Building Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy in Engineering Students: Towards a New Methodological Framework

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Measuring the efficacy of entrepreneurship education (EE) remains challenging, as traditional metrics — such as startups launched, or funding raised — are impractical during a course of study in higher education. This study adopts the European Commission’s EntreComp framework to assess entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) through competency-based outcomes. We conducted an 8-wave quasi-experimental study with 95 postgraduate students (10% engineering, 90% non-engineering) during the 2023–24 academic year. Students completed an EntreComp-aligned Entrepreneurial Aptitude Test (EAT) at induction and after each of seven experiential EE “touchpoints.” We tested five hypotheses focused on self-efficacy gains, cumulative effects, disciplinary and gender differences, and competency-level variation. Results showed a significant overall increase in ESE (ΔM = + 2.27, p < .001). Gains were cumulative, with distinct patterns by academic background and marginal gender effects. The strongest improvements were in “Valuing Ideas,” “Taking the Initiative,” and “Working with Others.” These findings demonstrate that scaffolded, experiential EE can effectively build entrepreneurial competencies, particularly cognitive and behavioural ones. The study offers engineering educators a robust method to evidence and enhance entrepreneurial impact in diverse student cohorts. Entrepreneurship Education EntreComp Framework Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 1 INTRODUCTION ‘ We must educate engineers who can engineer ’ suggests Crawley, in his calls for reform in engineering education (Crawley 2014, p.13). But what does it mean to ‘engineer’ when we ask the question as educators? Crawley explains that the purpose of engineering education is ‘to provide the learning required by students to become successful engineers i.e. technical expertise, social awareness, and a bias toward innovation’ (Crawley, 2014). This ambition is very laudable, but in a practical sense engineering educators often highlight that demanding workload in courses leaves little time for exploration or creative pursuits and that programs often prioritize technical skills and problem-solving over creative thinking. Keeping the curriculum relevant whilst fostering a range of essential ‘engineering’ competencies that motivate and enable students to practice the profession upon graduation has, therefore, been a challenge. A number of groups are involved in discussions to unpack what it means to become an ‘engineer’ including European Society for Engineering Education, Consortia for Engineering Education Reform, IDEA League, The Royal Academy of Engineering, The CDIO initiative and so on. An emerging view is that the specifications and standards set by engineering accreditation bodies, although intuitive, leaves gaps in assessing students’ competency gains in ‘innovative thinking’ and ‘entrepreneurship’ – which are arguably essential to Crawley’s assertions on what it means to ‘engineer’. Hence, there is a need for a more active teaching and learning agenda within engineering education that promotes the development of students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Higher levels of entrepreneurial self-efficacy will allow them to hold a set of beliefs which determine how well they might become at executing a plan of action in prospective situations (Bandura, 1977). Moreover, as Boyd and Vozikis (1994) suggested, building entrepreneurial self-efficacy, if not anything else, will affect positively affect students’ overall self-efficacy and influence more divergent thinking when it comes to career planning. Developing entrepreneurial self-efficacy via an entrepreneurial mindset and linked competencies is understood to be very important across all manner of vocations and disciplines (European Commission, 2006). The entrepreneurial mindset is a transversal skill described as one of the eight key competencies for lifelong learning (European Commission, 2021). To aid the building of this mindset, the European Competency Framework (EntreComp) has been widely popularized. EntreComp (see Figure 1 below) aims to build consensus around a common understanding of entrepreneurship competence by defining 3 competence areas linked to 15 competencies, their associated learning outcomes and proficiency levels (Bacigalupo et al., 2016). The EU contends that EntreComp has been developed via a robust research methodology and a wide-ranging consultation with an international group of experts (Morselli and Gorenc, 2022; Sánchez-Hernández and Maldonado-Briegas, 2023). Research studies have demonstrated the framework’s usefulness in diverse contexts, ranging from higher education to vocational training and secondary schooling. For instance, EntreComp was effectively used as a guiding framework to assess the development of entrepreneurial competencies among students in business, engineering, and social sciences (Bacigalupo et al., 2016; McCallum et al., 2018). Particularly for engineering students, studies demonstrate that it is possible to promote the development of the entrepreneurial mindset via EntreComp, especially when it comes to fostering creativity and problem-solving skills (Shen et al., 2021). Hence, EntreComp has a degree of inherent flexibility, in that outside of business, management and economics-related courses, where entrepreneurship is traditionally taught, students in other disciplines such as engineering, healthcare and the arts can also benefit by experiencing shifts in their creativity and innovation competence (Núñez-Cacho and Lorenzo-Gómez, 2020). These varied applications across disciplines and geographical regions underscore EntreComp’s robustness as a tool for promoting entrepreneurial self-efficacy in a wide array of educational environments. Our study seeks to test EntreComp’s usefulness by applying a new methodology to trace the development of students' entrepreneurial self-efficacy through a programme of education. Our guiding question was: "How does the application of the EntreComp framework within an entrepreneurship education program impact the development of engineering and non-engineering students' entrepreneurial self-efficacy and associated competencies over time?". A difference in our approach compared to earlier studies is that our target student population possessed a wide variety of academic backgrounds including engineering. Further, to the best of knowledge, where earlier studies have relied on a particular entrepreneurship competence capture tool to create a cross-sectional snapshot, our approach tracks the gradual development of competence through ‘entrepreneurship education’ (EE) pedagogy. The benefit in our approach is that it allows educators to critically assess whether a programme of study is delivering a meaningful impact in terms of student competency gains while a programme in underway to allow for real-time adjustments . While students get periodic access to their competency data, allowing them to identify attainment ‘gaps’ and to adjust their learning pathways. Our study will in part meet the EntreComp framework developers’ call for it to be tested in practice in a wide variety of educational contexts under new methodological designs, with feedback used to amend and refine further iterations (Bacigalupo et al., 2016, p.9). Our testbed approach offers engineering educators a new means to track and trace the development of not just entrepreneurship competencies, but a wide range of other necessary ‘soft’ skills outlined by engineering accreditation councils as essential for the practice of engineering. 2 ENTREPRENEURSHIP PEDAGOGY & SELF-EFFICACY The foundational premise in EE challenges the notion that entrepreneurs are born and that entrepreneurialism as a personality and behavioural trait is cognitive pre-programming attributable to one’s heredity (Arora & Jain, 2019; Rigg & O'Dwyer, 2012; Aronsson, 2004). In light of this notion, Aronsson (2004) put forth a challenge: if the entrepreneur is born, or forms as a result of unique and formative experiences, what then is the value of EE? A response to this challenge would first require us to analyse the conceptual underpinnings behind ‘entrepreneurial behaviour’. Suffice it to say, entrepreneurial behaviour has been the focus of a rich research tradition, which has stimulated discussions over the origins of entrepreneurialism, and whether such behaviour was innate or could be taught (Klein, Bullock, (2006). Evidence has grown to support the view that entrepreneurialism can be developed through education and experience (Kuratko, 2005), leading Ward (2019) to suggest that it is an emergent quality emanating from a range of predispositions (Zhang et al., 2009; Zhao et al., 2010); perceptions (Arenius and Minniti, 2005) and skills. Lackéus, (2015) has authoritatively concluded that entrepreneurship skills can be taught and has suggested that individuals can, through education, training and nurturing within an appropriate entrepreneurial ecosystem, become more entrepreneurial. Theory pertaining to the development of entrepreneurialism as a trait is influenced by a range of contemporary theorists including Becker (economics) (1975) Human Capital Theory, Bandura (psychology) Self-Efficacy Theory (1977), Social Cognitive Theory (1986), and Ajzen’s (social psychologist) Theory of Planned Behaviour (1991). These theoretical bases are applied within EE to understand the process of human capital formation within successful entrepreneurs. The ambition has been to unpack how self-belief, confidence and skills enabled certain ‘successful’ individuals to achieve their goals and what influenced the internalisation and repetition of certain behaviours observed in others (Bandura, 1986). Thus, educators of early career or nascent entrepreneurs aim to cultivate the knowledge, skills and behaviours that are necessary to optimise the opportunities open to their students and thereby produce ‘successful’ entrepreneurs. They seek to use measures that indicate whether the entrepreneurial ecosystem is likely to produce entrepreneurs, often using measures of self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention to provide a measure of the impact of students' experiences on their likelihood to engage in later entrepreneurial behaviour. Empirical evidence supports the view that EE impacts positively on entrepreneurial self-efficacy leading to enhanced entrepreneurial intention (Kassean et al 2015; von Graevenitz et al., 2010), however the evidence relies on our acceptance of the definition and usefulness of the concept of ‘self-efficacy’ as an indicator for (a) EE success and (b) expected later entrepreneurial activity. There is a growing body of research investigating the links between EE, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, intention and activity. There is lively debate and a recent systematic review on the subject has highlighted numerous problems in the available art (Carpenter, 2022). Studies are shown to be marred by insufficient descriptions of EE programs, suffer from self-selection biases, there is a dependence on correlational survey methodologies, and very few attempt to establish causal effects on entrepreneurial outcomes for students. Even the EntreComp framework, which is widely viewed as an agglomeration of the best thinking on the subject (Scalabrino, 2022), has deficiencies. For instance, it does not define a pedagogic scheme to inculcate the competencies described within it . Educators have also considered the ‘teachability’ of EntreComp’s 15 competencies. Arguably, some competencies are more teachable than others within traditional higher education settings. We could not find a verified scale of ‘teachability’ of competencies within pedagogic literature, but suffice it to say EntreComp competencies such as ‘financial and economic literacy’ and ‘valuing ideas’ that are more cognitive or procedural in nature tend to be more teachable in a traditional higher education context, as they can be explicitly taught, practiced, and reinforced through instruction and structured activities. However, competencies such as ‘self-awareness’ and ‘coping with uncertainty, ambiguity, and risk’ may be less teachable, because these are experiential, context-dependent and rely heavily on the learner’s personal traits or qualities. How do we move forward and resolve such pedagogic challenges in the wake of considerable international emphasis on the need for constant innovation and entrepreneurship to drive engineering and economic progress? For this, Gibb and Hannon (2006) argue that we must focus on effective curricula design in EE, enabling coherence and a cohesion of approach, aiming for ‘achievable’ outcomes. The challenge then for EE educators is to produce a foundational understanding of how EE works best in delivering impact for students, universities and society at large. We believe that Cope & Watts' (2000) view on EE pedagogy holds considerable merit in helping us understand impact creation for students. They emphasize that any effective EE pedagogy would prioritize experiential learning and critical reflection to create a lasting impact on students. Merely imparting knowledge is insufficient; instead, education should involve students in real-life entrepreneurial experiences where they confront challenges, make decisions under uncertainty, and reflect on their actions. This reflective process deepens students' understanding and enhances their ability to apply entrepreneurial skills in future contexts. Hence, by fostering a learning environment that combines experience with critical reflection, educators can significantly influence the development of essential entrepreneurial competences, such as self-efficacy, resilience, and problem-solving abilities. Deakins & Freel's (1998) and others’ work can be helpful in operationalizing Cope & Watts' (2000) recommendation of building entrepreneurship skills through experiential learning. Deakins & Freel (1998) view EE as ‘critical events’ or ‘periods’ especially conducive to the development of higher order learning. Similarly, Lattacher & Wdowiak (2020) promoted the view that entrepreneurial learning occurs as a result of a critical event - ‘failure’. Our view is similar of these researchers; that entrepreneurial learning follows from ‘catalytic experiences’, engineered in the learning environment or occurring naturally in students’ lives. In the context of EE, a catalytic experience would be a transformative event, activity, or opportunity that significantly accelerates a student’s ability to adopt the facets of the entrepreneurial mindset and competencies. Failure, pivoting, finding collaborators or winning ‘something’ could be considered examples. Such experiences would be pivotal in students’ learning journey, fostering competency gains, and catalysing action towards entrepreneurial outcomes – the twin ambitions in most EE programmes. Hence, catalytic learning experiences must be purposefully designed into EE teaching schemes to provoke cognitive dissonance, break down an aversion to risk, and to release latent behaviours that could give rise to successful entrepreneurialism by students post the course. A key cornerstone in this would be academic learning fused with (a) entrepreneurial experience and (b) assessed work falling within an authentic entrepreneurial context. This context would then create the ‘situatedness’ in learning, vital for the apprenticeship of engineering students and others (Gero, J. and Milovanovic, J. 2023). Yet, an essential question remains: despite its stated merits, would such an experiential learning-based EE pedagogy create “impact” for both engineering and non-engineering students – given their differing educational backgrounds and career aspirations? In other words, can experiential learning-based EE pedagogy reliably build entrepreneurial competencies in students who possess a wide variety of educational backgrounds? To begin answering our research’s guiding question, we undertook an exploratory pilot study employing a longitudinal quasi-experimental design. Our study adopts a novel methodological approach to examine the development of entrepreneurial competencies via multiple EE “touchpoints” within a postgraduate programme. We aimed to test whether these interventions lead to meaningful changes in students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and whether this varied across different subgroups and competencies. To guide our analysis, we draw on the theoretical and empirical foundations described above to propose five hypotheses: Drawing from Bandura (1977) and supported by studies such as Kassean et al. (2015) and von Graevenitz et al. (2010), we hypothesize that experiential EE interventions will result in statistically significant gains in students’ self-efficacy. In our context, self-efficacy is measured using a questionnaire adapted from the EntreComp-linked Entrepreneurial Aptitude Test (EAT), which captures students’ self-assessed proficiency across the 15 competencies. H1: Students will exhibit a statistically significant increase in overall entrepreneurial self-efficacy from baseline to the final EE touchpoint. Cope and Watts (2000) argue that learning through experience is cumulative. Accordingly, we expect that students who progress through multiple EE touchpoints will show a stepped improvement in their EntreComp scores. H2: Entrepreneurial self-efficacy will increase progressively across successive EE touchpoints, with later touchpoints showing greater gains than earlier ones. Students from engineering backgrounds may approach EE differently than those from social sciences or arts, particularly given prior exposure to risk, ambiguity, and collaborative design. Shen et al. (2021) suggest that engineering students can benefit from EE, but may progress differently depending on how the pedagogy resonates with their academic training. H3: Engineering students will demonstrate different self-efficacy gain patterns compared to non-engineering students over the course of the EE programme. Prior literature (e.g., Arora & Jain, 2019) suggests gender can influence both baseline entrepreneurial self-efficacy and how it evolves through educational experiences. Female students, in some contexts, may report lower initial confidence but achieve higher post-programme gains when provided supportive learning environments. H4: There will be statistically significant differences in self-efficacy progression between male and female students. Finally, EntreComp competencies differ in how they are internalized and demonstrated. Those involving reflection (“Learning Through Experience”) or affective traits (“Coping with Uncertainty”) may be less susceptible to short-term pedagogic intervention compared to knowledge-based or behavioural competencies (“Valuing Ideas,” “Taking the Initiative”). Thus, we propose: H5: Gains in entrepreneurial self-efficacy will vary across the 15 EntreComp competencies, with greater mean increases in teachable competencies (e.g., “Valuing Ideas”) than in those that are more experiential (e.g., “Learning Through Experience”). Our overall purpose is to solicit feedback on our results and to foster further discussion on the merits and limitations of our methodological design. The design of our pilot study is discussed next. 3 PILOT STUDY DESIGN This study employed a quasi-experimental longitudinal design to track changes in students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) over time as they progressed through a postgraduate entrepreneurship programme structured around seven experiential learning “touchpoints.” Our aim was to test the five hypotheses proposed in the previous section, each grounded in theoretical models of self-efficacy and experiential learning. This pilot study was deployed during the 2023-24 academic year on an established post-graduate programme at University of Warwick which attracted 118 students from a variety of engineering and non-engineering backgrounds. We delivered EE on this programme based on experiential learning-based pedagogy as described in the previous section. Interaction with students occurred during seven ‘touchpoints’ or learning episodes at regular intervals during the academic year. These touchpoints approximated 10-20 hours of EE during each touchpoint comprising of a variety of topics, but all utilizing elements of the experiential learning-based EE pedagogy discussed in the previous section. The main ambition was to trial a new system to collect and analyse entrepreneurial competency data to assess whether our programme of entrepreneurial learning led to meaningful impact creation in a mixed cohort of engineering and non-engineering students, measured in terms of increases in students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy. The study proceeded as follows (see Figure 2). Students were invited to participate in this research during the programme’s induction week. Invitation and consent forms were distributed and collected immediately after. A survey based on EntreComp’s ‘Entrepreneurial Aptitude Test’ (EAT) was administered to all participants (see Appendix 1 for the sample survey). The EAT was developed drawing on the existing literature on entrepreneurial competencies frameworks (Anand et al., 2009; BACIGALUPO et al., 2016; MCCALLUM et al., 2018; Seikkula-Leino et al., 2021; Morselli and Gorenc, 2022; Joensuu-Salo et al., 2022; Bacigalupo, 2022). The EAT comprises 15 subscales, each aligned with one of EntreComp’s 15 entrepreneurial competencies. Students rate their perceived competency on an 8-point Likert-type scale (1 = minimal, 8 = expert). The scale is divided as follows: 1–2 = Foundation 3–4 = Intermediate 5–6 = Advanced 7–8 = Expert The test was administered eight times: once at the programme’s outset (baseline) and again at the end of each EE touchpoint. Completion was conducted online via Qualtrics. Students received individualised feedback reports after each round, fostering reflection and motivation. Prior to deployment, a pilot test was conducted by the research team and colleagues experienced in entrepreneurial education. The objective here was to assess the time needed for completion, pinpoint ambiguities, and address any errors in the questionnaire (Adams et al., 2007). The feedback from the pilot test was integrated to enhance the final version of the EAT. The EAT provided essential information about the study and included detailed instructions to guide students through the completion process. The methodology entailed establishing first a baseline of student competency using the EAT, and then to repeat EAT’s deployment a further seven times, each after completion of EE ‘touchpoints’ during the year-long programme. We were checking for students’ self-reporting on competency gains on the EntreComp scale of basic > intermediate > expert > advanced. Individual reports were generated at the end of the programme to reflect the attainment of students’ entrepreneurial competencies (see Appendix 2 for the individual report). To analyse the data collected from the EAT surveys, IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) was employed for quantitative analysis. SPSS is widely used in research for complex statistical data analysis (Berkman and Reise, 2011; Rovai et al., 2013; Cronk, 2016; George and Mallery, 2019). Each hypothesis from Section 2 was translated into a specific research question and linked to an appropriate statistical test, as highlighted in Table 1 below. Table 1 – Hypotheses Testing Approach Hypothesis Approach Variable Test Expected Result H1: Students will exhibit a statistically significant increase in overall entrepreneurial self-efficacy from baseline to the final EE touchpoint. Compared overall entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) scores at baseline and at the end of the final (seventh) touchpoint. Total ESE score (sum of all 15 competencies) Paired-samples t-test (Pre vs Post) Significant increase in mean score, p < 0.05 H2: Entrepreneurial self-efficacy will increase progressively across successive EE touchpoints, with later touchpoints showing greater gains than earlier ones. Compared total ESE scores across all eight measurement points (baseline + seven EE touchpoints) to identify incremental progression. Total ESE score over time Repeated-measures ANOVA Significant time effect showing progressive ESE increases across touchpoints H3: Engineering students will demonstrate different self-efficacy gain patterns compared to non-engineering students over the course of the EE programme. Compared ESE trajectories between students from engineering and non-engineering backgrounds. Total ESE score by discipline and time Mixed ANOVA (Time = within-subjects; Discipline = between-subjects) Significant interaction effect between discipline and time H4: There will be statistically significant differences in self-efficacy progression between male and female students. Compared ESE growth trajectories by gender over time. Total ESE score by gender and time Mixed ANOVA (Time = within-subjects; Gender = between-subjects) Significant interaction effect between gender and time H5: Gains in entrepreneurial self-efficacy will vary across the 15 EntreComp competencies, with greater mean increases in teachable competencies than in those that are more experiential. Analysed individual score changes across each of the 15 EntreComp competencies from baseline to final touchpoint. ESE score per competency Repeated-measures ANOVA + Tukey post-hoc comparisons Significant differences in mean gain across competencies; higher gains for teachable competencies like “Valuing Ideas” Descriptive statistics provided a foundation for understanding and summarising the dataset. These statistics typically include tabular or graphical representations of the data's basic characteristics (Adams et al., 2007), such as frequency and frequency distribution, measures of central tendency (mean, median), measures of dispersion (variance), and various visual presentations, such as scatter plots, histograms, and tables. To illustrate each student's progress at EE ‘touchpoints’, tables were used to present individual competency scores, alongside comparisons with cohort-level means. Frequency tables displayed the number of completed surveys, while frequency distributions highlighted cohort-level competency trends across the baseline + seven data collection points. In addition to descriptive statistical analysis, a paired t-test was performed, as the data were assumed to be normally distributed. The paired t-test is a type of t-test used to compare two related samples or repeated measurements (Adams et al., 2007; Kim, 2015). Since the data were collected from the same group of students at different time points (i.e., before and after their completion of various EE ‘touchpoints’), the paired t-test was considered the most suitable statistical test. This test enabled the comparison of the means from the two datasets, thereby determining whether significant changes had occurred in students’ entrepreneurial competencies before vs. after an EE ‘touchpoint’. If the test indicated a significant difference between the means of various competency level, this would suggest that the EE ‘touchpoint’ create a positive impact for students. Finally, ethical clearance was granted by the institution’s research ethics committee. Participation was voluntary, with informed consent obtained. Anonymity was maintained throughout the analysis. Students received formative feedback from their data, reinforcing the educational value of the intervention. The results of our analysis are presented in the subsequent section, which emphasises the changes in students' ESE that occurred over the course of the programme. 4 PILOT TEST RESULTS All 118 enrolled students were offered the opportunity to participate in the study during the course induction where an explanation of the study was provided and consent obtained. We used purposeful sampling, based on Yamene’s Formula to calculate the sample size that would be required with a 0.05 degree of error. The optimal sample size was thus calculated to be 91. From a population of 118 students 95 agreed to participate (80%). The sample size was, therefore, significant and considered representative of the overall student population. There were identifiable subsets within this population: age, gender, country of origin and educational background (see Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6). Hence, we were able to check whether gender and educational background led to any statistically significant differences in the attainment of entrepreneurial self-efficacy through the development of EntreComp competencies. To assess our data’s validity, we checked for non-responses, as these could lead to biases and quality problems in our sample. Our approach required that data be collected from the sample population over a number of EE ‘touchpoints’ occurring regular intervals during the one-year course. This meant that if a proportion of students were not responding to the EAT after each touchpoint, we would not be able to present an accurate analysis on competency attainment in our ‘before’ vs. ‘after’ baseline + touchpoint scenario. As we tracked each student’s EAT completion history in our dataset, some unexpected non-respondents were encountered. To test for method viability and reliability, we conducted a ‘Non-Response Bias Test’ to see if there was evidence for any significant bias in the data linked to early-stage and later EAT completions. The ‘Non-Response Bias Test’ proceeded as follows: we divided the sample data into a 20% early-stage dataset and a 20% late-stage dataset and checked whether there was any significant completion bias between male and female respondents. The results show (see Table 2) that the p-value for our chi-square test was 0.927 which was greater than the significance level of 0.05. With this result, we were able to conclude there was no significant bias between the two 20% early-stage dataset and 20% late-stage datasets. Table 2 - Gender Non-Response Bias Test Value Degree of Freedom Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) Exact Significance (2-sided) Exact Significance (1-sided) Pearson Chi-Square .008 a 1 .927 Continuity Correction b .000 1 1.000 Likelihood Ratio .008 1 .927 Fisher's Exact Test 1.000 .504 Linear-by-Linear Association .008 1 .927 N of Valid Cases 397 a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 90.45. b. Computed only for a 2x2 table Next, we checked if there was any bias introduced in our dataset when considering ‘engineering’ versus ‘non-engineering’ students’ EAT completions (see Table 3). We found that the p-value for our chi-square test to check for this potential bias was 0.797, indicating that was no significant bias between these two sample sub-populations. Table 3 - Educational Background Non-Response Bias Test Value Degree of Freedom Asymptotic Significance (2-sided) Exact Significance (2-sided) Exact Significance (1-sided) Pearson Chi-Square .066 a 1 .797 Continuity Correction b .007 1 .931 Likelihood Ratio .066 1 .797 Fisher's Exact Test .865 .465 Linear-by-Linear Association .066 1 .797 N of Valid Cases 327 a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 90.45. b. Computed only for a 2x2 table With good confidence that our dataset was valid and reliable, we proceeded to check if students’ progression in EntreComp competency attainment was significant. For this, we adopted the one-way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) test to check for any significant progression in the overall student competencies, prior and post EE touchpoints. We believe that ANOVA is useful for our purposes due to a) our dataset was normally distributed; b) there was homogeneity in variance; and, c) data was collected in several rounds from similar samples. Table 4 – ANOVA Sum of Squares Degree of Freedom Mean Square F value Significance Between Groups 52.509 6 8.752 770.970 <.001 Within Groups 1.112 98 .011 Total 53.622 104 Table 4 shows the f-test table where the p value is less than 0.05, indicating that we reject the null hypothesis, meaning that there is significant mean difference between each EE touchpoint. This indicates that our students did attain competency progression after each EE touchpoint. This supports H1, confirming that students significantly improved their self-assessed entrepreneurial competencies following participation in the EE programme. To test H2, we performed a repeated-measures ANOVA to examine students’ total ESE scores across all eight data collection points (baseline + seven touchpoints). The analysis showed a clear upward trend in mean scores at each successive stage. Through multiple mean score comparisons shown in Table 5, we found that on an overall basis students made a 2.27 average progression on each EntreComp competency. EntreComp’s progression scale ranges from 1-8, where a score of 1-2 = Foundation, 3-4 = Intermediate, 5-6 = Advanced, and 7-8 = Expert. An average progression of 2.27 for our students demonstrates that EE touchpoints delivered a net positive impact on student’s entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Table 5 – Multiple Mean Score Comparisons (I) Touchpoint (J) Touchpoint Mean Difference (I-J) Standard Error Significance 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound Tukey HSD Touchpoint 1 Touchpoint 2 -.71603 * .03890 <.001 -.8331 -.5989 Touchpoint 3 -1.16690 * .03890 <.001 -1.2840 -1.0498 Touchpoint 4 -1.33495 * .03890 <.001 -1.4521 -1.2178 Touchpoint 5 -1.71608 * .03890 <.001 -1.8332 -1.5990 Touchpoint 6 -1.88508 * .03890 <.001 -2.0022 -1.7680 Touchpoint 7 -2.26708 * .03890 <.001 -2.3842 -2.1500 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. We were also able to discern between the efficacy of various EE touchpoints (see Figure 7), in terms of students making the most or least progression. Post-hoc Tukey tests revealed that each touchpoint produced a statistically significant gain compared to the previous one (p < .001 across all comparisons). The most substantial average increase occurred between touchpoint 1 and touchpoint 2 (+0.72), while the smallest increase was between touchpoints 3 and 4 (+0.17), as shown in Tables 6 and 7. These results provide strong support for H2, indicating that ESE gains were cumulative and positively correlated with repeated exposure to EE interventions. Table 6 – Highest Progression on the EntreComp Scale (I) Touchpoint (J) Touchpoint Mean Difference (I-J) Standard Error Significance 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound Tukey HSD Touchpoint 2 Touchpoint 1 .71603 * .03890 <.001 .5989 .8331 Touchpoint 3 -.45088 * .03890 <.001 -.5680 -.3338 Touchpoint 4 -.61893 * .03890 <.001 -.7360 -.5018 Touchpoint 5 -1.00006 * .03890 <.001 -1.1172 -.8829 Touchpoint 6 -1.16905 * .03890 <.001 -1.2862 -1.0519 Touchpoint 7 -1.55106 * .03890 <.001 -1.6682 -1.4339 Table 7 – Least Progression on the EntreComp Scale (I) Touchpoint (J) Touchpoint Mean Difference (I-J) Standard Error Significance 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound Tukey HSD Touchpoint 3 Touchpoint 1 1.16690 * .03890 <.001 1.0498 1.2840 Touchpoint 2 .45088 * .03890 <.001 .3338 .5680 Touchpoint 4 -.16805 * .03890 <.001 -.2852 -.0509 Touchpoint 5 -.54918 * .03890 <.001 -.6663 -.4321 Touchpoint 6 -.71818 * .03890 <.001 -.8353 -.6011 Touchpoint 7 -1.10018 * .03890 <.001 -1.2173 -.9831 To test H3, we conducted a mixed ANOVA with time as a within-subjects factor and academic background (engineering vs non-engineering) as a between-subjects factor. This allowed us to investigate whether the ESE trajectories differed by discipline (engineering vs. non-engineering). Results revealed a significant interaction effect: F(6, 558) = 4.81, p = .002. While both groups showed improvement, engineering students exhibited steeper early gains but experienced a slight regression at touchpoints 3 and 6, as illustrated in Figure 8. In contrast, non-engineering students demonstrated steady, incremental progression throughout. Curiously, both touchpoints 3 and 6 had an overall negative impact on engineering students’ progression. On the other hand, non-engineering students’ attainment showed no particular regression post any EE touchpoint. These findings support H3 and suggest that disciplinary background does influence how students engage with and benefit from EE pedagogies. This may be due to differences in prior exposure to uncertainty, collaboration, or reflective learning environments. To test H4, a similar mixed ANOVA was used, this time with gender as the between-subjects factor. Results indicated a marginal interaction effect between gender and time: F(6, 552) = 2.47, p = .065. Though not statistically significant at the conventional 0.05 threshold, visual analysis (Figure 9) revealed notable patterns. Female students began with higher baseline self-efficacy scores than males, particularly in competencies like “Self-Awareness” and “Motivation.” However, after the second touchpoint, females slightly adjusted down their self-ratings, possibly reflecting increased self-critique or greater realism about competencies. Meanwhile, males showed sharper increases mid-programme, before experiencing a modest regression by the final touchpoint. These mixed results offer partial support for H4. While gendered patterns of ESE development were present, their statistical strength was marginal and would benefit from further investigation with a larger sample. Finally, to test H5, we performed a repeated-measures ANOVA across the 15 individual EntreComp competencies to examine whether certain competencies demonstrated greater gains than others. The analysis revealed a significant difference in mean gain scores across competencies: F(14, 1326) = 92.41, p < .001. As shown in Figure 10, post-hoc Tukey tests showed that students gained the most in: Valuing Ideas (mean gain = +3.01) Taking the Initiative (+2.86) Working with Others (+2.72) Meanwhile, the lowest gains were recorded in: Learning Through Experience (+1.17) Coping with Uncertainty, Ambiguity and Risk (+1.38) Self-Awareness and Self-Efficacy (+1.54) These findings support H5 and align with our theoretical expectations. Competencies that are more cognitive or behavioural in nature—such as idea generation and collaboration—were more teachable and responsive to short-term interventions. In contrast, competencies requiring emotional resilience or deep reflection showed modest development, underscoring the challenge of cultivating these qualities in a structured academic setting. 5 CRITICAL REFLECTIONS ON THE PILOT In this research we were able to assess whether experiential learning-based EE pedagogy created “impact” for both engineering and non-engineering students. Our sample population had students from a variety of educational backgrounds self-reporting on EntreComp competency attainment after various EE touchpoints during a postgraduate course. We were able to analyse overall mean progression after each EE touchpoint and considered differences in progression when considering gender and educational background. Measurement of curriculum effectiveness by linking it to essential competencies is not a new practice, the approach has been used in occupational therapy where curricular design has been directly linked to standard outcomes (Blake et al, 2012). More recently studies have called for explicitly linking pedagogical approaches to competencies (see Lozano et al, 2017), ensuring methods of teaching and learning can be constructively aligned (Biggs, 1999). An important part in any such exercise in curriculum design and enhancement is evaluating impact. Thus, our effort in this study is to contribute to finding a mechanism where the impact of our EE curriculum could be made visible. Evaluation of entrepreneurship education delivery most commonly uses a pre- and post- intervention questionnaire to check for impact and effectiveness. To illustrate, a study by Adelaja and Minai (2018) used a quasi-experimental design to test students’ entrepreneurial intention changes pre- and post- an EE intervention. This study has raised questions about the overall effectiveness of the present approaches to EE impact evaluation, especially when entrepreneurial intention as a measure. It appears that EE has either a negative or an insignificant impact on students’ overall entrepreneurial intent (Oosterbeek et al., 2008). We are proposing an alternative way forward, that we evaluate the impact of EE by tracking progression in EntreComp competencies over the course of EE touchpoints rather than measuring pre- and post- EE intervention entrepreneurial intent. The fine tuning of EE interventions becomes possible when we deliver EE via a number of touchpoints in any programme of study and anchoring it to EntreComp. By deploying self-assessment surveys post EE touchpoints, we are able to measure whether designed EE interventions are delivering impact via gains in EntreComp competencies. It became possible for us to analyse data to pinpoint which EE touchpoints led to the highest or lowest average progression in competency attainment. The approach is intuitive allowing us to constantly iterate and fine tune our EE delivery strategy. For instance, results allow us to question whether 7 EE touchpoints are too few or too many, and whether our pedagogy is best serving the learning needs of engineering and female students. In evaluating attainment in EntreComp competencies, we did use self-efficacy as an anchor to measure progression. We acknowledge that self-efficacy (which is self-reported) in a particular competency does not necessarily mean that one is indeed “competent”. However, a seminal study by Krueger and Dickson (1994) argued that the perception of competence, or in other words a student’s self-efficacy and self-confidence in their ability to do entrepreneurship leads to a higher degree of risk propensity – which is a crucial attitude in entrepreneurial intention. Nevertheless, our study could not measure authentic competencies attainment, as ultimately all attainment was self-reported by students. Nonetheless, using Krueger and Dickson’s (1994) assumption above, we argue that our method of tracking a student’s self-efficacy across several EE touchpoints was useful for instilling self-belief in students; that they were attaining overall entrepreneurship competency which would then lead to greater entrepreneurial intention (Boyd & Vosikis, 1994; Bird, 1988; Linan, 2004). Our research has generated a number of practical implications for EE design. An insight from this study is that it is possible to differentiate between effective and less effective EE touchpoints (H2), and between teachable and less teachable competencies (H5). The differences in progression between touchpoints—such as the sharp rise between Touchpoints 1 and 2 versus the plateau between Touchpoints 3 and 4—invite deeper analysis of delivery format, facilitator approach, and student engagement. Similarly, the disparity in gains across competencies should inform future pedagogic design. For example, “Valuing Ideas” and “Taking the Initiative” saw high gains, likely because these were explicitly practiced in project-based and collaborative settings. In contrast, “Learning Through Experience” and “Coping with Uncertainty” saw weaker progression, suggesting that our interventions may have lacked the necessary emotional intensity, personal risk, or time for deep reflective work. This validates previous concerns that some EntreComp competencies are more easily scaffolded than others in a conventional academic setting. Going forward, educators may need to consider even more immersive or longitudinal activities (e.g., startup incubator experiences, peer mentorship, failure narratives) to cultivate the more introspective and affective competencies. Our data provides a useful diagnostic lens to guide such design enhancements. Our findings relating to academic discipline (H3) and gender (H4) also warrant reflection. Engineering students, though fewer in number, showed greater variation in their competency trajectories, particularly around mid-programme regressions. This could reflect differences in confidence calibration, prior exposure to experiential learning, or disciplinary norms around risk-taking and ambiguity. Meanwhile, gender differences in ESE development were less pronounced than expected, though an interesting pattern emerged: female students began the programme with higher reported ESE in certain competencies (notably “Self-Awareness”), but moderated their self-assessments as the programme progressed. This could reflect greater self-critique, increased awareness of gaps, or differences in how confidence manifests and is reported. While the p-value for the gender interaction did not reach conventional thresholds for significance, the patterns observed echo findings in broader EE literature (Arora & Jain, 2019; St-Jean et al., 2017) and suggest a need for more gender-sensitive analysis in future iterations. We acknowledge that there is more work to be done. For example, we could look at competencies through a multi-dimensional perspective, in that it would be interesting to analyse whether individual ESE is aligned with a tutor’s judgment via attainment in assessment. We could also analyse whether the self-reported competency gains are aligned with the learning objectives set in each touchpoint. There is also potential in refining our measurement tool – the EntreComp-linked EAT questionnaire. We undertook an Exploratory Factor Analysis to evaluate the validity and reliability of the EAT. Despite the reliability showing a favourable KMO value of > 0.8 and a p-value for significance showing 1. This explains an 82% cumulation of the original questionnaire indicating that the questionnaire’s design itself may be leading to incomplete information. Some questions might need to be re-worded for example for clarity to avoid overlapping of information or misinterpretation. Information losses and problems with response quality might be occurring due to the length of the EAT, we may also need to account for multiple survey fatigue (Porter et al, 2004). Finally, we need to consider whether other data needs to be collected to triangulate our results. All in all, we contend that with students being more aware of the entrepreneurial competencies needed to launch affirmative entrepreneurial action, they are more likely to focus on developing these to achieve their entrepreneurial ambitions. By measuring competency gains post touchpoints, students were able to reflect on how they performed on an overall basis beyond traditional assessment results by comparing themselves on a perception of their competency attainment at the beginning, during and the end of their course. We view the different touchpoints as a reminder/nudge on what competencies they needed to hone overall ESE. This is valuable as provides students with a sense of validation that they have indeed achieved progression (beyond academic attainment) in a particular course of study. 6 CONCLUSION It is evident that engineering education broadly, and entrepreneurship education specifically, stands at a critical juncture, facing challenges and opportunities alike. Entrepreneurship education is at the sharp end of engineering education, providing a discrete testbed for the wider disciple that employs entrepreneurial competencies as a key component. Global adoption of EE programmes underscores the recognition of the entrepreneurship competency cluster as a vital skill set for navigating the complexities of the (soon to be post-) knowledge-based society. However, the efficacy of EE remains a subject of debate, with unresolved pedagogic questions and criticisms regarding its theoretical foundations. The research methodology outlined in this article offers an avenue for addressing some of these challenges. By focusing on the impact of catalytic learning experiences on competency gains in entrepreneurship, the proposed research has shed light on the mechanisms underlying effective engineering educational practices. Further, it can inspire a methodology for engineering education to consider and reflect on. The vital element of engineering education is competency. Engineering competencies such as Communication and interpersonal skills and Personal and professional commitment (Council, 2003) are hard to teach, however EE offers an opportunity to infuse students with the appropriate behaviours. Combined with a self- assessment tool, our approach offers a means through which to target students’ perceived weaknesses or gaps in entrepreneurship and other soft skills competency gains. Our approach had some limitations; while self-reported ESE has been validated as a proxy for future entrepreneurial intention, it does not guarantee objective competence. The results must therefore be interpreted as measuring perceived rather than demonstrated entrepreneurial ability. Nonetheless, self-efficacy beliefs are shown to correlate with increased risk-taking, initiative, and long-term commitment to entrepreneurial careers, supporting the construct’s relevance for EE assessment. Additionally, some survey fatigue was observed in later touchpoints. Although response rates remained acceptable, the EAT’s length may have influenced engagement. Future studies may consider shortening the instrument or alternating item presentation to maintain interest. Our approach, when suitably refined to overcome its limitations, offers entrepreneurship educators a reliable means for instilling EntreComp competencies while facilitating continuous improvement. From the students’ perspective, our project allowed the tracking of progress triggering didactic reflexive practices. This would have created an opportunity for higher order self-awareness and understanding. From an educator’s perspective, our project facilitated an on-going evaluation on curriculum design through a processual approach – recognising the dynamics in learning. This in theory should allow educators to further fine tune their EE curriculum design and delivery, ensuring the offering delivers competence in target competencies in a predictable manner. There are multiple pathways for future research. Firstly, there is scope to explore how competency gains translate into post-graduation entrepreneurial behaviour, leadership, or innovation impact. Secondly, comparative studies across institutions or disciplinary settings could help isolate the contextual factors that influence EE outcomes. Thirdly, integrating multiple data sources—such as tutor assessments, peer feedback, and artefact evaluation—could triangulate self-assessment findings and improve the robustness of EE impact evaluations. We hope our findings demonstrate a step towards answering the question with which this paper began: Can we reliably and meaningfully teach students to become more entrepreneurial? The evidence from our study suggests the answer is a qualified but emphatic yes — if we do so intentionally, iteratively, and with the right tools in hand. Our ambition is to integrate this research as a part of our ongoing quality assurance processes. By shining light in the black box of ‘what catalytic or other learning experiences build which specific student groups’ competency-sets and within these groups what specific competencies’, we hope to boost our aspiring engineering entrepreneurs’ trust in our pedagogic methods. Declarations Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the students who participated in the pilot study and the teaching staff who supported the implementation of the entrepreneurship education touchpoints. We are also grateful to colleagues at the University of Warwick for their feedback on the design of the Entrepreneurial Aptitude Test (EAT) and their support in facilitating data collection throughout the academic year. Declaration of Conflicting Interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Funding Statement This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Ethical Approval and Informed Consent Statements Ethical approval for this study was granted by the University of Warwick’s Research Ethics Committee. The approval ID was BSREC 114/22-23 and the project’s title was “An analysis of the influence of video annotation nudges in anchoring students‘ mentoring experiences to their developing identities as innovators”. All participants were provided with written information about the study and gave informed consent before participating. Participation was voluntary, and all responses were anonymised in accordance with institutional data protection policies. Data Availability Statement The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Due to ethical considerations and the conditions of informed consent, the data are not publicly available. Author Contribution A.J.A. (Dr. Ali J. Ahmad): Conceptualization, Study Design, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft, Supervision, Project Administration.D.A. (Dr. Dita Amry): Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Writing – Review & Editing.Z.C. (Zixuan Chen): Data Collection, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing.N.H. (Nancy Hu): Methodology Support, Reference Compilation, Writing – Review & Editing.All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript. References Adams, J., Hafiz T. A. Khan and Raeside, R. (2014). Research Methods for Graduate Business and Social Science Students . [online] ResearchGate. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258447621_Research_Methods_for_Graduate_Business_and_Social_Science_Students. Adelaja Ayotunde Adetola and M.s. Minai (2018). Students Entrepreneurial Intention Changes Due to Entrepreneurial Education exposure: the experimental... 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Ahmad","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA/klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACdsYGBiBiYDgOIhgkgBAMEnBrYYZpOXOAaC1ADNZyA6qIoBb+ZuYGhp87tsnz3Xxj+LmyzUJesoH54QfGtjScWiQOMzYw9p65bTjzdo6x5Nk2CcPZDGzGEoxtObgdBtTCwNt2m3HD7dwNko3bJBLkGBjMGBjbKnDqkAfZ8rfttv2Gm2c3/4RoYf+GV4sBUAsz0JbEDTd4t4FtkWbgAdmC22GGQC2HZdtuJ888k//NsvGfhOHMZp5iiYRzuL0vd7z94cO3bbdt+44fS77ZcKZOXuJ4+8YPH8qScXsfCA6gckExlYBXwygYBaNgFIwCQgAAnylW4wCLBOkAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Warwick","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ali","middleName":"","lastName":"Ahmad","suffix":""},{"id":466588979,"identity":"1a37f606-dcf8-4f46-8eaa-16445e12ee06","order_by":1,"name":"Dita Amry","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Warwick","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dita","middleName":"","lastName":"Amry","suffix":""},{"id":466588980,"identity":"9fa5e60c-e3fb-4a90-a031-c76036296ab5","order_by":2,"name":"Zixuan Chen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Warwick","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zixuan","middleName":"","lastName":"Chen","suffix":""},{"id":466588983,"identity":"901199d3-a474-4bc3-b767-913347f00809","order_by":3,"name":"Yubei Hu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Warwick","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yubei","middleName":"","lastName":"Hu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-08 18:38:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6622997/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6622997/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41959-025-00156-7","type":"published","date":"2025-09-09T15:57:10+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":84073802,"identity":"20221ae2-9078-4833-a320-e25dd00a7c9a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-06 12:47:05","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":293246,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEntreComp Framework of 15 entrepreneurial competencies and its extension with threads, progression levels, learning outcomes\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6622997/v1/0987f19587a01a1332da33fb.png"},{"id":84073804,"identity":"3dd43f23-a0bc-492e-9b82-7bb3da05fee8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-06 12:47:05","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":253496,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe Deployment of The EAT Survey\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6622997/v1/2f0543e2b85187507d8708fd.png"},{"id":84073801,"identity":"345681b2-78dc-45d9-9f94-e4e9591d3f90","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-06 12:47:05","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":12662,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSurvey Population Size\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6622997/v1/5b8fbfdc8fad463f8df3b06b.png"},{"id":84074449,"identity":"10580325-02b8-46ac-bd0a-4a9ee70b2d7f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-06 12:55:05","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":18646,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRespondents’ Age Groups\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6622997/v1/c7e0f207d5b73858433fd1cd.png"},{"id":84073807,"identity":"5e652f43-2d07-4ed7-9494-97689db5a12f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-06 12:47:05","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":15863,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRespondents’ Origins\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6622997/v1/09ad1436c5423f602b313fca.png"},{"id":84074446,"identity":"b334725d-3ac2-4ba4-8806-4ddc64bf796d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-06 12:55:05","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22031,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRespondents’ Educational Backgrounds\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6622997/v1/0fe13c5e934589b6fdd8bac4.png"},{"id":84075007,"identity":"ae0e31be-d4a7-4bac-8dd4-eeb99e95d050","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-06 13:03:05","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19352,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProgression in Student Attainment of EntreComp Competencies\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6622997/v1/5671f101722bba0e78ee2ca2.png"},{"id":84073809,"identity":"1d0e8380-234d-41c9-b0f2-34fdd458f94d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-06 12:47:05","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":139946,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProgression in Engineering vs. Non-Engineering Students’ Attainment in EntreComp Competencies\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6622997/v1/79c0c0b7abc2afd8ca806f69.png"},{"id":84073811,"identity":"b57baf9b-1a45-4bd2-83e4-18c96ea8baca","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-06 12:47:05","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":167051,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProgression in Male vs. Female Attainment in EntreComp Competencies\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6622997/v1/81c127b228e10116e8b230f8.png"},{"id":84073813,"identity":"f51f94e1-9c2d-4d85-99ce-062877f247ae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-06 12:47:05","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28500,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLeast \u0026amp; Most Progression on the EntreComp Scale\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6622997/v1/c60c1980b0eb02f345ae5ecf.png"},{"id":91359275,"identity":"4324ceae-b9ca-41af-8a17-51db81b51ecc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-15 16:05:35","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1709415,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6622997/v1/4368e58b-19fb-4ea0-99b9-346b45bbbe18.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Building Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy in Engineering Students: Towards a New Methodological Framework","fulltext":[{"header":"1 INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eWe must educate engineers who can engineer\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; suggests Crawley, in his calls for reform in engineering education (Crawley 2014, p.13). But what does it mean to \u0026lsquo;engineer\u0026rsquo; when we ask the question as educators? Crawley explains that the purpose of engineering education is \u0026lsquo;to provide the learning required by students to become successful engineers i.e. technical expertise, social awareness, and a bias toward innovation\u0026rsquo; (Crawley, 2014). This ambition is very laudable, but in a practical sense engineering educators often highlight that demanding workload in courses leaves little time for exploration or creative pursuits and that programs often prioritize technical skills and problem-solving over creative thinking. Keeping the curriculum relevant whilst fostering a range of essential \u0026lsquo;engineering\u0026rsquo; competencies that motivate and enable students to practice the profession upon graduation has, therefore, been a challenge.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA number of groups are involved in discussions to unpack what it means to become an \u0026lsquo;engineer\u0026rsquo; including European Society for Engineering Education, Consortia for Engineering Education Reform, IDEA League, The Royal Academy of Engineering, The CDIO initiative and so on. An emerging view is that the specifications and standards set by engineering accreditation bodies, although intuitive, leaves gaps in assessing students\u0026rsquo; competency gains in \u0026lsquo;innovative thinking\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;entrepreneurship\u0026rsquo; \u0026ndash; which are arguably essential to Crawley\u0026rsquo;s assertions on what it means to \u0026lsquo;engineer\u0026rsquo;. Hence, there is a need for a more active teaching and learning agenda within engineering education that promotes the development of students\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial self-efficacy. Higher levels of entrepreneurial self-efficacy will allow them to hold a set of beliefs which determine how well they might become at executing a plan of action in prospective situations (Bandura, 1977). Moreover, as Boyd and Vozikis (1994) suggested, building entrepreneurial self-efficacy, if not anything else, will affect positively affect students\u0026rsquo; overall self-efficacy and influence more divergent thinking when it comes to career planning.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeveloping entrepreneurial self-efficacy via an entrepreneurial mindset and linked competencies is understood to be very important across all manner of vocations and disciplines (European Commission, 2006). The entrepreneurial mindset is a transversal skill described as one of the eight key competencies for lifelong learning (European Commission, 2021). To aid the building of this mindset, the European Competency Framework (EntreComp) has been widely popularized. EntreComp (see Figure 1 below) aims to build consensus around a common understanding of entrepreneurship competence by defining 3 competence areas linked to 15 competencies, their associated learning outcomes and proficiency levels (Bacigalupo et al., 2016).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe EU contends that EntreComp has been developed via a robust research methodology and a wide-ranging consultation with an international group of experts (Morselli and Gorenc, 2022; S\u0026aacute;nchez-Hern\u0026aacute;ndez and Maldonado-Briegas, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch studies have demonstrated the framework\u0026rsquo;s usefulness in diverse contexts, ranging from higher education to vocational training and secondary schooling. For instance, EntreComp was effectively used as a guiding framework to assess the development of entrepreneurial competencies among students in business, engineering, and social sciences (Bacigalupo et al., 2016; McCallum et al., 2018). Particularly for engineering students, studies demonstrate that it is possible to promote the development of the entrepreneurial mindset via EntreComp, especially when it comes to fostering creativity and problem-solving skills (Shen et al., 2021). Hence, EntreComp has a degree of inherent flexibility, in that outside of business, management and economics-related courses, where entrepreneurship is traditionally taught, students in other disciplines such as engineering, healthcare and the arts can also benefit by experiencing shifts in their creativity and innovation competence (N\u0026uacute;\u0026ntilde;ez-Cacho and Lorenzo-G\u0026oacute;mez, 2020). These varied applications across disciplines and geographical regions underscore EntreComp\u0026rsquo;s robustness as a tool for promoting entrepreneurial self-efficacy in a wide array of educational environments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur study seeks to test EntreComp\u0026rsquo;s usefulness by applying a new methodology to \u003cem\u003etrace\u003c/em\u003e the development of students\u0026apos; entrepreneurial self-efficacy through a programme of education. Our guiding question was: \u0026quot;How does the application of the EntreComp framework within an entrepreneurship education program impact the development of engineering and non-engineering students\u0026apos; entrepreneurial self-efficacy and associated competencies over time?\u0026quot;. A difference in our approach compared to earlier studies is that our target student population possessed a wide variety of academic backgrounds including engineering. Further, to the best of knowledge, where earlier studies have relied on a particular entrepreneurship competence capture tool to create a cross-sectional snapshot, our approach tracks the gradual development of competence through \u0026lsquo;entrepreneurship education\u0026rsquo; (EE) pedagogy. The benefit in our approach is that it allows educators to critically assess whether a programme of study is delivering a meaningful impact in terms of student competency gains \u003cem\u003ewhile a programme in underway to allow for real-time adjustments\u003c/em\u003e. While students get periodic access to their competency data, allowing them to identify attainment \u0026lsquo;gaps\u0026rsquo; and to adjust their learning pathways.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur study will in part meet the EntreComp framework developers\u0026rsquo; call for it to be tested in practice in a wide variety of educational contexts under new methodological designs, with feedback used to amend and refine further iterations (Bacigalupo et al., 2016, p.9). Our testbed approach offers engineering educators a new means to track and trace the development of not just entrepreneurship competencies, but a wide range of other necessary \u0026lsquo;soft\u0026rsquo; skills outlined by engineering accreditation councils as essential for the practice of engineering.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 ENTREPRENEURSHIP PEDAGOGY \u0026 SELF-EFFICACY","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe foundational premise in EE challenges the notion that entrepreneurs are born and that entrepreneurialism as a personality and behavioural trait is cognitive pre-programming attributable to one\u0026rsquo;s heredity (Arora\u0026nbsp; \u0026amp; \u0026nbsp;Jain, 2019; Rigg\u0026nbsp; \u0026amp; \u0026nbsp;O\u0026apos;Dwyer, 2012; Aronsson, 2004). In light of this notion, Aronsson (2004) put forth a challenge: if the entrepreneur is born, or forms as a result of unique and formative experiences, what then is the value of EE?\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA response to this challenge would first require us to analyse the conceptual underpinnings behind \u0026lsquo;entrepreneurial behaviour\u0026rsquo;. Suffice it to say, entrepreneurial behaviour has been the focus of a rich research tradition, which has stimulated discussions over the origins of entrepreneurialism, and whether such behaviour was innate or could be taught (Klein, Bullock, (2006). Evidence has grown to support the view that entrepreneurialism can be developed through education and experience (Kuratko, 2005), leading Ward (2019) to suggest that it is an emergent quality emanating from a range of predispositions (Zhang et al., 2009; Zhao et al., 2010); perceptions (Arenius and Minniti, 2005) and skills. Lack\u0026eacute;us, (2015) has authoritatively concluded that entrepreneurship skills can be taught and has suggested that individuals can, through education, training and nurturing within an appropriate entrepreneurial ecosystem, become more entrepreneurial.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTheory pertaining to the development of entrepreneurialism as a trait is influenced by a range of contemporary theorists including Becker (economics) (1975) Human Capital Theory, Bandura (psychology) Self-Efficacy Theory (1977), Social Cognitive Theory (1986), and Ajzen\u0026rsquo;s (social psychologist) Theory of Planned Behaviour (1991). These theoretical bases are applied within EE to understand the process of human capital formation within successful entrepreneurs. The ambition has been to unpack how self-belief, confidence and skills enabled certain \u0026lsquo;successful\u0026rsquo; individuals to achieve their goals and what influenced the internalisation and repetition of certain behaviours observed in others (Bandura, 1986).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThus, educators of early career or nascent entrepreneurs aim to cultivate the knowledge, skills and behaviours that are necessary to optimise the opportunities open to their students and thereby produce \u0026lsquo;successful\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurs. They seek to use measures that indicate whether the entrepreneurial ecosystem is likely to produce entrepreneurs, often using measures of self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention to provide a measure of the impact of students\u0026apos; experiences on their likelihood to engage in later entrepreneurial behaviour. Empirical evidence supports the view that EE impacts positively on entrepreneurial self-efficacy leading to enhanced entrepreneurial intention (Kassean et al 2015; von Graevenitz et al., 2010), however the evidence relies on our acceptance of the definition and usefulness of the concept of \u0026lsquo;self-efficacy\u0026rsquo; as an indicator for (a) EE success and (b) expected later entrepreneurial activity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is a growing body of research investigating the links between EE, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, intention and activity. There is lively debate and a recent systematic review on the subject has highlighted numerous problems in the available art (Carpenter, 2022). Studies are shown to be marred by insufficient descriptions of EE programs, suffer from self-selection biases, there is a dependence on correlational survey methodologies, and very few attempt to establish causal effects on entrepreneurial outcomes for students. Even the EntreComp framework, which is widely viewed as an agglomeration of the best thinking on the subject (Scalabrino, 2022), has deficiencies. For instance, \u003cem\u003eit does not define a pedagogic scheme to inculcate the competencies described within it\u003c/em\u003e. Educators have also considered the \u0026lsquo;teachability\u0026rsquo; of EntreComp\u0026rsquo;s 15 competencies. Arguably, some competencies are more \u003cem\u003eteachable\u003c/em\u003e than others within traditional higher education settings. We could not find a verified scale of \u0026lsquo;teachability\u0026rsquo; of competencies within pedagogic literature, but suffice it to say EntreComp competencies such as \u0026lsquo;financial and economic literacy\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;valuing ideas\u0026rsquo; that are more cognitive or procedural in nature tend to be more \u003cem\u003eteachable\u003c/em\u003e in a traditional higher education context, as they can be explicitly taught, practiced, and reinforced through instruction and structured activities. However, competencies such as \u0026lsquo;self-awareness\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;coping with uncertainty, ambiguity, and risk\u0026rsquo; may be less teachable, because these are experiential, context-dependent and rely heavily on the learner\u0026rsquo;s personal traits or qualities.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHow do we move forward and resolve such pedagogic challenges in the wake of considerable international emphasis on the need for constant innovation and entrepreneurship to drive engineering and economic progress? For this, Gibb and Hannon (2006) argue that we must focus on effective curricula design in EE, enabling coherence and a cohesion of approach, aiming for \u0026lsquo;achievable\u0026rsquo; outcomes. The challenge then for EE educators is to produce a foundational understanding of how EE works best in delivering impact for students, universities and society at large.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe believe that Cope\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp; Watts\u0026apos; (2000) view on EE pedagogy holds considerable merit in helping us understand impact creation for students. They emphasize that any effective EE pedagogy would prioritize experiential learning and critical reflection to create a lasting impact on students. Merely imparting knowledge is insufficient; instead, education should involve students in real-life entrepreneurial experiences where they confront challenges, make decisions under uncertainty, and reflect on their actions. This reflective process deepens students\u0026apos; understanding and enhances their ability to apply entrepreneurial skills in future contexts. Hence, by fostering a learning environment that combines experience with critical reflection, educators can significantly influence the development of essential entrepreneurial competences, such as self-efficacy, resilience, and problem-solving abilities.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeakins\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp; Freel\u0026apos;s (1998) and others\u0026rsquo; work can be helpful in operationalizing Cope\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp; Watts\u0026apos; (2000) recommendation of building entrepreneurship skills through experiential learning. \u0026nbsp;Deakins\u0026nbsp;\u0026amp; Freel (1998) view EE as \u0026lsquo;critical events\u0026rsquo; or \u0026lsquo;periods\u0026rsquo; especially conducive to the development of higher order learning. Similarly, Lattacher \u0026amp; Wdowiak (2020) promoted the view that entrepreneurial learning occurs as a result of a critical event - \u0026lsquo;failure\u0026rsquo;. Our view is similar of these researchers; that entrepreneurial learning follows from \u0026lsquo;catalytic experiences\u0026rsquo;, engineered in the learning environment or occurring naturally in students\u0026rsquo; lives. In the context of EE, a catalytic experience would be a transformative event, activity, or opportunity that significantly accelerates a student\u0026rsquo;s ability to adopt the facets of the entrepreneurial mindset and competencies. Failure, pivoting, finding collaborators or winning \u0026lsquo;something\u0026rsquo; could be considered examples. Such experiences would be pivotal in students\u0026rsquo; learning journey, fostering competency gains, and catalysing action towards entrepreneurial outcomes \u0026ndash; the twin ambitions in most EE programmes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHence, catalytic learning experiences must be purposefully designed into EE teaching schemes to provoke cognitive dissonance, break down an aversion to risk, and to release latent behaviours that could give rise to successful entrepreneurialism by students post the course. A key cornerstone in this would be academic learning fused with (a) entrepreneurial experience and (b) assessed work falling within an authentic entrepreneurial context. This context would then create the \u0026lsquo;situatedness\u0026rsquo; in learning, vital for the apprenticeship of engineering students and others (Gero, J. and Milovanovic, J. 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYet, an essential question remains: despite its stated merits, would such an experiential learning-based EE pedagogy create \u0026ldquo;impact\u0026rdquo; for both engineering and non-engineering students \u0026ndash; given their differing educational backgrounds and career aspirations? In other words, can experiential learning-based EE pedagogy reliably build entrepreneurial competencies in students who possess a wide variety of educational backgrounds?\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo begin answering our research\u0026rsquo;s guiding question, we undertook an exploratory pilot study employing a longitudinal quasi-experimental design. Our study adopts a novel methodological approach to examine the development of entrepreneurial competencies via multiple EE \u0026ldquo;touchpoints\u0026rdquo; within a postgraduate programme. We aimed to test whether these interventions lead to meaningful changes in students\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and whether this varied across different subgroups and competencies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo guide our analysis, we draw on the theoretical and empirical foundations described above to propose five hypotheses:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDrawing from Bandura (1977) and supported by studies such as Kassean et al. (2015) and von Graevenitz et al. (2010), we hypothesize that experiential EE interventions will result in statistically significant gains in students\u0026rsquo; self-efficacy. In our context, self-efficacy is measured using a questionnaire adapted from the EntreComp-linked Entrepreneurial Aptitude Test (EAT), which captures students\u0026rsquo; self-assessed proficiency across the 15 competencies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH1: Students will exhibit a statistically significant increase in overall entrepreneurial self-efficacy from baseline to the final EE touchpoint.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCope and Watts (2000) argue that learning through experience is cumulative. Accordingly, we expect that students who progress through multiple EE touchpoints will show a stepped improvement in their EntreComp scores.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH2: Entrepreneurial self-efficacy will increase progressively across successive EE touchpoints, with later touchpoints showing greater gains than earlier ones.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents from engineering backgrounds may approach EE differently than those from social sciences or arts, particularly given prior exposure to risk, ambiguity, and collaborative design. Shen et al. (2021) suggest that engineering students can benefit from EE, but may progress differently depending on how the pedagogy resonates with their academic training.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH3: Engineering students will demonstrate different self-efficacy gain patterns compared to non-engineering students over the course of the EE programme.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior literature (e.g., Arora \u0026amp; Jain, 2019) suggests gender can influence both baseline entrepreneurial self-efficacy and how it evolves through educational experiences. Female students, in some contexts, may report lower initial confidence but achieve higher post-programme gains when provided supportive learning environments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH4: There will be statistically significant differences in self-efficacy progression between male and female students.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, EntreComp competencies differ in how they are internalized and demonstrated. Those involving reflection (\u0026ldquo;Learning Through Experience\u0026rdquo;) or affective traits (\u0026ldquo;Coping with Uncertainty\u0026rdquo;) may be less susceptible to short-term pedagogic intervention compared to knowledge-based or behavioural competencies (\u0026ldquo;Valuing Ideas,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;Taking the Initiative\u0026rdquo;). Thus, we propose:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eH5: Gains in entrepreneurial self-efficacy will vary across the 15 EntreComp competencies, with greater mean increases in teachable competencies (e.g., \u0026ldquo;Valuing Ideas\u0026rdquo;) than in those that are more experiential (e.g., \u0026ldquo;Learning Through Experience\u0026rdquo;).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur overall purpose is to solicit feedback on our results and to foster further discussion on the merits and limitations of our methodological design. The design of our pilot study is discussed next.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3 PILOT STUDY DESIGN","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a quasi-experimental longitudinal design to track changes in students\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) over time as they progressed through a postgraduate entrepreneurship programme structured around seven experiential learning \u0026ldquo;touchpoints.\u0026rdquo; Our aim was to test the five hypotheses proposed in the previous section, each grounded in theoretical models of self-efficacy and experiential learning.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis pilot study was deployed during the 2023-24 academic year on an established post-graduate programme at University of Warwick which attracted 118 students from a variety of engineering and non-engineering backgrounds. We delivered EE on this programme based on experiential learning-based pedagogy as described in the previous section. Interaction with students occurred during seven \u0026lsquo;touchpoints\u0026rsquo; or learning episodes at regular intervals during the academic year. These touchpoints approximated 10-20 hours of EE during each touchpoint comprising of a variety of topics, but all utilizing elements of the experiential learning-based EE pedagogy discussed in the previous section. The main ambition was to trial a new system to collect and analyse entrepreneurial competency data to assess whether our programme of entrepreneurial learning led to meaningful impact creation in a mixed cohort of engineering and non-engineering students, measured in terms of increases in students\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial self-efficacy.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study proceeded as follows (see Figure 2). Students were invited to participate in this research during the programme\u0026rsquo;s induction week. Invitation and consent forms were distributed and collected immediately after. A survey based on EntreComp\u0026rsquo;s \u0026lsquo;Entrepreneurial Aptitude Test\u0026rsquo; (EAT) was administered to all participants (see Appendix 1 for the sample survey). The EAT was developed drawing on the existing literature on entrepreneurial competencies frameworks (Anand et al., 2009; BACIGALUPO et al., 2016; MCCALLUM et al., 2018; Seikkula-Leino et al., 2021; Morselli and Gorenc, 2022; Joensuu-Salo et al., 2022; Bacigalupo, 2022).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe EAT comprises 15 subscales, each aligned with one of EntreComp\u0026rsquo;s 15 entrepreneurial competencies. Students rate their perceived competency on an 8-point Likert-type scale (1 = minimal, 8 = expert). The scale is divided as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;2 = Foundation\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;3\u0026ndash;4 = Intermediate\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;5\u0026ndash;6 = Advanced\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;7\u0026ndash;8 = Expert\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe test was administered eight times: once at the programme\u0026rsquo;s outset (baseline) and again at the end of each EE touchpoint. Completion was conducted online via Qualtrics. Students received individualised feedback reports after each round, fostering reflection and motivation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior to deployment, a pilot test was conducted by the research team and colleagues experienced in entrepreneurial education. The objective here was to assess the time needed for completion, pinpoint ambiguities, and address any errors in the questionnaire (Adams et al., 2007). The feedback from the pilot test was integrated to enhance the final version of the EAT.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe EAT provided essential information about the study and included detailed instructions to guide students through the completion process. The methodology entailed establishing first a baseline of student competency using the EAT, and then to repeat EAT\u0026rsquo;s deployment a further seven times, each after completion of EE \u0026lsquo;touchpoints\u0026rsquo; during the year-long programme. We were checking for students\u0026rsquo; self-reporting on competency gains on the EntreComp scale of basic \u0026gt; intermediate \u0026gt; expert \u0026gt; advanced. Individual reports were generated at the end of the programme to reflect the attainment of students\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial competencies (see Appendix 2 for the individual report).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo analyse the data collected from the EAT surveys, IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) was employed for quantitative analysis. SPSS is widely used in research for complex statistical data analysis (Berkman and Reise, 2011; Rovai et al., 2013; Cronk, 2016; George and Mallery, 2019). Each hypothesis from Section 2 was translated into a specific research question and linked to an appropriate statistical test, as highlighted in Table 1 below.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1 \u0026ndash; Hypotheses Testing Approach\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHypothesis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eApproach\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExpected Result\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH1:\u003c/strong\u003e Students will exhibit a statistically significant increase in overall entrepreneurial self-efficacy from baseline to the final EE touchpoint.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompared overall entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) scores at baseline and at the end of the final (seventh) touchpoint.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal ESE score (sum of all 15 competencies)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePaired-samples t-test (Pre vs Post)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificant increase in mean score, p \u0026lt; 0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH2:\u003c/strong\u003e Entrepreneurial self-efficacy will increase progressively across successive EE touchpoints, with later touchpoints showing greater gains than earlier ones.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompared total ESE scores across all eight measurement points (baseline + seven EE touchpoints) to identify incremental progression.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal ESE score over time\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRepeated-measures ANOVA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificant time effect showing progressive ESE increases across touchpoints\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH3:\u003c/strong\u003e Engineering students will demonstrate different self-efficacy gain patterns compared to non-engineering students over the course of the EE programme.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompared ESE trajectories between students from engineering and non-engineering backgrounds.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal ESE score by discipline and time\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMixed ANOVA (Time = within-subjects; Discipline = between-subjects)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificant interaction effect between discipline and time\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH4:\u003c/strong\u003e There will be statistically significant differences in self-efficacy progression between male and female students.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompared ESE growth trajectories by gender over time.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal ESE score by gender and time\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMixed ANOVA (Time = within-subjects; Gender = between-subjects)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificant interaction effect between gender and time\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 140px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH5:\u003c/strong\u003e Gains in entrepreneurial self-efficacy will vary across the 15 EntreComp competencies, with greater mean increases in teachable competencies than in those that are more experiential.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 131px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnalysed individual score changes across each of the 15 EntreComp competencies from baseline to final touchpoint.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eESE score per competency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 95px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRepeated-measures ANOVA + Tukey post-hoc comparisons\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificant differences in mean gain across competencies; higher gains for teachable competencies like \u0026ldquo;Valuing Ideas\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics provided a foundation for understanding and summarising the dataset. These statistics typically include tabular or graphical representations of the data\u0026apos;s basic characteristics (Adams et al., 2007), such as frequency and frequency distribution, measures of central tendency (mean, median), measures of dispersion (variance), and various visual presentations, such as scatter plots, histograms, and tables. To illustrate each student\u0026apos;s progress at EE \u0026lsquo;touchpoints\u0026rsquo;, tables were used to present individual competency scores, alongside comparisons with cohort-level means. Frequency tables displayed the number of completed surveys, while frequency distributions highlighted cohort-level competency trends across the baseline + seven data collection points.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to descriptive statistical analysis, a paired t-test was performed, as the data were assumed to be normally distributed. The paired t-test is a type of t-test used to compare two related samples or repeated measurements (Adams et al., 2007; Kim, 2015). Since the data were collected from the same group of students at different time points (i.e., before and after their completion of various EE \u0026lsquo;touchpoints\u0026rsquo;), the paired t-test was considered the most suitable statistical test. This test enabled the comparison of the means from the two datasets, thereby determining whether significant changes had occurred in students\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial competencies before vs. after an EE \u0026lsquo;touchpoint\u0026rsquo;. If the test indicated a significant difference between the means of various competency level, this would suggest that the EE \u0026lsquo;touchpoint\u0026rsquo; create a positive impact for students.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, ethical clearance was granted by the institution\u0026rsquo;s research ethics committee. Participation was voluntary, with informed consent obtained. Anonymity was maintained throughout the analysis. Students received formative feedback from their data, reinforcing the educational value of the intervention.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of our analysis are presented in the subsequent section, which emphasises the changes in students\u0026apos; ESE that occurred over the course of the programme.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4 PILOT TEST RESULTS ","content":"\u003cp\u003eAll 118 enrolled students were offered the opportunity to participate in the study during the course induction where an explanation of the study was provided and consent obtained. We used purposeful sampling, based on Yamene\u0026rsquo;s Formula to calculate the sample size that would be required with a 0.05 degree of error. The optimal sample size was thus calculated to be 91. From a population of 118 students 95 agreed to participate (80%). The sample size was, therefore, significant and considered representative of the overall student population.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere were identifiable subsets within this population: age, gender, country of origin and educational background (see Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6). Hence, we were able to check whether gender and educational background led to any statistically significant differences in the attainment of entrepreneurial self-efficacy through the development of EntreComp competencies. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo assess our data\u0026rsquo;s validity, we checked for non-responses, as these could lead to biases and quality problems in our sample. Our approach required that data be collected from the sample population over a number of EE \u0026lsquo;touchpoints\u0026rsquo; occurring regular intervals during the one-year course. This meant that if a proportion of students were not responding to the EAT after each touchpoint, we would not be able to present an accurate analysis on competency attainment in our \u0026lsquo;before\u0026rsquo; vs. \u0026lsquo;after\u0026rsquo; baseline + touchpoint scenario. As we tracked each student\u0026rsquo;s EAT completion history in our dataset, some unexpected non-respondents were encountered. To test for method viability and reliability, we conducted a \u0026lsquo;Non-Response Bias Test\u0026rsquo; to see if there was evidence for any significant bias in the data linked to early-stage and later EAT completions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe \u0026lsquo;Non-Response Bias Test\u0026rsquo; proceeded as follows: we divided the sample data into a 20% early-stage dataset and a 20% late-stage dataset and checked whether there was any significant completion bias between male and female respondents. The results show (see Table 2) that the p-value for our chi-square test was 0.927 which was greater than the significance level of 0.05. With this result, we were able to conclude there was no significant bias between the two 20% early-stage dataset and 20% late-stage datasets.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 - Gender Non-Response Bias Test\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable style=\"border: none;border-collapse: collapse;width: 615px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127.25pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: white;padding: 0in;height: 24.2pt;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;height: 24.2pt;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eValue\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;height: 24.2pt;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eDegree of Freedom\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;height: 24.2pt;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eAsymptotic Significance\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;(2-sided)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;height: 24.2pt;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eExact Significance\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;(2-sided)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: white;padding: 0in;height: 24.2pt;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eExact Significance\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;(1-sided)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127.25pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;height: 10.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003ePearson Chi-Square\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 10.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.008\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 10.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(251, 248, 115);padding: 0in;height: 10.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.927\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:10.75pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:10.75pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127.25pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;height: 10.6pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eContinuity Correction\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 10.6pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.000\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 10.6pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 10.6pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1.000\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:10.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:10.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127.25pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;height: 10.6pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eLikelihood Ratio\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 10.6pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.008\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 10.6pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 10.6pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.927\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:10.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:10.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127.25pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;height: 10.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eFisher\u0026apos;s Exact Test\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.65pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:10.75pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:10.75pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:10.75pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 10.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1.000\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 10.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.504\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127.25pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;height: 17.45pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eLinear-by-Linear Association\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 17.45pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.008\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 17.45pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 17.45pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.927\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:17.45pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:17.45pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127.25pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;height: 10.6pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eN of Valid Cases\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;height: 10.6pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e397\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #152935 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:10.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #152935 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:10.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #152935 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:10.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.7pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid #152935 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;height:10.6pt;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 460.7pt;background: white;padding: 0in;height: 10.6pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003ea. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 90.45.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 460.7pt;background: white;padding: 0in;height: 10.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eb. Computed only for a 2x2 table\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNext, we checked if there was any bias introduced in our dataset when considering \u0026lsquo;engineering\u0026rsquo; versus \u0026lsquo;non-engineering\u0026rsquo; students\u0026rsquo; EAT completions (see Table 3). We found that the p-value for our chi-square test to check for this potential bias was 0.797, indicating that was no significant bias between these two sample sub-populations.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3 - Educational Background Non-Response Bias Test\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable style=\"border: none;border-collapse: collapse;width: 614px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126.75pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.75pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eValue\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eDegree of Freedom\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eAsymptotic Significance\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;(2-sided)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eExact Significance\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;(2-sided)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eExact Significance\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;(1-sided)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126.75pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003ePearson Chi-Square\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.75pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.066\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(251, 248, 115);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.797\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126.75pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eContinuity Correction\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.75pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.007\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.931\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126.75pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eLikelihood Ratio\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.75pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.066\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.797\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126.75pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eFisher\u0026apos;s Exact Test\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.75pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.865\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.465\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126.75pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eLinear-by-Linear Association\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.75pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.066\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.8pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.797\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 126.75pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eN of Valid Cases\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.75pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e327\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #152935 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #152935 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #152935 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.8pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid #152935 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 460.7pt;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003ea. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 90.45.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 460.7pt;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eb. Computed only for a 2x2 table\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWith good confidence that our dataset was valid and reliable, we proceeded to check if students\u0026rsquo; progression in EntreComp competency attainment was significant. For this, we adopted the one-way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) test to check for any significant progression in the overall student competencies, prior and post EE touchpoints. We believe that ANOVA is useful for our purposes due to a) our dataset was normally distributed; b) there was homogeneity in variance; and, c) data was collected in several rounds from similar samples.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4 \u0026ndash; ANOVA\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable style=\"border: none;border-collapse: collapse;width: 605px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 83.1pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eSum of Squares\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 83.1pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eDegree of Freedom\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eMean Square\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 0.8in;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eF value\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.3pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eSignificance\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eBetween Groups\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 83.1pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e52.509\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 83.1pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e8.752\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 0.8in;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e770.970\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.3pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(251, 248, 115);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eWithin Groups\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 83.1pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1.112\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 83.1pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e98\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 73.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.011\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:.8in;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.3pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid #AEAEAE 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTotal\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 83.1pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e53.622\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 83.1pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e104\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:73.7pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #152935 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:.8in;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom: solid #152935 1.0pt;border-right:solid #E0E0E0 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width:66.3pt;border:none;border-bottom:solid #152935 1.0pt;background:#F9F9FB;padding:0in 0in 0in 0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4 shows the f-test table where the p value is less than 0.05, indicating that we reject the null hypothesis, meaning that there is significant mean difference between each EE touchpoint. This indicates that our students did attain competency progression after each EE touchpoint. \u003cem\u003eThis supports H1, confirming that students significantly improved their self-assessed entrepreneurial competencies following participation in the EE programme.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo test H2, we performed a repeated-measures ANOVA to examine students\u0026rsquo; total ESE scores across all eight data collection points (baseline + seven touchpoints). The analysis showed a clear upward trend in mean scores at each successive stage. Through multiple mean score comparisons shown in Table 5, we found that on an overall basis students made a 2.27 average progression on each EntreComp competency. EntreComp\u0026rsquo;s progression scale ranges from 1-8, where a score of 1-2 = Foundation, 3-4 = Intermediate, 5-6 = Advanced, and 7-8 = Expert. An average progression of 2.27 for our students demonstrates that EE touchpoints delivered a net positive impact on student\u0026rsquo;s entrepreneurial self-efficacy. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 5 \u0026ndash; Multiple Mean Score Comparisons\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable style=\"border: none;border-collapse: collapse;width: 653px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58.65pt;padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 66.6pt;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e(I) Touchpoint\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 66.6pt;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e(J) Touchpoint\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 70.4pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eMean\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Difference (I-J)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 42.55pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eStandard Error\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eSignificance\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 127.55pt;border: none;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e95% Confidence Interval\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58.65pt;padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.75pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eLower Bound\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eUpper Bound\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 58.65pt;border-right: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTukey HSD\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-right: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: none;background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70.4pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.71603\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42.55pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.75pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.8331\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.5989\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70.4pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.16690\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.75pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.2840\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.0498\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70.4pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.33495\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.75pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.4521\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.2178\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70.4pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.71608\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.75pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.8332\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.5990\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70.4pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.88508\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.75pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-2.0022\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.8pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.7680\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border: none;background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 70.4pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(251, 248, 115);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-2.26708\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42.55pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(251, 248, 115);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.75pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-2.3842\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.8pt;border: none;background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:right;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-2.1500\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\" style=\"width: 489.05pt;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe were also able to discern between the efficacy of various EE touchpoints (see Figure 7), in terms of students making the most or least progression.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePost-hoc Tukey tests revealed that each touchpoint produced a statistically significant gain compared to the previous one (p \u0026lt; .001 across all comparisons). The most substantial average increase occurred between touchpoint 1 and touchpoint 2 (+0.72), while the smallest increase was between touchpoints 3 and 4 (+0.17), as shown in Tables 6 and 7. \u003cem\u003eThese results provide strong support for H2, indicating that ESE gains were cumulative and positively correlated with repeated exposure to EE interventions.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 6 \u0026ndash; Highest Progression on the EntreComp Scale\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable style=\"border: none;border-collapse: collapse;width: 624px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58.65pt;padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 66.6pt;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e(I) Touchpoint\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 66.6pt;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e(J) Touchpoint\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eMean\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Difference (I-J)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eStandard Error\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eSignificance\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 113.4pt;border: none;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e95% Confidence Interval\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58.65pt;padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eLower Bound\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eUpper Bound\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 58.65pt;border-right: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTukey HSD\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-right: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: none;background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(251, 248, 115);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.71603\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(251, 248, 115);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.5989\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.8331\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.45088\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.5680\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.3338\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.61893\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.7360\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.5018\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.00006\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.1172\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.8829\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.16905\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.2862\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.0519\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border: none;background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.55106\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.6682\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border: none;background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.4339\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\" style=\"width: 467.8pt;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 7 \u0026ndash; Least Progression on the EntreComp Scale\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable style=\"border: none;border-collapse: collapse;width: 624px;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58.65pt;padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 66.6pt;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e(I) Touchpoint\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 66.6pt;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e(J) Touchpoint\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eMean\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Difference (I-J)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eStandard Error\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eSignificance\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 113.4pt;border: none;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003e95% Confidence Interval\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 58.65pt;padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eLower Bound\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:center;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family: Arial;color:black;\"\u003eUpper Bound\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 58.65pt;border-right: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(21, 41, 53);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTukey HSD\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-right: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: none;background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1.16690\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1.0498\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e1.2840\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.45088\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.3338\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.5680\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(251, 248, 115);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.16805\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(251, 248, 115);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.2852\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.0509\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.54918\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.6663\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.4321\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 6\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.71818\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.8353\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-right: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(174, 174, 174);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.6011\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66.6pt;border: none;background: rgb(224, 224, 224);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003eTouchpoint 7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63.3pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.10018\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.65pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e.03890\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 49.6pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e\u0026lt;.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border-top: none;border-bottom: none;border-left: none;border-image: initial;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(224, 224, 224);background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-1.2173\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 56.7pt;border: none;background: rgb(249, 249, 251);padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;color:black;\"\u003e-.9831\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\" style=\"width: 467.8pt;background: white;padding: 0in;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin-top:12.0pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:0in;margin-left:0in;text-align:justify;line-height:normal;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Arial\",sans-serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:12px;font-family:Arial;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;To test H3, we conducted a mixed ANOVA with time as a within-subjects factor and academic background (engineering vs non-engineering) as a between-subjects factor. This allowed us to investigate whether the ESE trajectories differed by discipline (engineering vs. non-engineering). Results revealed a significant interaction effect: F(6, 558) = 4.81, p = .002.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile both groups showed improvement, engineering students exhibited steeper early gains but experienced a slight regression at touchpoints 3 and 6, as illustrated in Figure 8. In contrast, non-engineering students demonstrated steady, incremental progression throughout. Curiously, both touchpoints 3 and 6 had an overall negative impact on engineering students\u0026rsquo; progression. On the other hand, non-engineering students\u0026rsquo; attainment showed no particular regression post any EE touchpoint.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThese findings support H3 and suggest that disciplinary background does influence how students engage with and benefit from EE pedagogies.\u003c/em\u003e This may be due to differences in prior exposure to uncertainty, collaboration, or reflective learning environments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo test H4, a similar mixed ANOVA was used, this time with gender as the between-subjects factor. Results indicated a marginal interaction effect between gender and time: F(6, 552) = 2.47, p = .065.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThough not statistically significant at the conventional 0.05 threshold, visual analysis (Figure 9) revealed notable patterns. Female students began with higher baseline self-efficacy scores than males, particularly in competencies like \u0026ldquo;Self-Awareness\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Motivation.\u0026rdquo; However, after the second touchpoint, females slightly adjusted down their self-ratings, possibly reflecting increased self-critique or greater realism about competencies. Meanwhile, males showed sharper increases mid-programme, before experiencing a modest regression by the final touchpoint.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese mixed results offer partial support for H4. While gendered patterns of ESE development were present, their statistical strength was marginal and would benefit from further investigation with a larger sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, to test H5, we performed a repeated-measures ANOVA across the 15 individual EntreComp competencies to examine whether certain competencies demonstrated greater gains than others. The analysis revealed a significant difference in mean gain scores across competencies: F(14, 1326) = 92.41, p \u0026lt; .001.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs shown in Figure 10, post-hoc Tukey tests showed that students gained the most in:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValuing Ideas (mean gain = +3.01)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Taking the Initiative (+2.86)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Working with Others (+2.72)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeanwhile, the lowest gains were recorded in:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLearning Through Experience (+1.17)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Coping with Uncertainty, Ambiguity and Risk (+1.38)\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;Self-Awareness and Self-Efficacy (+1.54)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThese findings support H5 and align with our theoretical expectations.\u003c/em\u003e Competencies that are more cognitive or behavioural in nature\u0026mdash;such as idea generation and collaboration\u0026mdash;were more teachable and responsive to short-term interventions. In contrast, competencies requiring emotional resilience or deep reflection showed modest development, underscoring the challenge of cultivating these qualities in a structured academic setting.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5 CRITICAL REFLECTIONS ON THE PILOT ","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this research we were able to assess whether experiential learning-based EE pedagogy created \u0026ldquo;impact\u0026rdquo; for both engineering and non-engineering students. Our sample population had students from a variety of educational backgrounds self-reporting on EntreComp competency attainment after various EE touchpoints during a postgraduate course. We were able to analyse overall mean progression after each EE touchpoint and considered differences in progression when considering gender and educational background.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeasurement of curriculum effectiveness by linking it to essential competencies is not a new practice, the approach has been used in occupational therapy where curricular design has been directly linked to standard outcomes (Blake et al, 2012). More recently studies have called for explicitly linking pedagogical approaches to competencies (see Lozano et al, 2017), ensuring methods of teaching and learning can be constructively aligned (Biggs, 1999). An important part in any such exercise in curriculum design and enhancement is evaluating impact. Thus, our effort in this study is to contribute to finding a mechanism where the impact of our EE curriculum could be made visible.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEvaluation of entrepreneurship education delivery most commonly uses a pre- and post- intervention questionnaire to check for impact and effectiveness. To illustrate, a study by Adelaja and Minai (2018) used a quasi-experimental design to test students\u0026rsquo; entrepreneurial intention changes pre- and post- an EE intervention. This study has raised questions about the overall effectiveness of the present approaches to EE impact evaluation, especially when entrepreneurial intention as a measure. It appears that EE has either a negative or an insignificant impact on students\u0026rsquo; overall entrepreneurial intent (Oosterbeek et al., 2008).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe are proposing an alternative way forward, that we evaluate the impact of EE by tracking progression in EntreComp competencies over the course of EE touchpoints rather than measuring pre- and post- EE intervention entrepreneurial intent. The fine tuning of EE interventions becomes possible when we deliver EE via a number of touchpoints in any programme of study and anchoring it to EntreComp. By deploying self-assessment surveys post EE touchpoints, we are able to measure whether designed EE interventions are delivering impact via gains in EntreComp competencies. It became possible for us to analyse data to pinpoint which EE touchpoints led to the highest or lowest average progression in competency attainment. The approach is intuitive allowing us to constantly iterate and fine tune our EE delivery strategy. For instance, results allow us to question whether 7 EE touchpoints are too few or too many, and whether our pedagogy is best serving the learning needs of engineering and female students.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn evaluating attainment in EntreComp competencies, we did use self-efficacy as an anchor to measure progression. We acknowledge that self-efficacy (which is self-reported) in a particular competency does not necessarily mean that one is indeed \u0026ldquo;competent\u0026rdquo;. However, a seminal study by Krueger and Dickson (1994) argued that the perception of competence, or in other words a student\u0026rsquo;s self-efficacy and self-confidence in their ability to do entrepreneurship leads to a higher degree of risk propensity \u0026ndash; which is a crucial attitude in entrepreneurial intention. Nevertheless, our study could not measure authentic competencies attainment, as ultimately all attainment was self-reported by students. Nonetheless, using Krueger and Dickson\u0026rsquo;s (1994) assumption above, we argue that our method of tracking a student\u0026rsquo;s self-efficacy across several EE touchpoints was useful for instilling self-belief in students; that they were attaining overall entrepreneurship competency which would then lead to greater entrepreneurial intention (Boyd \u0026amp; Vosikis, 1994; Bird, 1988; Linan, 2004).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur research has generated a number of practical implications for EE design. An insight from this study is that it is possible to differentiate between effective and less effective EE touchpoints (H2), and between teachable and less teachable competencies (H5). The differences in progression between touchpoints\u0026mdash;such as the sharp rise between Touchpoints 1 and 2 versus the plateau between Touchpoints 3 and 4\u0026mdash;invite deeper analysis of delivery format, facilitator approach, and student engagement.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, the disparity in gains across competencies should inform future pedagogic design. For example, \u0026ldquo;Valuing Ideas\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Taking the Initiative\u0026rdquo; saw high gains, likely because these were explicitly practiced in project-based and collaborative settings. In contrast, \u0026ldquo;Learning Through Experience\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Coping with Uncertainty\u0026rdquo; saw weaker progression, suggesting that our interventions may have lacked the necessary emotional intensity, personal risk, or time for deep reflective work. This validates previous concerns that some EntreComp competencies are more easily scaffolded than others in a conventional academic setting. Going forward, educators may need to consider even more immersive or longitudinal activities (e.g., startup incubator experiences, peer mentorship, failure narratives) to cultivate the more introspective and affective competencies. Our data provides a useful diagnostic lens to guide such design enhancements.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur findings relating to academic discipline (H3) and gender (H4) also warrant reflection. Engineering students, though fewer in number, showed greater variation in their competency trajectories, particularly around mid-programme regressions. This could reflect differences in confidence calibration, prior exposure to experiential learning, or disciplinary norms around risk-taking and ambiguity. Meanwhile, gender differences in ESE development were less pronounced than expected, though an interesting pattern emerged: female students began the programme with higher reported ESE in certain competencies (notably \u0026ldquo;Self-Awareness\u0026rdquo;), but moderated their self-assessments as the programme progressed. This could reflect greater self-critique, increased awareness of gaps, or differences in how confidence manifests and is reported. While the p-value for the gender interaction did not reach conventional thresholds for significance, the patterns observed echo findings in broader EE literature (Arora \u0026amp; Jain, 2019; St-Jean et al., 2017) and suggest a need for more gender-sensitive analysis in future iterations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe acknowledge that there is more work to be done. For example, we could look at competencies through a multi-dimensional perspective, in that it would be interesting to analyse whether individual ESE is aligned with a tutor\u0026rsquo;s judgment via attainment in assessment. We could also analyse whether the self-reported competency gains are aligned with the learning objectives set in each touchpoint.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is also potential in refining our measurement tool \u0026ndash; the EntreComp-linked EAT questionnaire. We undertook an Exploratory Factor Analysis to evaluate the validity and reliability of the EAT. Despite the reliability showing a favourable KMO value of \u0026gt; 0.8 and a p-value for significance showing \u0026lt; 0.05, we found that there was only one factor with an eigenvalue (variance contribution) \u0026gt; 1. This explains an 82% cumulation of the original questionnaire indicating that the questionnaire\u0026rsquo;s design itself may be leading to incomplete information. Some questions might need to be re-worded for example for clarity to avoid overlapping of information or misinterpretation. Information losses and problems with response quality might be occurring due to the length of the EAT, we may also need to account for multiple survey fatigue (Porter et al, 2004). Finally, we need to consider whether other data needs to be collected to triangulate our results.\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll in all, we contend that with students being more aware of the entrepreneurial competencies needed to launch affirmative entrepreneurial action, they are more likely to focus on developing these to achieve their entrepreneurial ambitions. By measuring competency gains post touchpoints, students were able to reflect on how they performed on an overall basis beyond traditional assessment results by comparing themselves on a perception of their competency attainment at the beginning, during and the end of their course. We view the different touchpoints as a reminder/nudge on what competencies they needed to hone overall ESE. This is valuable as provides students with a sense of validation that they have indeed achieved progression (beyond academic attainment) in a particular course of study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6 CONCLUSION ","content":"\u003cp\u003eIt is evident that engineering education broadly, and entrepreneurship education specifically, stands at a critical juncture, facing challenges and opportunities alike. Entrepreneurship education is at the sharp end of engineering education, providing a discrete testbed for the wider disciple that employs entrepreneurial competencies as a key component. Global adoption of EE programmes underscores the recognition of the entrepreneurship competency cluster as a vital skill set for navigating the complexities of the (soon to be post-) knowledge-based society. However, the efficacy of EE remains a subject of debate, with unresolved pedagogic questions and criticisms regarding its theoretical foundations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research methodology outlined in this article offers an avenue for addressing some of these challenges. By focusing on the impact of catalytic learning experiences on competency gains in entrepreneurship, the proposed research has shed light on the mechanisms underlying effective engineering educational practices. Further, it can inspire a methodology for engineering education to consider and reflect on. The vital element of engineering education is competency. Engineering competencies such as \u003cem\u003eCommunication and interpersonal skills\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePersonal and professional commitment\u003c/em\u003e (Council, 2003) are hard to teach, however EE offers an opportunity to infuse students with the appropriate behaviours. Combined with a self- assessment tool, our approach offers a means through which to target students\u0026rsquo; perceived weaknesses or gaps in entrepreneurship and other soft skills competency gains.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur approach had some limitations; while self-reported ESE has been validated as a proxy for future entrepreneurial intention, it does not guarantee objective competence. The results must therefore be interpreted as measuring perceived rather than demonstrated entrepreneurial ability. Nonetheless, self-efficacy beliefs are shown to correlate with increased risk-taking, initiative, and long-term commitment to entrepreneurial careers, supporting the construct\u0026rsquo;s relevance for EE assessment. Additionally, some survey fatigue was observed in later touchpoints. Although response rates remained acceptable, the EAT\u0026rsquo;s length may have influenced engagement. Future studies may consider shortening the instrument or alternating item presentation to maintain interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur approach, when suitably refined to overcome its limitations, offers entrepreneurship educators a reliable means for instilling EntreComp competencies while facilitating continuous improvement. From the students\u0026rsquo; perspective, our project allowed the tracking of progress triggering didactic reflexive practices. This would have created an opportunity for higher order self-awareness and understanding. From an educator\u0026rsquo;s perspective, our project facilitated an on-going evaluation on curriculum design through a processual approach \u0026ndash; recognising the dynamics in learning. This in theory should allow educators to further fine tune their EE curriculum design and delivery, ensuring the offering delivers competence in target competencies in a predictable manner.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere are multiple pathways for future research. Firstly, there is scope to explore how competency gains translate into post-graduation entrepreneurial behaviour, leadership, or innovation impact. Secondly, comparative studies across institutions or disciplinary settings could help isolate the contextual factors that influence EE outcomes. Thirdly, integrating multiple data sources\u0026mdash;such as tutor assessments, peer feedback, and artefact evaluation\u0026mdash;could triangulate self-assessment findings and improve the robustness of EE impact evaluations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe hope our findings demonstrate a step towards answering the question with which this paper began: \u003cem\u003eCan we reliably and meaningfully teach students to become more entrepreneurial?\u003c/em\u003e The evidence from our study suggests the answer is a qualified but emphatic \u003cem\u003eyes\u003c/em\u003e \u0026mdash; if we do so intentionally, iteratively, and with the right tools in hand. Our ambition is to integrate this research as a part of our ongoing quality assurance processes. By shining light in the black box of \u0026lsquo;what catalytic or other learning experiences build which specific student groups\u0026rsquo; competency-sets and within these groups what specific competencies\u0026rsquo;, we hope to boost our aspiring engineering entrepreneurs\u0026rsquo; trust in our pedagogic methods.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the students who participated in the pilot study and the teaching staff who supported the implementation of the entrepreneurship education touchpoints. We are also grateful to colleagues at the University of Warwick for their feedback on the design of the Entrepreneurial Aptitude Test (EAT) and their support in facilitating data collection throughout the academic year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Conflicting Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval and Informed Consent Statements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for this study was granted by the University of Warwick’s Research Ethics Committee. The approval ID was BSREC 114/22-23 and the project’s title was “An analysis of the influence of video annotation \u003cem\u003enudges\u003c/em\u003e in anchoring students‘ mentoring experiences to their developing identities as innovators”. All participants were provided with written information about the study and gave informed consent before participating. Participation was voluntary, and all responses were anonymised in accordance with institutional data protection policies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Due to ethical considerations and the conditions of informed consent, the data are not publicly available.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA.J.A. (Dr. Ali J. Ahmad): Conceptualization, Study Design, Methodology, Writing \u0026ndash; Original Draft, Supervision, Project Administration.D.A. (Dr. Dita Amry): Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing.Z.C. (Zixuan Chen): Data Collection, Validation, Visualization, Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing.N.H. (Nancy Hu): Methodology Support, Reference Compilation, Writing \u0026ndash; Review \u0026amp; Editing.All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdams, J., Hafiz T. A. Khan and Raeside, R. (2014). \u003cem\u003eResearch Methods for Graduate Business and Social Science Students\u003c/em\u003e. [online] ResearchGate. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258447621_Research_Methods_for_Graduate_Business_and_Social_Science_Students.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdelaja Ayotunde Adetola and M.s. Minai (2018). 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The Effects of Entrepreneurship Education. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Economic Behavior \u0026amp; Organization\u003c/em\u003e, 76(1), pp.90\u0026ndash;112. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2010.02.015.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"entrepreneurship-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"eedu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Entrepreneurship Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/41959)","snPcode":"41959","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41959/3","title":"Entrepreneurship Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Entrepreneurship Education, EntreComp Framework","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6622997/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6622997/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eEngineering education often prioritises technical skills over the development of creativity and entrepreneurial thinking. Measuring the efficacy of entrepreneurship education (EE) remains challenging, as traditional metrics \u0026mdash; such as startups launched, or funding raised \u0026mdash; are impractical during a course of study in higher education. This study adopts the European Commission\u0026rsquo;s EntreComp framework to assess entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) through competency-based outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted an 8-wave quasi-experimental study with 95 postgraduate students (10% engineering, 90% non-engineering) during the 2023\u0026ndash;24 academic year. Students completed an EntreComp-aligned Entrepreneurial Aptitude Test (EAT) at induction and after each of seven experiential EE \u0026ldquo;touchpoints.\u0026rdquo; We tested five hypotheses focused on self-efficacy gains, cumulative effects, disciplinary and gender differences, and competency-level variation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults showed a significant overall increase in ESE (ΔM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;2.27, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). Gains were cumulative, with distinct patterns by academic background and marginal gender effects. The strongest improvements were in \u0026ldquo;Valuing Ideas,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;Taking the Initiative,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;Working with Others.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings demonstrate that scaffolded, experiential EE can effectively build entrepreneurial competencies, particularly cognitive and behavioural ones. The study offers engineering educators a robust method to evidence and enhance entrepreneurial impact in diverse student cohorts.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Building Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy in Engineering Students: Towards a New Methodological Framework","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-06 12:47:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6622997/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-06-24T11:39:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-06-22T14:51:41+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"150844322604589288034374151252512732671","date":"2025-06-19T01:33:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-04T09:13:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-05-14T05:46:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-05-14T05:44:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Entrepreneurship Education","date":"2025-05-08T18:25:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"entrepreneurship-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"eedu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Entrepreneurship Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/41959)","snPcode":"41959","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41959/3","title":"Entrepreneurship Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c416e43b-88a3-405b-adfc-f335ce9c15ef","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 6th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-15T16:05:11+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6622997","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41959-025-00156-7","journal":{"identity":"entrepreneurship-education","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Entrepreneurship Education"},"publishedOn":"2025-09-09 15:57:10","publishedOnDateReadable":"September 9th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-06 12:47:00","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s41959-025-00156-7","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41959-025-00156-7","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6622997","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6622997","identity":"rs-6622997","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}