framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe theoretical underpinnings of this study draw on three complementary perspectives: ESD, ICC and linguistic ecology. The theories of ESD and ICC provide a robust foundation for identifying the significant emerging strands of language education that support sustainability. Additionally, previous studies on Brunei\u0026rsquo;s linguistic ecosystem provide a critical lens for considering how sustainability oriented approaches to language education interact with the dynamics of the nation\u0026rsquo;s metalinguistic environment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Education for Sustainable Development and Intercultural Communicative Competence\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch on ESD has expanded considerably over the past decade, with increasing attention to what are the competences for SD and how such competences could be integrated into education. This body of work emphasises the need for a holistic set of multidimensional and transformative competences that combine knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes, thereby enabling learners to navigate complexity and act responsibly in diverse contexts (Barth et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Hager \u0026amp; Beckett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Sturmberg \u0026amp; Hinchy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Among these competences, the capacity to communicate and collaborate effectively has been consistently highlighted, though expressed in different terms such as interpersonal competence (Wiek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), empathy, tolerance of ambiguity, and participatory skills (Rieckmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Lambrechts et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Lozano et al., 2017). In addition, critical thinking has also been widely recognised as a key competence to support sustainability (Rieckmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Importantly, studies indicate that these competences can only be meaningfully developed through active, participatory, and reflective pedagogies, such as roleplay, group discussion, case studies, and simulations, rather than through traditional lecture-based instruction (Cotton \u0026amp; Winter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Ceulemans \u0026amp; De Prins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Lozano et al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough ESD offers robust theoretical guidance, there remains limited clarity on how its principles are enacted in practice, particularly regarding which pedagogies best foster sustainability competences in diverse contexts. Here, ICC education provides valuable insights here, as it emphasises active, participatory, and intercultural learning. Compared to the broader ESD literature, ICC theories offer a more practice-oriented perspective on cultivating such competences through education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eICC extends beyond linguistic proficiency to encompass meaningful engagement across cultural boundaries (Byram, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Deardorff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Byram\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) model, a cornerstone of ICC theory, identifies attitudes, knowledge, skills, and critical awareness as essential components, with critical cultural awareness regarded as the defining attribute of global citizenship. Deardorff\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) process-oriented model complements this by emphasising adaptability, empathy, and behavioural flexibility. Together, these perspectives show that ICC is not confined to linguistic knowledge but requires the development of transformative competences. Learners are therefore positioned as intercultural mediators. They are responsible speakers capable of navigating differences, fostering mutual understanding, and acting ethically in cross-cultural encounters. ICC education thus emerges as a multidimensional construct that integrates cognitive, affective, and behavioural elements, echoing ESD\u0026rsquo;s call for holistic competences development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat makes ICC particularly valuable for ESD is its pedagogical orientation. Developed within language education, it provides clear teaching objectives and recognises that language learning is inherently intercultural. Studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of approaches such as cultural reflection, digital literacy projects, and virtual exchanges in developing intercultural competence (O\u0026rsquo;Dowd, 2021). Research in Asian higher education contexts shows that integrating intercultural learning enhances motivation, communication skills, and cultural awareness. For example, in Brunei, Shen, Chew, and Yap (2023) found that Mandarin teachers\u0026rsquo; intercultural teaching beliefs significantly shaped their practices, underscoring the local relevance of ICC-oriented pedagogy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTaken together, these studies demonstrate that ICC has been both theorised and operationalised across diverse contexts through intercultural pedagogies that resonate with the principles of ESD. As discussed above, the overlap between ESD and ICC illustrates how shared competences can foster transformative outcomes such as critical reflection, active participation, and global citizenship. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e provides a summary of this intersection, highlighting the dimensions common to both frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntersection of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) and Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDimension\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eESD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eICC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntersection\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCore Focus\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSustainability competences for acting responsibly in complex contexts (Barth et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Wiek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Rieckmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntercultural competences for meaningful engagement across cultural boundaries (Byram, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Deardorff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHolistic competence development integrating knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKey Competences\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommunication, collaboration, empathy, tolerance of ambiguity, critical thinking (Rieckmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Lambrechts et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAttitudes, knowledge, interpreting/relating, discovery/interaction, critical cultural awareness (Byram, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Deardorff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCritical reflection, adaptability, empathy, ethical action, global citizenship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePedagogical Orientation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eActive, participatory, reflective learning: role-play, group projects, case studies, simulations (Cotton \u0026amp; Winter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Ceulemans \u0026amp; De Prins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntercultural pedagogies: cultural reflection, digital literacy projects, virtual exchanges (O\u0026rsquo;Dowd, 2021; Phongsirikul, 2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTransformative, participatory pedagogies that foster experiential and reflective learning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutcomes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLearners able to act responsibly for sustainable futures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLearners as intercultural mediators, ethical and responsible global citizens.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobal citizenship, intercultural reflection, and active participation in diverse contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuilding on this overlap, the intersection of ESD and ICC provides the basis for identifying the criteria by which key emerging strands of language education can be recognised. From this perspective, such strands are those that foster holistic competence development, combining knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes, while also cultivating critical reflection, adaptability, empathy, ethical action, and intercultural awareness. They employ transformative and participatory pedagogies\u0026mdash;including experiential, reflective, and intercultural learning activities\u0026mdash;that encourage active engagement and prepare learners to act as responsible global citizens. These criteria not only guide the identification of significant emerging strands but also serve as the analytical lens for examining how such strands address the dual demand of sustaining cultural identity and preparing learners for global engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Language Ecology in Brunei\u0026rsquo;s Multilingual Context\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious studies on Brunei\u0026rsquo;s linguistic ecosystem provide a critical lens for considering how sustainability-oriented approaches to language education interact with the dynamics of the nation\u0026rsquo;s multilingual environment. Brunei Darussalam presents a rich and complex sociolinguistic landscape shaped by diverse ethnic groups and multiple language traditions. Seven indigenous groups, Brunei Malay, Kedayan, Murut, Dusun, Bisaya, Belait, and Tutong, are officially classified under the Malay category, each historically linked to distinct languages (Coluzzi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Haji-Othman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). According to the 2021 Population and Housing Census, Malays comprised 67.4% of the population, Chinese 9.6%, and other ethnicities 23.0% (Department of Economic Planning and Statistics [JPES],2021). While Chinese linguistic communities such as Hokkien and Hakka enrich this multilingual environment, increasing bilingualism has contributed to the dominance of Brunei Malay, which now functions as the main vernacular across ethnic groups, symbolising both interethnic communication and everyday identity (Haji-Othman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Noorashid \u0026amp; Chuchu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis diversity operates within a functional hierarchy: Standard Malay, enshrined as the official language under the 1959 Constitution, is dominant in administration and religion; English, linked with education and modernisation, carries the highest prestige; and Brunei Malay prevails in informal communication (Coluzzi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; O\u0026rsquo;Hara-Davies, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). At the same time, language planning has consistently prioritised Standard Malay and English, leaving indigenous tongues marginalised. More than 70% of Dusun and Tutong parents now speak Brunei Malay with their children, accelerating intergenerational language shift (Martin, 1995, as cited in Coluzzi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, Chinese dialects receive limited institutional support, while Mandarin, though taught in schools and higher education, remains constrained in development (Chew, Min, \u0026amp; Yap, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Such dynamics contribute to the erosion of heritage languages and affect both cultural identity and social inclusion (Ho, 2008).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrom the perspective of linguistic ecology (Haugen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e; Hornberger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), Brunei\u0026rsquo;s linguistic environment functions as an interconnected ecosystem in which languages interact dynamically with institutions, policies, and communities. Language vitality depends as much on institutional support as on community use (Haji-Othman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). This ecological lens reveals how policy, education, and socio-economic forces can either sustain or erode linguistic diversity, with direct implications for cultural sustainability and national identity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhen combined with the theories of ESD and ICC, the ecological framework highlights the dual function of language education in Brunei: it sustains national identity by supporting heritage languages and legitimising cultural diversity, while simultaneously preparing learners with intercultural competences required for meaningful global engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Research Design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study adopts a qualitative case study design, which is particularly suited to exploring complex educational phenomena in depth and within their real-life contexts (Yin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). A case study approach allows for a comprehensive understanding of research questions and analytic insights that can inform both theory and practice in similar multilingual and multicultural contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Case Selection and Rationale\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study focuses on three strands of language education in Brunei Darussalam:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMandarin for professional training\u003c/b\u003e, which responds to the growing demand for communication with Chinese enterprises and reflects the rising economic significance of Chinese language competence;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eJapanese as a school initiative\u003c/b\u003e, introduced as an additional elective in government secondary schools, marking an important expansion of foreign language education beyond English and Malay; and\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRevitalisation of indigenous languages\u003c/b\u003e, which addresses urgent concerns of language shift and cultural continuity within Brunei\u0026rsquo;s multilingual ecology.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese strands were identified using the criteria outlined in the theoretical framework. Thy are considered significant emerging strands because they extend beyond established priorities (Malay and English) to highlight professional, educational, and cultural dimensions of sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Data Sources\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of this study draws on three main data sources, which include policy and institutional documents, previous research and empirical studies, and institutional and curricular practices. These sources were chosen to provide a multi-layered perspective, capturing both the structural policy environment and the practical pedagogical initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Analytical Framework\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was guided by an integrated framework combining ESD, ICC, and linguistic ecology. ESD identifies core sustainability competences, ICC highlights intercultural and pedagogical dimensions; and linguistic ecology situates these strands within Brunei\u0026rsquo;s broader multilingual environment. This combined lens was applied to identify the significant and emerging strands and to examine how they support the dual demand of sustaining national identity while preparing learners for global engagement situated within Brunei\u0026rsquo;s linguistic ecology.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Findings: Emerging Strands of Language Education for Sustainability","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe following cases illustrate how language education in Brunei is evolving to address both linguistic proficiency and broader goals of intercultural competence and sustainability. According to the theoritcal criteria, three significant emerging strands were identified: workplace-oriented Mandarin teaching, the introduction of Japanese in schools, and the revitalisation of indigenous languages. Each represents a distinct pathway through which language education is contributing to national identity, intercultural engagement, and sustainable development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Mandarin Language Education: Building Intercultural Competence for the Workplace\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMandarin has long been taught in Brunei, first within Chinese communities and later as an elective in schools and universities (Shen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Recent Brunei\u0026ndash;China collaboration in energy, infrastructure, education, and trade has created new demands for local graduates, with stakeholders stressing that linguistic proficiency alone is insufficient. Graduates often lacked the intercultural competences needed to navigate implicit communication styles, hierarchical structures, and culturally embedded practices in Chinese-managed workplaces.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn response, reforms have been introduced in university Mandarin modules to embed intercultural learning alongside linguistic training.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEvaluation Against the Criteria\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCore Focus\u003c/b\u003e: Official course outlines (UBD LC, 2025) emphasise speaking, reading, and writing, with benchmarks such as Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) A1, A2, B1 and B2. While this aligns with global standards, it shows limited attention to holistic competence development or intercultural reflection. Institutional framing remains language-centred, with sustainability-oriented objectives introduced mainly through practitioner initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKey Competences\u003c/b\u003e: The course documents indicate a gradual broadening of objectives. While lower-level goals focus on proficiency, higher-order aims include:\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eengage in interactive language activities,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003edemonstrate an increased understanding of Mandarin society and culture,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;communicate\u0026hellip; in interviews, problem-solving, and narration\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;work co-operatively and handle social exchanges.\u0026rdquo; (UBD LC, 2025),\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese objectives resonate with the competences of adaptability, empathy, and critical reflection. Yet integration is uneven: some classes incorporate intercultural role-plays and reflective tasks, while others remain linguistically focused.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePedagogical Orientation\u003c/b\u003e: Classroom practices increasingly feature participatory and experiential approaches\u0026mdash;role-plays, case studies, reflective discussions, and online exchanges with Chinese universities\u0026mdash;moving beyond traditional pedagogy. However, these remain lecturer-driven rather than institutionally mandated.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOutcomes\u003c/b\u003e: Graduates now working in Chinese-managed firms demonstrate both Mandarin proficiency and intercultural adaptability, contributing to effective teamwork and professional integration. Students report confidence in workplace Mandarin and awareness of cultural norms, showing progress toward sustainability-oriented outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2 Japanese Language Education: Fostering Youth Engagement and Regional Cooperation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eJapanese has recently emerged as a strategic addition to Brunei\u0026rsquo;s language education landscape, reflecting bilateral ties in trade, energy, education, and cultural exchange. In 2025, a pilot programme was launched across three government secondary schools, offering Japanese for Beginners to Year 7 and 8 students (2025\u0026ndash;2027), with national rollout planned by 2028. The initiative also includes introducing the Japanese as a subject in Brunei\u0026rsquo;s national wide Student Progress Examination (SPE), a mandatory examination for students in Year 8. The pilot programme was developed jointly by the Ministry of Education\u0026rsquo;s Curriculum Development Department and Universiti Brunei Darussalam\u0026rsquo;s Language Centre, combining national education priorities with academic and intercultural expertise.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEvaluation Against the Criteria\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCore Focus\u003c/b\u003e: The project\u0026rsquo;s draft curriculum document frames Japanese as both a practical skill and a tool for intercultural engagement. It states:\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;The introduction of Japanese Language\u0026hellip; aims to enhance the linguistic and cultural competencies of students\u0026rdquo; and reflect \u0026ldquo;the government\u0026rsquo;s commitment to\u0026hellip; fostering international cooperation through language learning\u0026rdquo; (MOE \u0026amp; CDD, 2024, p.1).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe dual emphasis of the curriculum, linguistic and cultural competencies, demonstrates alignment with sustainability-oriented objectives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKey Competences\u003c/b\u003e: The draft curriculum states teaching objectives include preparing students for careers in tourism, trade, and diplomacy; providing a competitive edge in the global job market; and fostering intercultural understanding of Japanese society, traditions, and values (MOE \u0026amp; CDD, 2024). However, detailed learning outcomes remain heavily focused on grammar, vocabulary, and the four macro-skills, revealing a gap between aspirational competences and operationalised classroom targets. This gap echoes the broader challenge in shifting from a linguistic to an intercultural and sustainability-oriented language education paradigm.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePedagogical Orientation\u003c/b\u003e: The pilot project balances structured drills with experiential and intercultural learning. The intended student exchanges, cultural festivals, and project-based tasks have the potential to complement macro-skill instruction. Local Bruneian teachers, trained in Japanese language, contribute intercultural insights by linking classroom learning to Brunei\u0026ndash;Japan relations, though such practices are not strongly reflected in official documentation. These dynamics resonate with broader findings on how foreign language teachers mediate between linguistic proficiency and cultural awareness in diverse learning environments (Shen, Peng, Teng, \u0026amp; Hua, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022b\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOutcomes\u003c/b\u003e: Early results show high student motivation and increased intercultural awareness, particularly regarding politeness conventions and communication styles. While outcomes are still developing, the pilot demonstrates potential to cultivate both linguistic proficiency and sustainability competences.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3 Revitalising Indigenous Languages: Sustaining Cultural Continuity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe revitalisation of indigenous languages represents a vital strand of Brunei\u0026rsquo;s language education for sustainability, directly addressing endangered linguistic heritage. In 2010, a university in Brunei launched a Borneo Language Programme, introducing Dusun, Tutong, and Iban as elective modules taught by native-speaking lecturers and supported by cultural documentation projects. Courses were structured around CEFR beginner levels (A1\u0026ndash;A2), with emphasis on daily oral communication. The teaching combined various approaches, both in and outside the classroom, enabling students to learn folklore, farming, music, and crafts while engaging with speakers in authentic contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEvaluation Against the Criteria\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCore Focus\u003c/b\u003e: The Borneo Language Programme was established to preserve endangered local languages and foster awareness of Brunei\u0026rsquo;s linguistic diversity (Yusof \u0026amp; Alas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021b\u003c/span\u003e). The language modules were designed with beginner levels shows that its primary emphasis is on sustaining cultural heritage and daily communicative use rather than achieving high levels of linguistic proficiency. This reflects a dual core focus: safeguarding intangible cultural heritage while positioning indigenous languages within a global framework of language teaching.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKey Competences\u003c/b\u003e: The programme cultivates competences beyond language knowledge. Students gain cultural stewardship, empathy, and critical reflection through role-plays, folklore learning, and direct engagement with community practices such as farming, crafts, and music. These align with ESD and ICC, as learners are encouraged to value diversity, engage in intercultural encounters, and reflect on language endangerment. However, competence development is uneven: while some students develop confidence and appreciation of heritage, limited materials and lack of real-life usage constrain deeper competence formation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePedagogical Orientation\u003c/b\u003e: The pedagogy combines classroom role-play, community visits, and experiential learning, reflecting participatory and sustainability-oriented approaches.Yet, the absence of standardised teaching materials and reliance on trial-and-error methods create inconsistencies. The scarcity of qualified lecturers and the challenges of dialect variation further limit systematic pedagogy, meaning the orientation is innovative but fragile.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOutcomes\u003c/b\u003e: The programme has achieved notable outcomes in raising awareness of Brunei\u0026rsquo;s internal diversity, generated strong student interest (ever reached 70\u0026ndash;100 enrolments per semester), and strengthened community recognition of heritage. Students report enjoyment and cultural learning, while communities value their engagement. Thus, outcomes demonstrate progress toward cultural sustainability and intercultural understanding, but systemic obstacles hinder the consolidation of these gains.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion: Situating Language Education for Sustainability within Brunei’s Linguistic Ecology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings show that Brunei\u0026rsquo;s emerging strands of language education underscore the significant potential and pressing need for integrating sustainability oriented perspectives into Brunei\u0026rsquo;s evolving language education. Mandarin combines workplace relevance with intercultural adaptability, as community demand fosters interactive tasks that build empathy and communication skills. This supports the view that language education must adapt to new communicative practices while preserving linguistic integrity (Cui \u0026amp; Hou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), showing how pedagogy can balance practical demands with sustainability competences. Japanese reflects a more balanced approach, where institutional policy and practitioner input jointly promote linguistic proficiency alongside intercultural awareness, thereby aligning more explicitly with sustainability competences. Indigenous languages foreground cultural stewardship and critical reflection, encouraging learners to value linguistic diversity and heritage. However, their reliance on institutional intervention underscores the fragility of sustaining intercultural and sustainability competences when community transmission is weak.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSituating these findings within the broader context of sustainability education, it becomes clear that language education is a powerful leverage point for balancing heritage preservation with global engagement (Shen, Peng, Teng, \u0026amp; Hua, 2022a). Language shapes values, attitudes, and awareness; thus language education has a vital role to play in nurturing a more sustainable future.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, realising this potential requires addressing asymmetries within the linguistic ecology by aligning community transmission with institutional support. The three strands illustrate these dynamics: Mandarin as community-driven, Japanese as balanced, and indigenous languages as institutionally dependent. Rather than functioning independently, each strand reflects a different ecological mode of survival and growth, revealing how sustainability in language education is unevenly distributed across the system.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, Innovation in Mandarin teaching is fuelled primarily by socio-economic demand from Brunei\u0026ndash;China collaboration. Its strength lies in workplace relevance and community uptake, though institutional frameworks remain weaker and uneven, particularly in embedding intercultural competences beyond linguistic proficiency. Japanese, by contrast, occupies a balanced position, supported both by policy initiatives (pilot programmes, national curriculum planning) and by practitioner engagement. Indigenous languages, meanwhile, stand at the opposite end of the spectrum as an institutional-supported strand, relying on educational programmes to compensate for the loss of intergenerational transmission. While these efforts raise awareness and provide cultural engagement opportunities, weak community use continues to constrain their ecological vitality.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis spectrum highlights a crucial ecological insight: sustainability in Brunei\u0026rsquo;s linguistic ecosystem depends not only on whether languages are taught but also on how the balance of community demand and institutional support is managed. In ecological terms, Brunei\u0026rsquo;s language education can act either as a stabilizer, diversifying the ecology and legitimising marginalised voices, or as a homogeniser, reinforcing existing hierarchies that privilege dominant languages.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy situating these strands within the ecological spectrum, the analysis underscores that sustainability requires more than curriculum reform: it demands ecological balance. Strengthening teacher development, embedding intercultural pedagogy, and fostering stronger links between community practices and institutional frameworks are not only educational goals but also ecological strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates that language education in Brunei functions as a strategic leverage point for sustainability by mediating between heritage preservation and global engagement. Through an integrated lens of Education for Sustainable Development, Intercultural Communicative Competence, and linguistic ecology, it shows that Mandarin thrives as community-driven, Japanese reflects a balanced model of policy and practice, and indigenous languages remain institutionally dependent. These contrasting ecological positions reveal that sustainability is contingent on the alignment of community transmission and institutional support, rather than curriculum alone. Brunei\u0026rsquo;s case underscores the need for policies that embed intercultural pedagogy, invest in teacher development, and strengthen community\u0026ndash;institutional links, offering insights for other multilingual societies seeking to balance linguistic diversity with global participation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eClinical trial number\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study did not involve human participants and therefore did not require ethics approval.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eS.M. wrote the main manuscript text and led the overall study. Y.A.(1) , N.A. and Y.A (2) contributed substantially through data collection, analysis, and interpretation. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript, meeting the criteria for authorship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the Language Centre, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, and the Curriculum Development Department, Ministry of Education, Brunei Darussalam for providing support and access to institutional resources that contributed to this research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the Language Centre, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, but restrictions apply to the availability of these data, which were used under licence for the current study and are not publicly available. The data are, however, available from the authors upon reasonable request and with the permission of the Language Centre, Universiti Brunei Darussalam.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBarth M, Godemann J, Rieckmann M, Stoltenberg U. Developing key competencies for sustainable development in higher education. Int J Sustain High Educ. 2007;8(4):416\u0026ndash;30. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1108/14676370710823582\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1108/14676370710823582\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eByram M. Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Multilingual Matters; 1997.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eByram M. Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence: Revisited. 2nd ed. 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Springer. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77119-5_9\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/978-3-030-77119-5_9\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Language education, Sustainability, Intercultural communicative competence (ICC), Heritage preservation, Global participation","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7548287/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7548287/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis paper explores how language education in Brunei supports sustainable development by balancing heritage preservation with global engagement. Guided by Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC), and linguistic ecology, it examines three emerging strands: workplace-oriented Mandarin, Japanese as a school initiative, and the revitalisation of indigenous languages. Using a qualitative case study approach, the analysis draws on policy documents, curricular practices, and existing research. Findings show that Mandarin education, shaped by Brunei–China collaboration, embeds intercultural learning into workplace communication. Japanese initiatives reflect a balanced approach, combining institutional policy with practitioner input to enhance youth motivation and regional ties. Indigenous language programmes promote cultural stewardship but remain fragile due to limited community transmission. Collectively, these cases highlight language education as a strategic means of advancing sustainability, requiring stronger teacher development, intercultural pedagogy, and community–institutional collaboration to secure linguistic diversity and equip learners for global participation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMedical Trial Registration: \u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Sustainability through Language Education for Heritage Preservation and Global Participation","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-05 11:40:32","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7548287/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"76a4aa9d-c88b-4538-a4b0-91e4aa4c9ad9","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 5th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-21T11:51:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-05 11:40:32","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7548287","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7548287","identity":"rs-7548287","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}