Qualitative and quantitative analysis of agro-industrial based waste incorporated ternary alkali-activated concrete

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of agro-industrial based waste incorporated ternary alkali-activated concrete | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Qualitative and quantitative analysis of agro-industrial based waste incorporated ternary alkali-activated concrete Blesson S, Siddharth Kadamba, A U Rao This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8210574/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract An innovative research project on utilization of agro-industrial based wastes, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), coffee husk ash (CHA), and rice husk ash (RHA) as binder materials in alkali-activated ternary concrete is assessed for its performance in this paper. Sophisticated microstructural investigation methods were employed to characterize the components used in the binder. Based on the studies conducted using agro-industrial based wastes, an optimum mix of 30% CHA, 60% GGBS, and 10% RHA with 8M NaOH was considered for preparation of alkali-activated concrete. The performance of ideal alkali-activated concrete (IAAC) was compared with conventional M30 grade OPC concrete mix. The compressive strength of IAAC mix under ambient curing conditions was found to be 37.8 MPa and 38.4 MPa after 14 and 28 days respectively. Flexure and split tensile strength of IAAC mix after 28 days of ambient curing was found to be 5.4 MPa and 3.11 MPa respectively. The ultrasonic pulse velocity, and water absorption tests conducted on the alkali activated concrete specimen provided a direct relation to the mechanical property, indicting it to be a stable mix. Overall, the assessment concludes that the developed zero-cement alkali activated concrete is suitable for application in sustainable infrastructure development. GGBS Alkali-activated concrete coffee husk ash material characterization rice husk ash performance Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Introduction Portland cement has been widely used in various construction projects and as an essential binder in the manufacturing of concrete for almost two centuries. In the long run, its production and demand have been greatly influenced by its broad appeal and usefulness in building ( 1 – 3 ). Significant environmental issues have been raised, due to the widespread usage and production of Portland cement. Carbon dioxide emissions from the production process are significant and contribute to climate change and global warming. The process of cement production is quite complex, energy-intensive, leading to habitat destruction and other ecological disruptions, resulting from the mining of raw materials ( 4 , 5 ). The demand on the building sector to discover more environmentally friendly substitutes and methods to lessen Portland cement's negative effects is therefore increasing. Portland cement's main ingredients include clinker, gypsum, and other minerals; however, producing it has negative environmental effects, especially when clinker is involved ( 6 ). Cement production alone accounts for up to 10% of global carbon dioxide emissions, and this percentage is expected to rise in the future with negative environmental effects ( 7 , 8 ). Extensive construction activities are the driving force behind the global need for sustainable concrete ( 9 – 11 ). Over the next few years, the number of wastes produced and cement produced worldwide is expected to continue rising, reaching 2.01 billion tons and 4.1 billion tons, respectively ( 12 – 14 ). Food and agricultural wastes account for 44% of the waste material, with industrial wastes accounting for the remaining 56% ( 12 , 14 ). By using these byproducts, less agricultural and industrial waste will be thrown as landfill, and more environmentally friendly materials with better mechanical performance will be produced for the global market ( 15 – 18 ). To gain a clearer understanding of the properties of binders produced from various industrial and agricultural waste materials, research is being done on a large scale. Alkali-activated concrete (AAC) is one such novel material that shares traits with conventional cement concrete. These AACs can be applied to construction projects in a manner like that of traditional cement concrete. The ability of AAC to reduce the negative environmental impact of traditional concrete production is one of its main benefits. This change fosters a more ecologically suitable approach to construction by encouraging the effective use of agricultural and industrial by-products and assisting in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions ( 9 , 19 , 20 ). Through a two-part activation process, the AAC reacts in an alkaline environment created by the alkali-activators (AA) to create cementitious binders that emit less carbon dioxide. Many sources of alumina and silica have been discovered by researchers in a variety of agro-industrial wastes, and activating alkaline solutions are widely accessible ( 21 , 22 ). Sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate, potassium hydroxide and other AA are most frequently utilized to prepare AAC. The process of making AA involves two key challenges: managing a high concentration of an alkaline liquid that is both viscous and caustic, and the requirement for heat curing in order to enhance polymerization and activation. As part of heat treatment, AACs are often exposed to higher temperature for multiple hours ( 23 ). For these materials to become generally accepted and used as building materials, these limitations must be suitably addressed. The preparation of alkali activated mortar using GGBS, CHA and RHA along with sodium hydroxide solution was studied, based on which an optimum mix of 60% GGBS, 30% CHA and 10% RHA with 8M NaOH was considered for preparation of alkali-activated concrete ( 6 ). This work offers a novel approach to creating ternary IAAC mix that cure at room temperature by employing CHA, GGBS, and RHA as precursors and activating them just with NaOH solution. The present study compares the physical properties and chemical properties of GGBS, CHA, and RHA with 43 grade Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) using a series of tests designed to understand their binder qualities. Later the IAAC mix was prepared and compared with the conventional mix for its qualitative and quantitative assessment. The graphical abstract depicting the current research work which addresses Sustainable Development Goals 9, 12 and 13 is depicted in Fig. 1 . Related works There are many studies focusing on the utilization of agricultural and industrial based wastes in alkali-activated binder system. In a study conducted by Athira et al., 2021, the mechanical and durability characteristics of the AAB system made using ashes from agricultural waste products, such as bagasse ash, sugarcane-straw ash, RHA, corncob ash, and palm oil fuel ash, were thoroughly reviewed. Except for RHA, which has a significantly greater SiO 2 content, it was evident from the review that the other waste ashes typically exhibit SiO 2 contents comparable to Fly ash. The addition of these ashes to Fly ash-based binders was found to increase their resistance to acid attack in comparison to GGBS-based binders. The authors found that an AAB system employing bagasse ash is beneficial in ambient curing because it contains a substantial amount of calcium compared to the other agricultural waste products discussed. Additionally, water absorption was higher in these AAB systems owing to porosity of waste ashes' resulting in a cellular structure. It was discovered that RHA-based binders were remarkably stable at elevated temperatures (21). GGBS, palm oil fuel ash, metakaolin, silica fumes, fly ash, RHA, and other pozzolanic byproducts used to make AAB were examined for their physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties as part of a review of the materials composition and new features of AAB. Sodium (Na) and potassium (K)-based alkaline activator solutions were also highlighted. Previous studies have synthesized the impacts of AAB features on temperature, reaction kinetics, setting time, and workability (slump, flow, and consistency). According to the study's mix design and procuring conditions, AAB's novel properties can be modified for a range of applications (24). The impact of different biomass ash on the mechanical and durability characteristics of hardened concrete has been clarified by a thorough analysis of ashes from biomass made from agricultural byproducts used to partially replace the cement in the creation of geopolymer concrete. Biomass ashes, including Napier grass ash, palm ash, wheat straw ash, sugarcane waste ash, plantain peel ash, olive waste ash, bamboo-leaf ash, and rice straw ash, can be used to partially replace Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and reduce CO 2 emissions. It has also been established that biomass ashes can be used as a pozzolanic material or as a substitute source of activator when making geopolymer concrete (22). The coffee husk ash (CHA) displayed best properties of an alkaline activator with lesser organic matter and higher alkali content, when calcined at multiple temperatures (600°C to 800ºC) for varying lengths of time (1–10 h) in a study on the creation of new alkali activators made from CHA. It was discovered that 700ºC for six hours was the ideal calcination temperature and duration. The resulting CHA contained a significant percentage of potassium oxide (K 2 O) in the form of potassium carbonate (K 2 CO 3 ). The compressive strength of mortar was 16.4 MPa after a day at 60°C, and microstructural tests of one-part AAB combinations of CHA and blast furnace slag (BFS) showed hydrated products ((K, C) ASH) in pastes (25). An investigation was conducted using CHA as an alkali-activator to activate GGBS in a one-part AAB system. To get the best alkaline activator properties, CHA was made in a laboratory. The ash was analyzed physiochemically, and microstructural analysis of pastes and the physical and mechanical characteristics of mortars were utilized to evaluate the impact of CHA in a one-part AAB system. 15% CHA and 15% commercial K 2 CO 3 were prepared as activators in a mortar mix of GGBS. According to the results of the material properties test, mortar consistency decreased as CHA increased. In terms of mechanical properties, the mortar made with CHA 15% had a compressive strength of 40.9 MPa after 28 days of curing at a relative humidity of above 95%, while the mortar made with commercial K 2 CO 3 15% had a compressive strength of 47.0 MPa. Consequently, the mechanical properties of mortar made using CHA are comparable to those of mortar made with commercial K 2 CO 3 (20). Earlier research by authors Blesson & Rao (2024), focused on characterizing the binder ingredients, ascertaining the effectiveness of alkali-activated ternary binder paste and mortar made of GGBS, RHA, and CHA. Detailed study on microstructural, fresh properties, hardened properties, and durability of mortar made with nine different binder pastes with GGBS (70–50%), CHA (20–40%), and RHA (10%) using solutions of 4 M, 6 M, and 8 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH). At 90 days, the hardened alkali-activated ternary mortar mix had a compressive strength ranging from 31.2 to 52.2 MPa. Exposure to acid and seawater attack was used to test the mortar mixes' durability performance, while carbon dioxide emissions and material production costs were used to assess the materials' sustainability. The cost-benefit ratio of AAB mix to OPC was in the range of 23.24% to 34%. In terms of strength, durability, and sustainability, the M6 AAB mix consisting of 60% GGBS, 30% CHA, and 10% RHA with 8 M NaOH was found to be optimum. As such, it can be used in construction as an alternative to OPC mix (6). In the present study, the optimum M6 AAB mix shall be used to evaluate its performance in concrete. Material and its properties The components utilized in this investigation are 43grade OPC, GGBS, CHA, RHA, and NaOH. Astrra Chemicals Ltd. in Tamil Nadu, India, provided the RHA and GGBS, Sri Durga Laboratory Equipment Supplies in Karnataka, India, provided the NaOH, local Karnataka vendors provided the 43-grade OPC, and The CHA, which was calcined in smokehouses at 800ºC, came from coffee plantations in Sakaleshpura, Karnataka India. To satisfy the necessary OPC requirement in accordance with IS 4031-01(26), all of the ashes were then run through a 75 µm filter. The materials procured were the same utilized for the mortar study by authors Blesson and Rao (2024), and hence the properties are same as presented in the earlier study which is given below in Table 1(6). A homogeneous mixture with improved soundness and less water absorption can be achieved since the variation in specific gravity of the three binder ingredients' is negligible. Table 1. Chemical and physical properties of materials (6) Materials CHA RHA GGBS OPC Chemical Properties (% mass) CaO 21.79 3.20 51.71 61.80 SiO 2 0.55 80.03 29.59 21.92 Al 2 O 3 1.68 2.84 5.82 5.31 Fe 2 O 3 2.35 3.79 1.24 4.14 K 2 O 66.71 1.62 0.36 0.53 Na 2 O 1.86 0.03 0.17 0.26 MgO 3.87 0.81 6.96 1.75 SO 3 0.66 0.26 0.07 2.36 MnO 2 0.25 3.45 3.49 0.04 TiO 2 0.22 0.38 0.59 0.20 Physical Properties Loss on Ignition 12.10 3.27 0.26 1.90 Specific gravity 2.44 2.30 2.80 3.14 Specific surface area/ fineness (m 2 /g) 1.76 96.7 0.39 0.37 The pozzolanic standards of ASTM 618–19 (27), is met by RHA since its content of alumina, silica, and iron oxide exceeds 70%, with 0.26% sulfur trioxide. The reactive silica in RHA helps create alumino-silicate gel when exposed to alkali solution in conjunction with calcium-rich precursors, despite the fact that it satisfies the pozzolanic requirement, which does not aid in alkali-activation. In contrast, CHA has a high concentration of calcium oxide and potassium oxide, and a low concentration of alumina, silica, and iron oxide. It may exhibit a minor latent hydraulic character, but more research is necessary (28). Similar to this, GGBS that has a greater CaO and SiO 2 content is classified as a latent hydraulic material (29) as shown in Figure 2, meeting the requirements of ASTM 989–05 (30). In particular, the particle size distribution (PSD) has a considerable impact on the binder properties (31). The particle size distribution for OPC, CHA, GGBS, and RHA is completed and displayed in Figure 3 using the Malvern Mastersizer 3000 instrument. CHA, RHA, GGBS, and OPC had mean particle sizes (d50) of 16.44µm, 26.87µm, 13.19µm, and 18.70µm, respectively. These values demonstrate the quality of the materials, which would enhance the binder mix homogeneity. Figure 4 shows the results of the X-ray diffraction (XRD) of CHA, RHA, GGBS, and OPC, which were obtained using the Rigaku Miniflex 600 (5th gen). The Ni filter was employed, and the XRD angle parameter was adjusted to 10 º to 90 º with a wavelength of 1.54Å, a Cu k alpha target, and a scan rate of 2 º/min. According to International Crystal Structure Database standards, the XRD of CHA revealed the presence of potassium carbonate (K 2 CO 3 ) in large quantities (ICSD code: 662); the XRD analysis of RHA showed the presence of cristobalite (ICSD codes: 77459, 77458, 77460), while GGBS exhibited an amorphous phase essential for high reactivity. When water is applied, the alite (ICSD codes: 162744, 4331), belite (ICSD code: 182052), and portlandite (ICSD codes: 248618, 84867) in OPC contribute to hydration. The reaction degree method evaluates the reactivity of binders in both hydrated and anhydrous forms using selective dissolution (6). Results (Table 2) show CHA, GGBS, and OPC have higher reactivity than RHA. Since there's no standard method to determine binder packing density, the Puntke test was used (6). Table 2 indicates CHA, GGBS, and OPC have greater packing density than RHA. Overall, CHA demonstrated high reactivity and packing density, suggesting its potential as an effective binder in alkali-activated systems. Table 2. Reaction degree and packing density of CHA, RHA, GGBS, and OPC Sample Reaction degree (%) Packing density (arb. Unit) GGBS 90.5 0.56 CHA 95.7 0.53 RHA 75 0.24 OPC 80.6 0.50 In this study, manufactured sand (M-sand) was used as the fine aggregate, conforming to Zone II as specified by IS 383:2016 (32). The particle size distribution of the M-sand indicated that the majority of particles ranged from 2.36 mm to 1.16 mm, with a specific gravity of 2.62 and a fineness modulus of 2.564. The grading results confirmed that the sand complied with the required limits for Zone II, with 99.5% passing through the 4.75 mm sieve, 97.1% through the 2.36 mm sieve, 78.5% through the 1.18 mm sieve, 49.3% through the 600 µm sieve, 17.2% through the 300 µm sieve, and 1.3% through the 150 µm sieve. These properties ensured that the fine aggregate had suitable gradation and texture for use in mortar and concrete mixes, promoting workability and strength. The coarse aggregate used in the study consisted of crushed stone with a maximum size of 12 mm, sourced from mechanically crushed quarry stones and boulders. This material was selected for its high strength, durability, and wide availability. The specific gravity of the coarse aggregate was found to be 2.79, with a water absorption capacity of 2.3%, conforming to the standards laid out in IS 383:2016 (32). The selection and characterization of both fine and coarse aggregates followed standard Indian practices, ensuring consistency and reliability in the mechanical performance of the resulting concrete and mortar mixes. Fresh properties of binder The packing density of anhydrous mixes of OPC and ideal alkali-activated (AA) mix based on the Puntke test (6) was found to be 0.50 and 0.48 respectively, showing much closer rage values of both the mixes. This indicates both the mixes may provide a good packing which may provide a boost in mortar strength (33). The consistency test for 43 grade OPC was carried out as per IS 4031-04 (34) and was found to be 31% while for ideal AA mix the alkali to binder ratio (A/B) was determined to be 0.35 (6). The initial and final setting times of OPC 43 grade and the ideal AA mix were tested according to IS 4031-05. (35). The initial setting times were 95 minutes and 55 minutes, and the final setting times were 295 minutes and 155 minutes for OPC and ideal AA mixes, respectively. Both mixes met the minimum initial setting time of 30 minutes and stayed within the maximum limit of 600 minutes as specified by IS 8112. (36). The rapid setting time of AAB mix may be useful in current scenarios where ambient curing processes need for a quick setting, as ideal AA mix exhibits a faster setting (37). The flow table test comparison between the ideal AA binder mix and the conventional 43-grade OPC mix highlights the superior workability of the ideal AA mix. The ideal AA mix recorded a flow diameter of approximately 207 mm, less than 225 mm observed for the OPC mix. This improved faster setting in the ideal AA mix is primarily due to its optimized binder composition—comprising 60% GGBS, 30% coffee husk ash (CHA), and 10% rice husk ash (RHA)—along with the use of 8 M NaOH solution, which enhances the formation of a smoother, more cohesive matrix. In contrast, the OPC mix, though adequately workable, shows comparatively higher spread, likely due to its coarser particle structure and higher water demand. Overall, the minimum slump flow requirement is 105%, according to IS 4031–7 and IS 2386–6. (38,39) was collected for both the mixes. (6). Hardened properties of binder The microstructural and chemical comparison between the ideal alkali activated paste (60% GGBS, 30% CHA, and 10% RHA with 8M NaOH) and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) paste reveals notable distinctions in phase development and morphology. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of the ideal AA (alkali-activated) paste, indicated the formation of various hydrated gels such as CSH (clinotobermorite), CASH (chabazite), NASH, and KASH, alongside potassium carbonate (6). In contrast, the OPC paste exhibited prominent peaks corresponding to ettringite, calcite, portlandite, and CSH, formed through hydration reactions. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images of the ideal AA paste displayed a dense microstructure with sheet-like CSH and fragmented NASH gels, suggesting a more refined and compact matrix compared to the OPC paste, which showed clusters of CH and bright calcite phases with prismatic and spherical morphologies (6). Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy further supported these findings, showing that the M6 mix had a favourable Ca/Si ratio of 0.47 and a lower Si/Al ratio, which correlates with improved mechanical strength. These microstructural attributes—denser gel formations, lower bound water content, and optimized elemental ratios—suggest that the ideal AA paste offers enhanced reactivity and long-term durability when compared to the conventional OPC paste (6). The compressive strength comparison between the ideal AA (alkali-activated) mortar and conventional 43-grade OPC mortar demonstrates the superior performance of the ideal AA mix over all curing periods. After 7 days, ideal AA mix achieved a strength of 37.1 MPa, compared to OPC's 31.2 MPa. At 28 days, ideal AA mix surpassed the OPC benchmark of 43 MPa with a strength of 43.8 MPa, continuing to gain strength up to 52.2 MPa by 90 days as shown in Figure 5. In contrast, OPC mortar reached only 45.5 MPa at the same age. This enhanced strength development in ideal AA mix can be attributed to the optimized combination of GGBS, CHA, and RHA along with higher molarity alkali activation, which promotes the formation of dense CSH and NASH gels, as supported by microstructural analysis. The results affirm ideal AA mix as a durable and high-performance alternative to traditional OPC mortar (6). Alkali-activated concrete with ternary binder Mixing and testing Following an investigation into the production of alkali-activated mortar utilizing GGBS, CHA, and RHA in conjunction with sodium hydroxide solution, the ideal mixture of 60% GGBS, 30% CHA, and 10% RHA with 8M NaOH was taken into consideration for the creation of alkali-activated concrete (6). Concrete mix of M30 grade was casted as a conventional concrete to compare alkali-activated concrete prepared based on the ideal mix. Based on the mix design the ratio of binder: fine aggregate: coarse aggregate for conventional M30 grade concrete mix and ideal alkali-activated concrete (IAAC) mix was determined to be 1:1.91:2.31 and 1:1.8:2.31 respectively. Unsing the mix proportion the concrete mixes for M30 and IAAC was prepared and casted in a mould of dimension 100×100×100 mm. A total of 12 M30 mix cubes and 12 IAAC mix cubes were prepared and demoulded after 24 hrs. M30 mixes were water cured while the IAAC mixes were cured at an ambient temperature of 30±3℃. Later the specimens were tested on 7, 14, 28 and 56 days for ultrasonic pulse velocity and compression test as shown in Figure 6. The UPV was determined using the formula UPV=L/t in km/s as per IS 516-5(40). The same cubes were then tested for compressive strength using a compression testing machine 3000kN, by setting the rate of loading of 2.33 kN/min as per IS 516 (41). Four specimens of each mix were cast for splitting tensile and flexural strength tests. These specimens are cured for 14 days and 28 days and tested. For the splitting tensile test, a concrete specimen cylinder of diameter of 150mm and depth of 300mm and tested as per IS 5816 (42). For flexure test a standard plain concrete beam of size 100×100×500mm is subjected to two-point loading (also called four-point loading or third-point loading) as shown in Figure 8 and tested as as per IS 516 (41). Cubes of M30 and IAAC were also prepared for water absorption testing. They were immersed in water for 24 hours and weighed (W1). Afterwards, the samples were dried in an oven at 100°C for 24 hours, cooled, and weighed again (W2). The water absorption (WA) percentage is then calculated with the following formula. Results and discussion The performance of Ideal Alkali-Activated Concrete (IAAC) was evaluated in comparison to M30 grade OPC-based concrete across multiple parameters including compressive strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), flexural strength, split tensile strength, and water absorption. Compressive Strength The compressive strength development of IAAC and M30 concrete over 7, 14, and 28 days is illustrated in Figure 9. IAAC exhibited a steady and consistent strength gain with values of 35.7 MPa, 37.18 MPa, and 38.4 MPa respectively. M30 concrete, on the other hand, showed a more accelerated strength gain, rising from 27.2 MPa at 7 days to 38.31 MPa at 28 days. Although M30 eventually slightly surpassed IAAC at 28 days, IAAC demonstrated superior early-age strength, which is beneficial for structures requiring rapid strength development. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) The UPV results, shown in the Figure 9, reflect internal concrete quality. While IAAC showed a moderate increase in UPV from 3360 m/s at 7 days to 3630 m/s at 28 days, M30 concrete displayed a significantly sharper increase, reaching 4870 m/s at 28 days. The lower UPV in IAAC may be attributed to inherent microstructural differences, such as a higher degree of heterogeneity or air voids, despite its comparable compressive strength. The correlation graph in Figure 10 illustrates the relationship between UPV and Compressive Strength for both IAAC and M30 concrete mixes over 7, 14, and 28 days. A positive correlation exists in both graphs: as UPV increases, compressive strength generally increases. The linear trendline fits the combined data well, with a coefficient of determination (R 2 ) indicating a strong linear relationship. IAAC data points cluster in the lower UPV range but maintain relatively high compressive strength, indicating denser microstructure despite slightly lower UPV. It gives a slope of 0.00983 with an R 2 value of 0.974, indicating a very strong linear correlation between UPV and compressive strength. M30 concrete exhibits a steeper rise in UPV corresponding to its compressive strength gain, particularly at 28 days. It gives a slope of 0.00696 with an R 2 value of 0.984, also showing an excellent linear relationship. This relationship supports the use of UPV as a non-destructive indicator of strength development in both conventional and alkali-activated concretes, although material-specific behaviour should also be considered in interpretation. Flexural and Split Tensile Strength Flexural and split tensile strength trends in Figure 9 reveal that IAAC outperformed M30 concrete at both 14 and 28 days. At 28 days, IAAC recorded a flexural strength of 5.4 MPa compared to M30's 4.8 MPa, and a split tensile strength of 3.11 MPa against 2.83 MPa for M30. This suggests better tensile stress distribution in IAAC, likely due to the formation of more cohesive and interlinked reaction products like NASH or CASH gels in the alkali-activated system (6). Water Absorption Water absorption at 28 days was found to be slightly higher in IAAC (2.75%) compared to M30 concrete (2.34%). This could imply marginally higher porosity in the IAAC matrix, which aligns with the relatively lower UPV values. However, the difference is minor and still within acceptable limits for durable concrete. Overall, IAAC demonstrates a promising balance between early strength development, tensile properties, and acceptable durability. The enhanced early compressive and tensile strengths make it suitable for precast or early-loading applications. Despite a slightly higher porosity as indicated by UPV and water absorption tests, the material retains strong structural potential, making it a viable low-carbon alternative to conventional OPC concrete. Conclusion This study successfully demonstrated the potential of a novel ternary alkali-activated concrete (IAAC) formulated using agro-industrial wastes—specifically, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), coffee husk ash (CHA), and rice husk ash (RHA). A mix ratio of 60% of GGBS, 30% of CHA, and 10% of RHA, activated using 8M sodium hydroxide, was identified as optimal based on prior binder and mortar assessments. The comprehensive material characterization revealed that all three binder constituents possess favourable chemical and physical properties, with CHA displaying particularly high reactivity and packing density. These traits are essential for effective geopolymerization and durable concrete formation. Performance evaluations comparing the IAAC to conventional M30 grade OPC concrete illustrated several compelling outcomes. Although the IAAC exhibited slightly lower ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) of 3630m/s and marginally higher water absorption of 2.75%, its compressive strength at early curing ages was higher (35.7MPa), with values closely matching M30 concrete by 28 days. Furthermore, the IAAC mix outperformed the OPC counterpart in flexural and split tensile strength, signifying improved cohesion and ductility. These advantages are attributed to the dense and compact microstructure formed by NASH and CSH gel phases, as observed through SEM and supported by XRD and EDX analysis. The study affirms that IAAC is not only structurally competent but also offers significant environmental benefits. By utilizing agro-industrial by-products, this mix design reduces reliance on high-CO 2 emission during OPC production and diverts agricultural waste from landfills. The ambient curing compatibility further enhances its practicality for field applications, eliminating the need for energy-intensive thermal curing. The results suggest that IAAC holds immense promise for use in structural concrete, especially in sustainable infrastructure, precast elements, and fast-track construction where early strength gain is crucial. In conclusion, the ternary alkali-activated concrete developed in this research exemplifies a viable, low-carbon, and high-performance alternative to traditional OPC-based systems. Its adoption in construction can substantially contribute to carbon footprint reduction and resource conservation, aligning with global sustainability goals. Future work may focus on scaling the mix for field applications, assessing long-term durability under varied environmental exposures, and optimizing formulations for specific structural or geographical requirements. Abbreviations CHA Coffee Husk Ash RHA Rice Husk Ash GGBS Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag OPC Ordinary Portland Cement IAAC Ideal Alkali-Activated Concrete AAC Alkali-Activated Concrete AA Alkali-Activators XRF X-Ray Fluorescence XRD X-Ray Diffraction EDX Energy Dispersive X-Ray spectroscopy BET Brunauer, Emmett, and Teller PSD Particle Size Distribution TGA Thermogravimetric Analysis UPV Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Declarations Funding Statement: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate Ethics Approval: This study did not involve any experiments on humans or animals. Therefore, ethics approval was not required. Consent to Participate: Not applicable, as the study did not involve human participants . Consent to Publish Declaration: All authors confirm that they have read and approved the final version of the manuscript and consent to its publication in the journal. The authors also affirm that the manuscript is original, has not been previously published, and is not currently under consideration for publication elsewhere. Author Contributions: Blesson S.: Conceptualization, methodology, experimental investigation, data curation, formal analysis, visualization, and drafting of the original manuscript. Siddharth Kadamba: Support in experimental work, literature review, data analysis, preparation of figures/tables, and contribution to manuscript editing and formatting. A U Rao: Conceptualization, supervision, project administration, validation of experimental design and results, critical review and editing of the manuscript, and final approval of the version to be submitted. All authors reviewed, edited, and approved the final manuscript . 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":874656,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGraphical Abstract\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8210574/v1/2a4acee2595fa34634dabed0.png"},{"id":97515977,"identity":"05ced01f-6872-42a2-9264-ddb6a1a709d0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 10:06:28","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":170119,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTernary diagram of CHA, RHA, GGBS, and OPC (6)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8210574/v1/5a365e6a8e2ac1dd9ec636ec.png"},{"id":97671283,"identity":"2737decc-be3a-4c8c-b5e3-2d162cb30e1e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:32:23","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":208813,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePSD of CHA, RHA, GGBS, and OPC (6)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8210574/v1/eed965b57d94a4db1369ca34.png"},{"id":97670793,"identity":"1d6e8afb-6069-4e17-893f-2095f9ace927","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:31:21","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":425436,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eXRD of CHA, RHA, GGBS, and OPC based on ICSD standards (6)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8210574/v1/eafab8e0b607a6aaa169474b.png"},{"id":97671648,"identity":"93c067aa-ac86-4043-9b9f-f86ed73dd861","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:32:52","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":114596,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompressive strength of ideal alkali-activated mortar mix v/s 43 grade OPC mortar mix (6)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8210574/v1/af3fe68eb30e96e091820c67.png"},{"id":97515984,"identity":"947a23c3-bd37-4042-9f5d-40594e9a9684","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 10:06:28","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":462116,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompression testing concrete cube\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8210574/v1/09b13e5d9875269ec513b9f5.png"},{"id":97671834,"identity":"f1315a0d-02a8-4202-acbc-61b3a2327d3b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:33:09","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":377586,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSplitting tensile strength test concrete mix\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8210574/v1/8a4ac63bb5109f200311a86f.png"},{"id":97515994,"identity":"f90fc4cb-0bbb-49a4-9b2d-38f09ba2fbae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-05 10:06:28","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":360522,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFlexure test for concrete mix\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8210574/v1/972afdce680fbe92745cf78a.png"},{"id":97670414,"identity":"2e6aeb8b-aa68-449f-ac38-8663cf971adf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:30:36","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":170891,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMechanical Properties and UPV of IAAC and M30 concrete mix\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8210574/v1/748ea36165638efb40117388.png"},{"id":97670842,"identity":"5f6828c0-92fb-4d64-8c59-0d8fb083f283","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:31:24","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":280343,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLinear fit to compressive strength and UPV of IAAC and M30 concrete\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8210574/v1/2dfffa444d5ecd59139d2b02.png"},{"id":99788193,"identity":"3c7b7e35-873a-4717-b862-2e3cad7cd545","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-08 12:45:35","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4667148,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8210574/v1/81fe8b21-5b5d-4179-820a-fc805fbeb00f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Qualitative and quantitative analysis of agro-industrial based waste incorporated ternary alkali-activated concrete","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePortland cement has been widely used in various construction projects and as an essential binder in the manufacturing of concrete for almost two centuries. In the long run, its production and demand have been greatly influenced by its broad appeal and usefulness in building (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Significant environmental issues have been raised, due to the widespread usage and production of Portland cement. Carbon dioxide emissions from the production process are significant and contribute to climate change and global warming. The process of cement production is quite complex, energy-intensive, leading to habitat destruction and other ecological disruptions, resulting from the mining of raw materials (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The demand on the building sector to discover more environmentally friendly substitutes and methods to lessen Portland cement's negative effects is therefore increasing. Portland cement's main ingredients include clinker, gypsum, and other minerals; however, producing it has negative environmental effects, especially when clinker is involved (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCement production alone accounts for up to 10% of global carbon dioxide emissions, and this percentage is expected to rise in the future with negative environmental effects (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). Extensive construction activities are the driving force behind the global need for sustainable concrete (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR10\" citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). Over the next few years, the number of wastes produced and cement produced worldwide is expected to continue rising, reaching 2.01\u0026nbsp;billion tons and 4.1\u0026nbsp;billion tons, respectively (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). Food and agricultural wastes account for 44% of the waste material, with industrial wastes accounting for the remaining 56% (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). By using these byproducts, less agricultural and industrial waste will be thrown as landfill, and more environmentally friendly materials with better mechanical performance will be produced for the global market (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR16 CR17\" citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo gain a clearer understanding of the properties of binders produced from various industrial and agricultural waste materials, research is being done on a large scale. Alkali-activated concrete (AAC) is one such novel material that shares traits with conventional cement concrete. These AACs can be applied to construction projects in a manner like that of traditional cement concrete. The ability of AAC to reduce the negative environmental impact of traditional concrete production is one of its main benefits. This change fosters a more ecologically suitable approach to construction by encouraging the effective use of agricultural and industrial by-products and assisting in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThrough a two-part activation process, the AAC reacts in an alkaline environment created by the alkali-activators (AA) to create cementitious binders that emit less carbon dioxide. Many sources of alumina and silica have been discovered by researchers in a variety of agro-industrial wastes, and activating alkaline solutions are widely accessible (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e). Sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate, potassium hydroxide and other AA are most frequently utilized to prepare AAC. The process of making AA involves two key challenges: managing a high concentration of an alkaline liquid that is both viscous and caustic, and the requirement for heat curing in order to enhance polymerization and activation. As part of heat treatment, AACs are often exposed to higher temperature for multiple hours (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). For these materials to become generally accepted and used as building materials, these limitations must be suitably addressed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe preparation of alkali activated mortar using GGBS, CHA and RHA along with sodium hydroxide solution was studied, based on which an optimum mix of 60% GGBS, 30% CHA and 10% RHA with 8M NaOH was considered for preparation of alkali-activated concrete (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). This work offers a novel approach to creating ternary IAAC mix that cure at room temperature by employing CHA, GGBS, and RHA as precursors and activating them just with NaOH solution. The present study compares the physical properties and chemical properties of GGBS, CHA, and RHA with 43 grade Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) using a series of tests designed to understand their binder qualities. Later the IAAC mix was prepared and compared with the conventional mix for its qualitative and quantitative assessment. The graphical abstract depicting the current research work which addresses Sustainable Development Goals 9, 12 and 13 is depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Related works","content":"\u003cp\u003eThere are many studies focusing on the utilization of agricultural and industrial based wastes in alkali-activated binder system. In a study conducted by\u0026nbsp;Athira et al., 2021,\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ethe mechanical and durability characteristics of the AAB system made using ashes from agricultural waste products, such as bagasse ash, sugarcane-straw ash, RHA, corncob ash, and palm oil fuel ash, were thoroughly reviewed. Except for RHA, which has a significantly greater SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e content, it was evident from the review that the other waste ashes typically exhibit SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e contents comparable to Fly ash. The addition of these ashes to Fly ash-based binders was found to increase their resistance to acid attack in comparison to GGBS-based binders. The authors found that an AAB system employing bagasse ash is beneficial in ambient curing because it contains a substantial amount of calcium compared to the other agricultural waste products discussed.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAdditionally, water absorption was higher in these AAB systems owing to porosity of waste ashes\u0026apos; resulting in a cellular structure. It was discovered that RHA-based binders were remarkably stable at elevated temperatures (21).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGGBS, palm oil fuel ash, metakaolin, silica fumes, fly ash, RHA, and other pozzolanic byproducts used to make AAB were examined for their physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties as part of a review of the materials composition and new features of AAB. Sodium (Na) and potassium (K)-based alkaline activator solutions were also highlighted. Previous studies have synthesized the impacts of AAB features on temperature, reaction kinetics, setting time, and workability (slump, flow, and consistency). According to the study\u0026apos;s mix design and procuring conditions, AAB\u0026apos;s novel properties can be modified for a range of applications (24).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe impact of different biomass ash on the mechanical and durability characteristics of hardened concrete has been clarified by a thorough analysis of ashes from biomass made from agricultural byproducts used to partially replace the cement in the creation of geopolymer concrete. Biomass ashes, including Napier grass ash, palm ash, wheat straw ash, sugarcane waste ash, plantain peel ash, olive waste ash, bamboo-leaf ash, and rice straw ash, can be used to partially replace Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and reduce CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions. It has also been established that biomass ashes can be used as a pozzolanic material or as a substitute source of activator when making geopolymer concrete (22).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe coffee husk ash (CHA) displayed best properties of an alkaline activator with lesser organic matter and higher alkali content, when calcined at multiple temperatures (600\u0026deg;C to 800\u0026ordm;C) for varying lengths of time (1\u0026ndash;10 h) in a study on the creation of new alkali activators made from CHA. It was discovered that 700\u0026ordm;C for six hours was the ideal calcination temperature and duration. The resulting CHA contained a significant percentage of potassium oxide (K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO) in the form of potassium carbonate (K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e). The compressive strength of mortar was 16.4 MPa after a day at 60\u0026deg;C, and microstructural tests of one-part AAB combinations of CHA and blast furnace slag (BFS) showed hydrated products ((K, C) ASH) in pastes (25).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn investigation was conducted using CHA as an alkali-activator to activate GGBS in a one-part AAB system. To get the best alkaline activator properties, CHA was made in a laboratory. The ash was analyzed physiochemically, and microstructural analysis of pastes and the physical and mechanical characteristics of mortars were utilized to evaluate the impact of CHA in a one-part AAB system. 15% CHA and 15% commercial K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e were prepared as activators in a mortar mix of GGBS. According to the results of the material properties test, mortar consistency decreased as CHA increased. In terms of mechanical properties, the mortar made with CHA 15% had a compressive strength of 40.9 MPa after 28 days of curing at a relative humidity of above 95%, while the mortar made with commercial K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e 15% had a compressive strength of 47.0 MPa. Consequently, the mechanical properties of mortar made using CHA are comparable to those of mortar made with commercial K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003e(20).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEarlier research by authors Blesson \u0026amp; Rao (2024), focused on characterizing the binder ingredients, ascertaining the effectiveness of alkali-activated ternary binder paste and mortar made of GGBS, RHA, and CHA. Detailed study on microstructural, fresh properties, hardened properties, and durability of mortar made with nine different binder pastes with GGBS (70\u0026ndash;50%), CHA (20\u0026ndash;40%), and RHA (10%) using solutions of 4 M, 6 M, and 8 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH). At 90 days, the hardened alkali-activated ternary mortar mix had a compressive strength ranging from 31.2 to 52.2 MPa. Exposure to acid and seawater attack was used to test the mortar mixes\u0026apos; durability performance, while carbon dioxide emissions and material production costs were used to assess the materials\u0026apos; sustainability. The cost-benefit ratio of AAB mix to OPC was in the range of 23.24% to 34%. In terms of strength, durability, and sustainability, the M6 AAB mix consisting of 60% GGBS, 30% CHA, and 10% RHA with 8 M NaOH was found to be optimum. As such, it can be used in construction as an alternative to OPC mix (6). In the present study, the optimum M6 AAB mix shall be used to evaluate its performance in concrete.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Material and its properties ","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe components utilized in this investigation are 43grade OPC, GGBS, CHA, RHA, and NaOH. Astrra Chemicals Ltd. in Tamil Nadu, India, provided the RHA and GGBS, Sri Durga Laboratory Equipment Supplies in Karnataka, India, provided the NaOH, local Karnataka vendors provided the 43-grade OPC, and The CHA, which was calcined in smokehouses at 800\u0026ordm;C, came from coffee plantations in Sakaleshpura, Karnataka\u0026nbsp;India. To satisfy the necessary OPC requirement in accordance with IS 4031-01(26), all of the ashes were then run through a 75 \u0026micro;m filter. The materials procured were the same utilized for the mortar study by authors Blesson and Rao (2024), and hence the properties are same as presented in the earlier study which is given below in Table 1(6). A homogeneous mixture with improved soundness and less water absorption can be achieved since the variation in specific gravity of the three binder ingredients\u0026apos; is negligible.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1. Chemical and physical properties of materials\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(6)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"627\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaterials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCHA\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eRHA\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eGGBS\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eOPC\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"10\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChemical Properties\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e(% mass)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaO\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAl\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eK\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMgO\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMnO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eTiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 116px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhysical Properties\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eLoss on Ignition\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpecific gravity\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpecific surface area/ fineness (m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/g)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 101px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 82px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe pozzolanic standards of ASTM 618\u0026ndash;19 (27), is met by RHA since its content of alumina, silica, and iron oxide exceeds 70%, with 0.26% sulfur trioxide. The reactive silica in RHA helps create alumino-silicate gel when exposed to alkali solution in conjunction with calcium-rich precursors, despite the fact that it satisfies the pozzolanic requirement, which does not aid in alkali-activation. In contrast, CHA has a high concentration of calcium oxide and potassium oxide, and a low concentration of alumina, silica, and iron oxide. It may exhibit a minor latent hydraulic character, but more research is necessary (28). Similar to this, GGBS that has a greater CaO and SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e content is classified as a latent hydraulic material (29) as shown in Figure 2, meeting the requirements of ASTM 989\u0026ndash;05 (30).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn particular, the particle size distribution (PSD) has a considerable impact on the binder properties (31). The particle size distribution for OPC, CHA, GGBS, and RHA is completed and displayed in Figure 3 using the Malvern Mastersizer 3000 instrument. CHA, RHA, GGBS, and OPC had mean particle sizes (d50) of 16.44\u0026micro;m, 26.87\u0026micro;m, 13.19\u0026micro;m, and 18.70\u0026micro;m, respectively. These values demonstrate the quality of the materials, which would enhance the binder mix homogeneity. Figure 4 shows the results of the X-ray diffraction (XRD) of CHA, RHA, GGBS, and OPC, which were obtained using the Rigaku Miniflex 600 (5th gen). The Ni filter was employed, and the XRD angle parameter was adjusted to 10 \u0026ordm; to 90 \u0026ordm; with a wavelength of 1.54\u0026Aring;, a Cu k alpha target, and a scan rate of 2 \u0026ordm;/min. According to International Crystal Structure Database standards, the XRD of CHA revealed the presence of potassium carbonate (K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) in large quantities (ICSD code: 662); the XRD analysis of RHA showed the presence of cristobalite (ICSD codes: 77459, 77458, 77460), while GGBS exhibited an amorphous phase essential for high reactivity. When water is applied, the alite (ICSD codes: 162744, 4331), belite (ICSD code: 182052), and portlandite (ICSD codes: 248618, 84867) in OPC contribute to hydration. The reaction degree method evaluates the reactivity of binders in both hydrated and anhydrous forms using selective dissolution (6). Results (Table 2) show CHA, GGBS, and OPC have higher reactivity than RHA. Since there\u0026apos;s no standard method to determine binder packing density, the Puntke test was used (6). Table 2 indicates CHA, GGBS, and OPC have greater packing density than RHA. Overall, CHA demonstrated high reactivity and packing density, suggesting its potential as an effective binder in alkali-activated systems.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"618\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 618px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2. Reaction degree and packing density of CHA, RHA, GGBS, and OPC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSample\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReaction degree (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePacking density (arb. Unit)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGGBS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCHA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRHA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOPC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 226px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, manufactured sand (M-sand) was used as the fine aggregate, conforming to Zone II as specified by IS 383:2016 (32). The particle size distribution of the M-sand indicated that the majority of particles ranged from 2.36 mm to 1.16 mm, with a specific gravity of 2.62 and a fineness modulus of 2.564. The grading results confirmed that the sand complied with the required limits for Zone II, with 99.5% passing through the 4.75 mm sieve, 97.1% through the 2.36 mm sieve, 78.5% through the 1.18 mm sieve, 49.3% through the 600 \u0026micro;m sieve, 17.2% through the 300 \u0026micro;m sieve, and 1.3% through the 150 \u0026micro;m sieve. These properties ensured that the fine aggregate had suitable gradation and texture for use in mortar and concrete mixes, promoting workability and strength. The coarse aggregate used in the study consisted of crushed stone with a maximum size of 12 mm, sourced from mechanically crushed quarry stones and boulders. This material was selected for its high strength, durability, and wide availability. The specific gravity of the coarse aggregate was found to be 2.79, with a water absorption capacity of 2.3%, conforming to the standards laid out in IS 383:2016 (32). The selection and characterization of both fine and coarse aggregates followed standard Indian practices, ensuring consistency and reliability in the mechanical performance of the resulting concrete and mortar mixes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFresh properties of binder\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe packing density of anhydrous mixes of\u0026nbsp;OPC and ideal alkali-activated (AA) mix based on the Puntke test\u0026nbsp;(6)\u0026nbsp;was found to be 0.50 and 0.48 respectively, showing much closer rage values of both the mixes. This indicates both the mixes may provide a good packing which may\u0026nbsp;provide a boost in mortar strength\u0026nbsp;(33). The consistency test for 43 grade OPC was carried out as per IS 4031-04\u0026nbsp;(34)\u0026nbsp;and was found to be 31% while for ideal AA mix the alkali to binder ratio (A/B) was determined to be 0.35\u0026nbsp;(6). The initial and final setting times of OPC 43 grade and the ideal AA mix were tested according to IS 4031-05.\u0026nbsp;(35). The initial setting times were 95 minutes and 55 minutes, and the final setting times were 295 minutes and 155 minutes for OPC and ideal AA mixes, respectively. Both mixes met the minimum initial setting time of 30 minutes and stayed within the maximum limit of 600 minutes as specified by IS 8112.\u0026nbsp;(36). The rapid setting time of AAB mix may be useful in current scenarios where ambient curing processes need for a quick setting, as ideal AA mix exhibits a faster setting\u0026nbsp;(37). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe flow table test comparison between the ideal AA binder mix and the conventional 43-grade OPC mix highlights the superior workability of the ideal AA mix. The ideal AA mix recorded a flow diameter of approximately 207 mm, less than 225 mm observed for the OPC mix. This improved faster setting in the ideal AA mix is primarily due to its optimized binder composition\u0026mdash;comprising 60% GGBS, 30% coffee husk ash (CHA), and 10% rice husk ash (RHA)\u0026mdash;along with the use of 8 M NaOH solution, which enhances the formation of a smoother, more cohesive matrix. In contrast, the OPC mix, though adequately workable, shows comparatively higher spread, likely due to its coarser particle structure and higher water demand. Overall, the minimum slump flow requirement is 105%, according to IS 4031\u0026ndash;7 and IS 2386\u0026ndash;6. (38,39) was collected for both the mixes. (6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eHardened properties of binder\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe microstructural and chemical comparison between the ideal alkali activated paste (60% GGBS, 30% CHA, and 10% RHA with 8M NaOH) and ordinary Portland cement (OPC) paste reveals notable distinctions in phase development and morphology. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of the ideal AA (alkali-activated) paste, indicated the formation of various hydrated gels such as CSH (clinotobermorite), CASH (chabazite), NASH, and KASH, alongside potassium carbonate\u0026nbsp;(6). In contrast, the OPC paste exhibited prominent peaks corresponding to ettringite, calcite, portlandite, and CSH, formed through hydration reactions. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images of the ideal AA paste displayed a dense microstructure with sheet-like CSH and fragmented NASH gels, suggesting a more refined and compact matrix compared to the OPC paste, which showed clusters of CH and bright calcite phases with prismatic and spherical morphologies\u0026nbsp;(6). Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy further supported these findings, showing that the M6 mix had a favourable Ca/Si ratio of 0.47 and a lower Si/Al ratio, which correlates with improved mechanical strength. These microstructural attributes\u0026mdash;denser gel formations, lower bound water content, and optimized elemental ratios\u0026mdash;suggest that the ideal AA paste offers enhanced reactivity and long-term durability when compared to the conventional OPC paste\u0026nbsp;(6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe compressive strength comparison between the ideal AA (alkali-activated) mortar and conventional 43-grade OPC mortar demonstrates the superior performance of the ideal AA mix over all curing periods. After 7 days, ideal AA mix achieved a strength of 37.1 MPa, compared to OPC\u0026apos;s 31.2 MPa. At 28 days, ideal AA mix surpassed the OPC benchmark of 43 MPa with a strength of 43.8 MPa, continuing to gain strength up to 52.2 MPa by 90 days as shown in Figure 5. In contrast, OPC mortar reached only 45.5 MPa at the same age. This enhanced strength development in ideal AA mix can be attributed to the optimized combination of GGBS, CHA, and RHA along with higher molarity alkali activation, which promotes the formation of dense CSH and NASH gels, as supported by microstructural analysis. The results affirm ideal AA mix as a durable and high-performance alternative to traditional OPC mortar (6).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAlkali-activated concrete with ternary binder\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMixing and testing\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing an investigation into the production of alkali-activated mortar utilizing GGBS, CHA, and RHA in conjunction with sodium hydroxide solution, the ideal mixture of 60% GGBS, 30% CHA, and 10% RHA with 8M NaOH was taken into consideration for the creation of alkali-activated concrete\u0026nbsp;(6). Concrete mix of M30 grade was casted as a conventional concrete to compare alkali-activated concrete prepared based on the ideal mix. Based on the mix design the ratio of binder: fine aggregate: coarse aggregate for conventional M30 grade concrete mix and ideal alkali-activated concrete (IAAC) mix was determined to be 1:1.91:2.31 and 1:1.8:2.31 respectively. Unsing the mix proportion the concrete mixes for M30 and IAAC was prepared and casted in a mould of dimension 100\u0026times;100\u0026times;100 mm. A total of 12 M30 mix cubes and 12 IAAC mix cubes were prepared and demoulded after 24 hrs. M30 mixes were water cured while the IAAC mixes were cured\u0026nbsp;at an ambient temperature of 30\u0026plusmn;3℃. Later the specimens were tested on 7, 14, 28 and 56 days for ultrasonic pulse velocity and compression test as shown in Figure 6. The UPV was determined using the formula UPV=L/t in km/s as per IS 516-5(40). The same cubes were then tested for compressive strength using a compression testing machine 3000kN, by setting the rate of loading of 2.33 kN/min as per IS 516 (41).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFour specimens of each mix were cast for splitting tensile and flexural strength tests. These specimens are cured for 14 days and 28 days and tested. For the splitting tensile test, a concrete specimen cylinder of diameter of 150mm and depth of 300mm and tested as per IS 5816 (42). For flexure test a standard plain concrete beam of size 100\u0026times;100\u0026times;500mm is subjected to two-point loading (also called four-point loading or third-point loading) as shown in Figure 8 and tested as as per IS 516 (41).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCubes of M30 and IAAC were also prepared for water absorption testing. They were immersed in water for 24 hours and weighed (W1). Afterwards, the samples were dried in an oven at 100\u0026deg;C for 24 hours, cooled, and weighed again (W2). The water absorption (WA) percentage is then calculated with the following formula.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://myfiles.space/user_files/58895_8739fc6c57c1c19a/58895_custom_files/img1764928599.png\" width=\"321\" height=\"85\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe performance of Ideal Alkali-Activated Concrete (IAAC) was evaluated in comparison to M30 grade OPC-based concrete across multiple parameters including compressive strength, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), flexural strength, split tensile strength, and water absorption.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompressive Strength\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe compressive strength development of IAAC and M30 concrete over 7, 14, and 28 days is illustrated in Figure 9. IAAC exhibited a steady and consistent strength gain with values of 35.7 MPa, 37.18 MPa, and 38.4 MPa respectively. M30 concrete, on the other hand, showed a more accelerated strength gain, rising from 27.2 MPa at 7 days to 38.31 MPa at 28 days. Although M30 eventually slightly surpassed IAAC at 28 days, IAAC demonstrated superior early-age strength, which is beneficial for structures requiring rapid strength development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eUltrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe UPV results, shown in the Figure 9, reflect internal concrete quality. While IAAC showed a moderate increase in UPV from 3360 m/s at 7 days to 3630 m/s at 28 days, M30 concrete displayed a significantly sharper increase, reaching 4870 m/s at 28 days. The lower UPV in IAAC may be attributed to inherent microstructural differences, such as a higher degree of heterogeneity or air voids, despite its comparable compressive strength.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe correlation graph in Figure 10 illustrates the relationship between UPV and Compressive Strength for both IAAC and M30 concrete mixes over 7, 14, and 28 days. A positive correlation exists in both graphs: as UPV increases, compressive strength generally increases. The linear trendline fits the combined data well, with a coefficient of determination (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) indicating a strong linear relationship. IAAC data points cluster in the lower UPV range but maintain relatively high compressive strength, indicating denser microstructure despite slightly lower UPV. It gives a slope of 0.00983 with an R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e value of 0.974, indicating a very strong linear correlation between UPV and compressive strength. M30 concrete exhibits a steeper rise in UPV corresponding to its compressive strength gain, particularly at 28 days. It gives a slope of 0.00696 with an R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e value of 0.984, also showing an excellent linear relationship. This relationship supports the use of UPV as a non-destructive indicator of strength development in both conventional and alkali-activated concretes, although material-specific behaviour should also be considered in interpretation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eFlexural and Split Tensile Strength\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFlexural and split tensile strength trends in Figure 9 reveal that IAAC outperformed M30 concrete at both 14 and 28 days. At 28 days, IAAC recorded a flexural strength of 5.4 MPa compared to M30\u0026apos;s 4.8 MPa, and a split tensile strength of 3.11 MPa against 2.83 MPa for M30. This suggests better tensile stress distribution in IAAC, likely due to the formation of more cohesive and interlinked reaction products like NASH or CASH gels in the alkali-activated system (6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eWater Absorption\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWater absorption at 28 days was found to be slightly higher in IAAC (2.75%) compared to M30 concrete (2.34%). This could imply marginally higher porosity in the IAAC matrix, which aligns with the relatively lower UPV values. However, the difference is minor and still within acceptable limits for durable concrete.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall,\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eIAAC demonstrates a promising balance between early strength development, tensile properties, and acceptable durability. The enhanced early compressive and tensile strengths make it suitable for precast or early-loading applications. Despite a slightly higher porosity as indicated by UPV and water absorption tests, the material retains strong structural potential, making it a viable low-carbon alternative to conventional OPC concrete.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study successfully demonstrated the potential of a novel ternary alkali-activated concrete (IAAC) formulated using agro-industrial wastes\u0026mdash;specifically, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), coffee husk ash (CHA), and rice husk ash (RHA). A mix ratio of 60% of GGBS, 30% of CHA, and 10% of RHA, activated using 8M sodium hydroxide, was identified as optimal based on prior binder and mortar assessments. The comprehensive material characterization revealed that all three binder constituents possess favourable chemical and physical properties, with CHA displaying particularly high reactivity and packing density. These traits are essential for effective geopolymerization and durable concrete formation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerformance evaluations comparing the IAAC to conventional M30 grade OPC concrete illustrated several compelling outcomes. Although the IAAC exhibited slightly lower ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) of 3630m/s and marginally higher water absorption of 2.75%, its compressive strength at early curing ages was higher (35.7MPa), with values closely matching M30 concrete by 28 days. Furthermore, the IAAC mix outperformed the OPC counterpart in flexural and split tensile strength, signifying improved cohesion and ductility. These advantages are attributed to the dense and compact microstructure formed by NASH and CSH gel phases, as observed through SEM and supported by XRD and EDX analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study affirms that IAAC is not only structurally competent but also offers significant environmental benefits. By utilizing agro-industrial by-products, this mix design reduces reliance on high-CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emission during OPC production and diverts agricultural waste from landfills. The ambient curing compatibility further enhances its practicality for field applications, eliminating the need for energy-intensive thermal curing. The results suggest that IAAC holds immense promise for use in structural concrete, especially in sustainable infrastructure, precast elements, and fast-track construction where early strength gain is crucial.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the ternary alkali-activated concrete developed in this research exemplifies a viable, low-carbon, and high-performance alternative to traditional OPC-based systems. Its adoption in construction can substantially contribute to carbon footprint reduction and resource conservation, aligning with global sustainability goals. Future work may focus on scaling the mix for field applications, assessing long-term durability under varied environmental exposures, and optimizing formulations for specific structural or geographical requirements.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"575\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCHA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoffee Husk Ash\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRHA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRice Husk Ash\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGGBS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGround Granulated Blast Furnace Slag\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOPC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrdinary Portland Cement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIAAC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIdeal Alkali-Activated Concrete\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAAC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlkali-Activated Concrete\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlkali-Activators\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eXRF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eX-Ray Fluorescence\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eXRD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eX-Ray Diffraction\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEDX\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnergy Dispersive X-Ray spectroscopy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBET\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBrunauer, Emmett, and Teller\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePSD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eParticle Size Distribution\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTGA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThermogravimetric Analysis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUPV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 319px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUltrasonic Pulse Velocity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval and Consent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval:\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eThis study did not involve any experiments on humans or animals. Therefore, ethics approval was not required.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate:\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable, as the study did not involve human participants\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish Declaration:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors confirm that they have read and approved the final version of the manuscript and consent to its publication in the journal. The authors also affirm that the manuscript is original, has not been previously published, and is not currently under consideration for publication elsewhere.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBlesson S.: Conceptualization, methodology, experimental investigation, data curation, formal analysis, visualization, and drafting of the original manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSiddharth Kadamba: Support in experimental work, literature review, data analysis, preparation of figures/tables, and contribution to manuscript editing and formatting.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA U Rao: Conceptualization, supervision, project administration, validation of experimental design and results, critical review and editing of the manuscript, and final approval of the version to be submitted.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors reviewed, edited, and approved the final manuscript\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests Declaration:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statements:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this article.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBekkeri GB, Shetty KK, Nayak G. Similar to this, GGBS that has a greater CaO and SiO2 content is classified as a latent hydraulic material [50\u0026ndash;52], meeting the requirements of ASTM 989\u0026ndash;05 [53]. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions [Internet]. 2023;8(10):27\u0026ndash;9. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s41062-023-01227-1\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmeri F, Zareei SA, Behforouz B. Zero-cement vs. cementitious mortars: An experimental comparative study on engineering and environmental properties. Journal of Building Engineering [Internet]. 2020;32(March):101620. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101620\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eImpa KA, Sachin KC, Abhishek R, Bekkeri GB, Shetty KK, Shashikumara SR. Experimentation on triple-blended concrete with manufactured sand replaced by granulated blast furnace slag for fine aggregates. Innovative Infrastructure Solutions [Internet]. 2024;9(4):1\u0026ndash;17. 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In: T\u0026uuml;rkay M, Gani R, editors. 31st European Symposium on Computer Aided Process Engineering [Internet]. Elsevier; 2021. p. 1319\u0026ndash;24. (Computer Aided Chemical Engineering; vol. 50). Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323885065502035\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChilukuri S, Kumar S, Raut A. Status of Agro-Industrial Waste Used to Develop Construction Materials in Andhra Pradesh Region \u0026ndash; India. IOP Conference Series Materials Science Engineering. 2021;1197(1):012075. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCheng Y, Huang F, Qi S, Li W, Liu R, Li G. Durability of concrete incorporated with siliceous iron tailings. Construction and Building Materials [Internet]. 2020;242:118147. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118147\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJittin V, Rithuparna R, Bahurudeen A, Pachiappan B. 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Waste and Biomass Valorization [Internet]. 2020;11(9):5027\u0026ndash;39. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-019-00781-z\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLima FS, Gomes TCF, Moraes JCB. Effect of coffee husk ash as alkaline activator in one-part alkali-activated binder. Construction and Building Materials [Internet]. 2023;362(July 2022):129799. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129799\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAthira VS, Charitha V, Athira G, Bahurudeen A. Agro-waste ash based alkali-activated binder: Cleaner production of zero cement concrete for construction. Journal of Cleaner Production [Internet]. 2021;286:125429. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125429\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThomas BS, Yang J, Mo KH, Abdalla JA, Hawileh RA, Ariyachandra E. Biomass ashes from agricultural wastes as supplementary cementitious materials or aggregate replacement in cement/geopolymer concrete: A comprehensive review. 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Indian standard Splitting tensile strength of concrete- method of test. Bureau of Indian Standards. 1999;1\u0026ndash;14. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"GGBS, Alkali-activated concrete, coffee husk ash, material characterization, rice husk ash, performance","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8210574/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8210574/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAn innovative research project on utilization of agro-industrial based wastes, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), coffee husk ash (CHA), and rice husk ash (RHA) as binder materials in alkali-activated ternary concrete is assessed for its performance in this paper. Sophisticated microstructural investigation methods were employed to characterize the components used in the binder. Based on the studies conducted using agro-industrial based wastes, an optimum mix of 30% CHA, 60% GGBS, and 10% RHA with 8M NaOH was considered for preparation of alkali-activated concrete. The performance of ideal alkali-activated concrete (IAAC) was compared with conventional M30 grade OPC concrete mix. The compressive strength of IAAC mix under ambient curing conditions was found to be 37.8 MPa and 38.4 MPa after 14 and 28 days respectively. Flexure and split tensile strength of IAAC mix after 28 days of ambient curing was found to be 5.4 MPa and 3.11 MPa respectively. The ultrasonic pulse velocity, and water absorption tests conducted on the alkali activated concrete specimen provided a direct relation to the mechanical property, indicting it to be a stable mix. Overall, the assessment concludes that the developed zero-cement alkali activated concrete is suitable for application in sustainable infrastructure development.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Qualitative and quantitative analysis of agro-industrial based waste incorporated ternary alkali-activated concrete","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-05 10:06:23","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8210574/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c29e1987-850d-48b5-8839-d9c0d45205f4","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 5th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-30T06:24:48+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-05 10:06:23","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8210574","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8210574","identity":"rs-8210574","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}