STEM Education in Vietnam: Examining the Impact of an Internationally Transferred Educational Approach

STEM Education in Vietnam: Examining the Impact of an Internationally Transferred Educational Approach | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Systematic Review STEM Education in Vietnam: Examining the Impact of an Internationally Transferred Educational Approach Alandeon Oliveira, Chi Yen Nguyen, Học Hiếu Lê, Hải Thanh Thị Phạm, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6345329/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Aimed at advancing our understanding of educational transfer (a cross-national phenomenon wherein an foreign educational practice or policy is transferred from abroad), this paper examines how international transfer of STEM has impacted Vietnamese science education. To this end, we conducted a comprehensive review of recent research and educational policy on STEM education in Vietnam. It is reported that international transfer of STEM education to Vietnam has produced both benefits and challenges. Key benefits include student excitement and joy, increased community engagement in school activities, enhanced public awareness of education, instruction with a stronger emphasis on practical and applied learning, and a curriculum with stronger societal connections that encourages student creativity, and innovation, critical thinking, and teamwork. However, challenges have also arisen. Important complications include limited financial resources and infrastructure, lack of teacher preparation and training, time constraints, and pressure to ensure students perform well on standardized examinations. Based on these findings, it is argued that educational transfers are inevitably risky, being characterized by strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Educators need to reflectively and critically assess the opportunities and risks associated with transferring practices such as STEM from abroad (i.e., learn from other countries’ educational experiences rather than borrow from them). international educational transfer Vietnamese STEM education science education in Vietnam integrated STEM Introduction Modern educational systems are increasingly influenced by extra-national forces. Rather than simply reflecting the sociopolitical and historico-cultural idiosyncrasies of a given country, teaching and learning are inevitably entangled with the educational world beyond its national borders. This inevitability underscores the global dimension of modern education as well as a pressing need for scholarship to move past isolationist views and consider educational practices in relation to the wider global context (Silova, Rappleye, & Auld, 2020). A case in point is STEM education. Originally coined in the United States over thirty years ago (Honey et al. 2014; Hudson, 2015), STEM now permeates the rhetoric of the field of education internationally. Designed as an easy reference in English to the numerous professional fields that make up the academic disciplines of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics, STEM has evolved from a mere acronym to a far-reaching “buzzword” whose deployment transcends national and linguistic borders. Central to political and academic efforts aimed at educational improvement, STEM is now commonly used in places as varied as South Korea (Hong, 2017 ), Brazil (Pugliese & Santos, 2022 ), Kazakhstan (Erbolovna et al., 2019 ), Australia (Australian Curriculum, Assessment, and Reporting Authority, 2016), Europe (European Commission, 2015 ) to name a few. “STEMmania” (Sanders, 2009 ) appears to have reached an international level, corroborating arguments that education is currently living “the age of STEM” (Freeman et al., 2014 ; Roehrig et al., 2021 ). Like countless countries worldwide, Vietnam has witnessed an increased emphasis on STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics). Viewed as a critically important driver of economic growth, societal prosperity, and technoscientific advancement, STEM has figured prominently in Vietnamese educational circles, reform efforts, and policy discourse. Such a trend culminated in the recent publication of the ‘Giáo dục phổ thông 2018’ curriculum (CTGDPT 2018), a national education policy with a strong emphasis on STEM education at the primary and secondary school levels (MoET, 2018 ). Aimed at enhancing teaching and learning effectiveness, this legally mandated curriculum emphasizes interdisciplinary teaching and real-world problem-solving with the goal of equipping Vietnamese students with practical knowledge and skills (creativity, collaboration, communication, etc.) needed to ensure the nation’s competitiveness in the twenty first century’s Fourth Industrial Revolution – a new industrial era characterized by the fusion of technological advances in artificial intelligence, robotics, the Internet of Things, genetic engineering, quantum computing, and more. The seemingly ubiquitous presence of STEM in educational discourse around the globe (regardless of language) points to an instance of educational transfer (Crossley, 2019 ; Forestier & Crossley, 2014 ), a cross-national phenomenon wherein an foreign educational practice or policy seen as a feasible reform option is transferred from “somewhere else” (abroad) to the educational context of a completely different nation. As a direct result of globalization and the rise of international tests like PISA and TIMSS (Forestier & Crossley, 2014 ; Pugliese, & Santos, 2022 ), educational reforms now ‘‘travel’’ internationally with an accelerated pace, raising questions about the appropriateness, effectiveness, and impact of a practice yet to be well understood (Burdett & O’Donnell, 2016 ). Because international transfer so readily informs educational reform, concern has been voiced over the possibility of there being unintended consequences and unforeseen complications (e.g., social inequity/disparity, neocolonialism, Westernization) (Raffle & Semple, 2010). The present study seeks to advance our understanding in this area by examining the process whereby STEM was internationally transferred to Vietnam and how this transfer has impacted Vietnamese science education as revealed by a review of recent research and educational policy in this country. Educational Transfer International transfer of educational policy and practice is a highly complex and dynamic phenomenon that has drawn considerable attention in scholarly fields such as comparative education. In this scholarship, educational transfer is theoretically conceived in terms of a variety of metaphorical concepts including lending, borrowing (one-way or two-way), flowing, traveling, transporting, border crossing, entanglement, adoption, emulation, and even learning (Raffe, 2011 ). A transferred policy or practice can be said to have been imposed, taken, adopted, lent, borrowed, transported, transplanted, etc. Alternatively, its transfer can be seen as a process of traveling somewhere else, crossing national borders, imitating others (mimesis), or akin to countries learning from the experience of other countries. Metaphorical choice is contingent upon a variety of factors such as one’s theoretical assumptions about directionality and motivation, perceptions of pejorative connotation, ideological positions, and scholarly values (Silova, et al., 2020 ). To ensure consistency and clarity, the more neutral term educational transfer is used throughout this paper. A clear trend in this scholarly literature is a growing realization that the movement of educational policy and practice across borders is not unidirectional, from the more developed West to the rest (Rizvi, 2004 ), as previously thought. Developing countries do not simply locate and borrow narrow practical solutions or “quick fixes” (Phillips & Ochs, 2003 ) from high-performing countries to improve education policy and practice at home. Instead, evidence exists that educational transfer in fact occurs both ways between developing and developed countries (Forestier & Crossley, 2014 ), giving rise to multiple global trajectories of educational change (Johnson, 2006 ; Silova, et al., 2020 ) that are yet to be subjected to systematic scholarly examination and analytical scrutiny. The Vietnamese Context In addition to a common interest in STEM, Vietnam shares many cultural similarities to other countries, particularly those with predominantly Confucian heritage cultures (e.g., China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, and Singapore) (Huang & Chang, 2017 ). Some features of traditional Vietnamese culture include spiritual concern, cultivation of virtues (benevolence, righteousness, civility, knowledge, and loyalty) and harmony with natural and social environments, family-centered collectivism, and valuing of theoretical knowledge in ancient classics (Hằng et al., 2015 ; Ho et al., 2020 ; Shohet, 2013 ). Also predominant are hierarchical relationships with a strong emphasis on respect for age and position both at home and in school, typically resulting in authoritative parenting styles, teacher-centered didactics, and normative expectations of filial piety, obedience, modesty and deferential respect for teachers (Boman, 2022 ). Like in many other Asian countries, textbooks are generally characterized by under-representation and gender-biased portrayal of women, and female students tend to be given less opportunities to interact with teachers or respond to questions than their male counterparts during classroom instruction (UNESCO, 2015 ). Moreover, textbooks tend to be devoid of any explicit messages about the nature of science (Thao-Do & Yuenyong, 2017 ). Other common problems include a lack of continuity between levels, teacher preparation that is too theory rather than practical, and use of obsolete pedagogical methods (Nguyen et al., 2020 ). Notwithstanding such similarities, research has revealed unusual educational trends in Vietnam, pointing to a unique case worthy of more careful consideration. For instance, despite being one of the poorest countries to participate in recent PISA assessments, Vietnam has consistently outperformed all other developing countries and many wealthier countries (Dang et al., 2023 ). As Table 1 shows, except for PISA 2022, Vietnamese students’ average scores in science were consistently higher than those of students from other OECD countries, with Vietnam ranking among the top ten highest national performances. Evidence also exists of a “reversed gender gap” with female students outperforming their male counterparts in STEM academic achievement (higher test scores and representation in higher education) (Ho et al., 2020 ). From 2012 to 2013, the rate of female students entering higher education increased from 30.29–52.49%, whereas male students’ representation decreased from 69.71 per cent to 47.51 per cent (MoET, 2014 ). A 2009 national assessment of achievement in Grade-9 mathematics and physics revealed an 8.4-point difference in mathematics and an 8-point difference in physics in favor of female students (UNESCO, 2015 ). Such unusual trends have been attributed to higher levels of parental encouragement, greater motivation and academic resilience (Boman, 2022 ; Ha & Lin, 2023 ), and a stronger emphasis on gender-equality in recent government policies and reform initiatives compared to other countries. Table 1 Vietnamese students’ science performance on PISA examinations. PISA 2012 PISA 2015 PISA 2018 PISA 2022 Viet Nam Rank 8/65 8/70 4/79 35/81 Mean score 528 525 543 472 S.E. (4.3) (3.9) (3.3) (3.6) OECD average Mean score 501 493 489 485 S.E. (0.5) (0.4) (0.4) (0.4) [Insert Table 1 here] Historical Background on STEM Transfer STEM education was first introduced to Vietnam in 2010 through a partnership between DTT – EDUSPEC (a joint venture between DTT Technology Joint Stock Company and Eduspec Holdings Berhad from Malaysia) and the Carnegie Mellon University in the USA. This partnership resulted in a STEM curriculum focused on information technology and robotics for K-12 education, which was piloted in three Vietnamese cities: Hanoi, Da Nang, and Ho Chi Minh City. Although this curriculum was aligned with the objectives (learning standards) of the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MoET), these initial STEM education activities did not yet constitute an official initiative within mainstream K-12 education. Instead, they were made available as a curricular alternative (supplementary curricula) independently developed and tested by international educational companies. Around the same time, the political atmosphere was that in the context of the knowledge economy and the Industrial Revolutions 3.0 and 4.0, Vietnam recognized the need for sustainable development and prioritized educational reform to enhance the quality of its human resources and equip future generations with the adaptability to navigate societal and environmental changes. This was shown in Resolution No. 29-NQ/TW, Dated November 4, 2013, from the 8th Conference of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party, on the Fundamental and Comprehensive Renovation of Education and Training, 2013. The introduction of STEM education coincided with such key policy initiatives. Its focus on practical, skills-based, and creative problem-solving approaches naturally aligned with the principles of the educational reform. This alignment likely catalyzed the formal adoption of STEM as a central educational strategy. While the systematic adoption of STEM education, analyzed below, reflects deliberate alignment with national development goals, a more robust theoretical framework might have better substantiated this hypothesis. However, no publication of such a framework has been identified. Nevertheless, the timing of STEM’s global emergence and Vietnam's strategic policy reforms appears to have created a unique opportunity to integrate STEM into its educational transformation in Vietnam. A little bit earlier, in the preliminary phase, beginning in 2011, the MoET issued numerous directives and documents to establish specific legal frameworks, encouraging educational managers across the country to effectively gather and connect resources necessary for implementing STEM education (for a chronological list of legal mandates, see Supplementary Information 1). The year of 2012 was particularly noteworthy as it saw the synchronized implementation of reforms in teaching methods, pedagogy, and educational assessment with the aim of integrating school learning with real-life contexts and hence enhance high school students’ problem-solving skills. An important outcome of these reforms was the creation of the “ Application of Interdisciplinary Knowledge to Solve Real-Life Situations for High School Students ” and “ Integrated Thematic Teaching for High School Teachers ” competitions by the Ministry of Education and Training. Attracting significant attention and active participation from educational leaders, administrators, teachers, students, and parents, these annual competitions encouraged practical application of knowledge from various subjects, were aimed at promoting student self-learning, “learning by doing,” interdisciplinary teaching, and family and community engagement in education. Entered student projects integrated varied STEM fields such as mechanics, biology, environment, etc. The success of these events was vital to the eventual inclusion of STEM education principles into the Ministry’s guidelines for secondary education in 2015. In 2016, the MoET collaborated with the British Council to pilot STEM education programs in fourteen secondary schools across several Vietnamese provinces. Students engaged in STEM projects are largely inspired by community issues directly affecting students’ lives (e.g., homemade dishwashing products, organic vegetable production). Many of these projects were entered into and won awards at competitions such as Science and Technology , Applying Interdisciplinary Knowledge to Solve Real-Life Situations , and STEM Education Innovations for High School Students . Significant steps were also taken at this time toward developing a nationally scaled STEM education program during an international workshop titled “ International Experiences in STEM Education and Challenges for Vietnam ” which was held in collaboration with Arizona State University in the USA. Additionally, several pilot schools organized STEM fairs where students shared their projects. Professional development workshops were also held at other schools where pilot teachers could share their experiences with instructors from other schools. This process of transferring STEM was completed in 2018 with the publication of the new Reform General Education Program (RGEP 2018). According to this document, STEM education is an educational model based on an interdisciplinary approach, which helps students apply scientific, technological, technical and mathematical knowledge to solve some practical problems in the specific context…[STEM] one of the educational trends that is being valued in many countries around the world and given due attention in this education reform of general education of Vietnam (pp. 20/36) Emphasizing the key importance of STEM education for training a technologically skillful and competitive workforce for Vietnam’s future, this legally mandated program outlines the basic educational principles, methods, content, and assessment that schools are legally required to implement across all educational levels. Lasting for a total of 12 years, formal science education in Vietnam comprises of primary education (grades 1–5), lower secondary education (grades 6–9), and upper secondary education (grades 10–12). Primary education includes the subjects titled Nature and Society and Science . In lower secondary education, students take Natural Science (a new integrated subject), and in upper secondary education they take more specialized classes ( Physics, Chemistry , and Biology , separately). School teachers are expected to take an interdisciplinary approach that combines STEM lessons, STEM experiential activities (STEM clubs where students can explore the applications of science and technology in real life), and research activities (STEM competitions for students’ innovative research projects). At the primary and lower secondary levels, the integration of Physics, Chemistry, and Biology is meant to enable students to acquire knowledge holistically, develop interdisciplinary thinking, and solve real-world problems (Nguyen, 2021). At the upper secondary level, the STEM activities are intended to encourage students to conduct research that aligns with their career orientations (Tran & Le, 2020) and offer them an opportunity to apply science to real-life situations, enhancing their creativity, collaboration, and problem-solving skills (Bybee, 2013 ). In addition to shifting the focus from teaching for knowledge transfer to teaching for capacity development, RGEP 2018 also emphasizes the need for teachers to promote student development of character (qualities such as patriotism, compassion, diligence, honesty, and responsibility) and several competencies (autonomy and self-learning, communication and collaboration, problem solving and creativity, language, calculation, science, technology, computing, aesthetics, and physique). The systematic implementation of STEM education in Vietnam gained significant momentum between 2020 and 2024 through a series of targeted circulars from the MoET. In 2020, Circular 3089/BGDĐT-GDTrH provided comprehensive guidance for secondary school teachers on implementing STEM education activities. This document outlined fundamental concepts, various forms of STEM education, evaluation regulations, and organizational frameworks specifically for secondary education. Following this directive, nationwide advanced training courses were conducted to enhance teachers’ and managers’ capabilities in organizing and implementing STEM teaching methods. The initiative expanded to primary education in 2022 with Circular 909/BGDĐT-GDTH, which adapted STEM education guidelines for primary school teachers. This was followed by widespread training programs for outstanding teachers across the country. Most recently, in 2024, Circular 3898/BGDĐT-GDTH outlined specific tasks for primary education in the 2024–2025 academic year, emphasizing the widespread implementation of STEM education. This latest directive also introduced digital learning resources to assist teachers in designing STEM teaching activities for their classrooms, marking a significant step toward comprehensive STEM integration across all educational levels. In sum, present-day science education in Vietnam is nationally framed by learning standards with a strong emphasis on STEM, a foreign acronym and educational approached believed to represent “best practice” internationally and thought to be capable of improving Vietnamese school system in terms of both quality and competitiveness. Such embrace of STEM is consistent with doi moi (innovation), larger socio-economic reforms that have been taking place in Vietnam for the last 30 years aimed at international integration and preparation for a globalized future (Nguyen et al., 2020 ). The next section describes the methodological approach used to assess the impact of this educational policy intervention on Vietnamese science education. Methodology To explore the implications—both potential benefits and challenges—of international transfer for science education, this study undertook a comprehensive review of recent literature on STEM education in Vietnam. The topic has garnered significant attention from domestic educational researchers in the years following the RGEP 2018 (spanning 2018–2024). The review sought to address the following key questions: What aspects of STEM education in Vietnam reflect strengths and opportunities as identified by the research? What weaknesses and potential threats have been highlighted in the research regarding the transfer of STEM education in Vietnam? How does the research characterize the early stages of international STEM transfer in Vietnam, including both progress and areas requiring further development? Questions 1 focuses on the strengths and opportunities of STEM transfer, while question 2 explores its weaknesses and threats. Question 3 on focuses on providing a holistic view of the early stages of international STEM transfer in Vietnam, balancing an evaluation of the progress made with an analysis of areas that require further development, thus offering insights into the evolving landscape of STEM education in the country. The research team employed the Publish or Perish tool to search for relevant publications within the Google Scholar database. Examples of the Vietnamese search descriptors used include “Giáo dục STEM” (“STEM education”), “Bài học STEM” (“STEM lessons”), “Dạy học STEM” (“STEM teaching”), “Chủ đề STEM” (“STEM topics”), “Tích hợp STEM” (“STEM integration”), and “Mô hình STEM” (“STEM model”). Our decision to use Google Scholar and the Publish or Perish tool was driven by the absence of a formal academic database (such as EBSCO or Scopus) specifically indexing Vietnamese journals. Additionally, challenges such as language barriers and publication fees often lead Vietnamese researchers to favor domestic journals. Initial searches through journal repositories and broader web searches via Google Scholar yielded 360 publications that were subsequently screened and assessed for relevance using the PRISMA flow process (Table 2 ). In the first screening, the selection criteria for eligible documents required the articles to be peer-reviewed and excluded literature reviews, experience reports, project reports, theses, dissertations, and conference proceedings. This initial screening reduced the dataset to 240 articles. The team reviewed abstracts to identify studies addressing the implementation and management of STEM education in Vietnam. We prioritized studies examining the implementation of STEM education at the school, ward, city, provincial or regional levels over those focused on single subjects and grades. In a second screening, studies examining subject-specific instructional designs (no interdisciplinary integration) or exploring teacher perceptions were excluded from the final dataset, though they were reviewed to provide context for broader studies. This process narrowed the dataset to 19 articles, but five full-text versions were inaccessible. Ultimately, 14 full-text publications met all inclusion criteria. The titles, abstracts, and keywords of these selected studies were translated into English and organized into a logic table. Table 2 PRISMA flow of literature review. Main flow Reasons for removal Identification 360 publications identified through Google Scholar search Screening 240 journal articles after screening 120 publications are removed for being Bachelor/Masters/PhD dissertations and Thesis, conference proceedings, books, book chapters, duplicates of other publications or unable to access full text. Eligibility 19 journal articles with abstracts assessed for eligibility 221 publications were removed for being focused on topics such as instructional design and teacher perception. Included 14 journal articles Five articles were excluded due to lack of access to full-text versions. [Insert Table 2 here] Out of the 14 articles included in the dataset: 03 articles about STEM education in top-tier cities (HN, HCM) 01 article about STEM education in second-tier city: Thai Nguyen province 01 article about STEM education in Dak Lak province 05 articles about STEM education in Northern mountainous areas: Tuyen Quang (3), Dien Bien (1) and Dak Lak (1) 01 article about STEM policy learning (the experience from the USA) 03 articles recommending models and policies to develop STEM education based on literature. The resulting corpus of articles was then analyzed using the four aspects in the SWOT framework (Benzaghta et al., 2021 ), namely Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats, as shown on Table 3 . Two groups of authors divided the task of reading and noting the contents of the reports from the publications. Supplementary Information 2 lists the 14 articles with the abstracts. Table 3 SWOT analytical framework used to analyze research articles. No. Article Reader STEM Education Implementation S W O T 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... [Insert Table 3 here] From the notes and data classification in the above table, the research team continued using thematic analysis with the dataset to produce the results presented in the next section of the paper. Thematic analysis is a qualitative research method aimed at uncovering underlying patterns that emerge from a dataset (Bogdan & Biklen 2003 ; Creswell, 2012 ). Beginning with up-close reading of the data and memoing, this flexible analytical approach allows for in-depth exploration, identification of nuanced themes, and rich and detailed accounts of a focal topic or phenomena. Results Around the world, STEM education is implemented in a variety of formats. In Vietnam, according to Official Document No. 3089/BGDĐT-GDTrH on the implementation of STEM education in secondary education, it can be categorized into three formats: lessons, experiential activities, and scientific or technical research activities. Most of the current publications on STEM education in Vietnam focus on proposing instructional designs for a specific lesson, subject, or grade level, aiming to share initiatives and experiences with other teachers and educators. These efforts help enrich the teaching resources and instructional suggestions that are still lacking in many schools and regions across the country. Additionally, some publications have started assessing the status of STEM education implementation in particular regions (Dinh & Nguyen, 2024 ; Bui et al., 2023), proposing models for STEM education management in secondary schools (Thai et al., 2022 ), offering solutions for developing STEM education in Vietnam (Bui & Nguyen, 2022 ), or studying international experiences for potential application in Vietnam (Nguyen & Pham, 2020 ). Research on STEM education in Vietnam has grown steadily, both in quantity (increasing from 22 papers in 2018 to 64 papers in 2023, according to the authors' dataset) and in diversity of topics. However, studies examining the overall situation and impact of STEM implementation remain limited, comprising only 19 out of 240 papers (approximately 8%). Through thematic analysis of these papers, this study explores the key benefits and drawbacks of adopting STEM education in Vietnam. The goal is to examine the existing knowledge base rather than provide a comprehensive review of all published literature. Strengths and Opportunities The strength of Vietnam’s STEM Education is first shown in the country’s robust commitment to advancing STEM education, supported by strong policy frameworks and a collaborative ecosystem. Since 2017, the nation has implemented numerous policies emphasizing STEM education as a core component of its industrialization and modernization agenda. This demonstrates a clear political will to integrate STEM into the education system. Contributions from diverse stakeholders, including educational entrepreneurs and national research councils, further enhance Vietnam’s STEM ecosystem, fostering a synergistic environment for innovation and learning (Thai et al., 2022 ). Since the latter half of 2024, MoET has implemented various measures to support teachers in designing learning content including Open Educational Resources tailored to each educational level. Funded by the Asian Development Bank STEM teaching resources were developed for teaching STEM at the primary school level (available at https://stemtieuhoc.edu.vn/ ) as well as at the secondary school level (available at https://stemtrunghoc.edu.vn/ ). Additionally, textbook providers for general education have supplemented electronic open learning resources, ensuring that teachers across all regions can access them with ease. Another key strength lies in the vibrant STEM activities and ecosystem that have emerged in various schools. Clubs, festivals, and interactive lessons provide students with engaging platforms to explore STEM subjects. These initiatives not only promote community engagement but also help to foster societal connections and increase public awareness about the importance of STEM education (Nguyen & Dang, 2019 ). Furthermore, the dedication to teacher training has bolstered the capacity of educators to effectively implement STEM curricula. Teachers across Vietnam benefit from diverse training methods, including online platforms that facilitate skill enhancement regardless of location. Collaborative communities and knowledge-sharing groups for STEM educators have also emerged, strengthening the network of professionals dedicated to innovative teaching practices (Nguyen, 2022 ) (Ha & Ma, 2023 ). Vietnam’s focus on STEM education also presents significant opportunities for the nation’s future, particularly in preparing students to meet global demands and emerging technological trends. The evolution of Vietnam’s curriculum toward linking theory with real-world problem-solving provides a dynamic learning environment for students. This practical approach develops critical thinking, teamwork, and problem-solving skills, preparing students for lifelong learning (Pham et al., 2022 ). In remote areas, such as the mountainous northern regions, the implementation of STEM activities has been particularly impactful, fostering student excitement and significantly improving critical thinking abilities among tenth graders (Nguyen & Dang, 2019 ). Educational institutions have embraced project-based learning and IT integration, further promoting scientific research and hosting competitions that encourage creativity and innovation (Nguyen, 2022 ). Globally, Vietnam is well-positioned to capitalize on emerging trends such as the Internet of Things and Artificial Intelligence. These advancements present significant opportunities for students and professionals to participate and excel in the global job market. With its emphasis on applied learning and innovation, Vietnam’s STEM education is poised to enable the country’s youth to thrive in a competitive international landscape (Nguyen & Pham, 2020 ) Weaknesses and Threats STEM education in Vietnam faces a range of challenges that threaten its effective implementation and long-term sustainability. These challenges can be divided into weaknesses, which highlight internal constraints, and threats, which stem from external factors. One of the most significant weaknesses of STEM education in Vietnam is the limited financial resources and lack of infrastructure. Funding for STEM activities remains insufficient, leaving both teachers and students without the necessary materials and guidance to conduct effective STEM lessons (Ha & Ma, 2023 ). Rural schools suffer from a lack of tools and equipment, further widening the gap in STEM education quality between urban and rural areas (Doan et al., 2023 ). Uneven teacher capacity across regions exacerbates this disparity, as rural teachers often face more difficulties in implementing STEM programs compared to their urban counterparts. Another challenge lies in the management and organization of STEM education. Despite the government’s educational vision, there is a lack of clear guidance on how policies should be translated into actionable lesson plans and classroom practices. For example, Quang et al. ( 2015 ) highlighted the need for structured templates and procedural steps to help teachers develop and execute STEM lessons effectively. Many regions implement STEM education in a superficial manner, lacking the comprehensive planning and regular execution necessary for long-term success (Thai et al., 2022 ). Additionally, both teachers and administrators often lack familiarity with STEM concepts, methods, and skills, resulting in disagreements about implementation strategies (Ha & Ma, 2023 ; Dinh & Nguyen, 2024 ) The limited capacity of teachers further compounds these issues. Secondary teachers often avoid implementing STEM activities due to time constraints and the pressure to prioritize standardized test scores over skills like critical thinking and problem-solving (Nguyen et al., 2019 ). Secondary teachers in Nguyen et al.’s ( 2019 ) study reported infrequent classroom implementation of STEM activities due to time constraints (STEM activities were considered too time consuming) and pressure to ensure students scored high on standardized examinations. As Nguyen et al. ( 2019 ) write, “[Vietnamese] Parents want their children to gain high academic achievements (grades), and they are not concerned about other factors such as the ability to solve problems or to develop critical thinking ability of their children (p. 2)” Furthermore, Studies emphasized the content demands (the need to know many subject areas) as a major challenge for Vietnamese teachers who set out to implement STEM. Quang et al. ( 2015 ) writes, “Currently, it is not practical to combine all the STEM subjects into a whole for an individual teacher in secondary schools. Therefore, teachers should find out the intersection of subjects to integrate through their collaboration” (p. 5). The suggested way of handling this problem is collaboration with teachers of other disciplines. However, the feasibility of such collaboration remains unclear given teachers’ busy schedules. In addition, teachers struggle to keep pace with rapid technological advancements and face language barriers that restrict their access to international STEM resources (Doan et al., 2023 ). Externally, Vietnam’s STEM education is vulnerable to threats that could hinder its progress. The fast pace of global technological development and the increasing complexity of STEM fields create pressure for Vietnam to remain competitive. Without sufficient investment in teacher training, infrastructure, and resources, the country risks falling behind international standards in STEM education. Additionally, societal attitudes that prioritize grades and academic achievements over practical skills like problem-solving and critical thinking limit the adoption of more holistic STEM approaches (Nguyen et al., 2019 ). Overall Impact The implementation of STEM education in Vietnam reveals significant regional disparities, reflecting the country’s diverse socio-economic landscape. The provinces examined in this study represent three distinct tiers of development. The first tier includes the most developed cities, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, characterized by advanced infrastructure and greater economic resources. The second tier consists of medium-sized cities such as Thai Nguyen in Northern Vietnam, which display moderate levels of economic development. Finally, the third tier comprises the less economically developed mountainous northern regions, including Dak Lak, Tuyen Quang, and Dien Bien. While it may still be premature to draw definitive conclusions, preliminary observations indicate that schools across these varying contexts have made commendable efforts to optimize their resources. Despite the stark differences in facilities and financial support, schools have organized a range of STEM-focused initiatives, including activities, clubs, festivals, and lessons. These efforts underscore a widespread enthusiasm for STEM education and reflect the extensive reach and influence of national STEM policies, even in resource-constrained settings. However, the scope of current research presents notable limitations. Existing studies predominantly focus on small-scale settings, such as individual schools or localities, rather than examining broader socio-economic regions or clusters of provinces and cities with similar demographic and economic characteristics. Consequently, the findings do not allow for generalized conclusions about the state of STEM education across Vietnam. A key factor contributing to this limitation is the relatively recent implementation of the 2018 General Education Program. With only six years since its inception, the program has not yet provided sufficient time or data to facilitate evaluations on a larger scale. This highlights the need for more extensive and longitudinal studies to comprehensively assess the long-term impacts of STEM education across diverse regions of Vietnam. Discussion International transfer of STEM education to Vietnam has produced benefits and challenges. Key benefits include student excitement and joy, increased community engagement in school activities, enhanced public awareness of education, instruction with a stronger emphasis on practical and applied learning, and a curriculum with stronger societal connections that encourages student creativity, and innovation, critical thinking, and teamwork. However, challenges have also arisen. Important complications include limited financial resources and infrastructure, lack of teacher preparation and training, time constraints, and pressure to ensure students perform well on standardized examinations. The significance of these findings is now considered. The Content, Knowledge and Pedagogy Challenge One of the main challenges created by the international transfer of STEM in Vietnam was the content demands. As indicated above, content integration is a major part of GEP 2018 particularly in the lower secondary level where it led to the creation of the completely new school subject of natural science . However, this requirement is largely inconsistent with the present state of pre-service science teacher training in Vietnam. Most pre-service teacher programs require four years of undergraduate coursework and about 10 weeks of student-teaching practicum, producing specialized teachers whose content knowledge is limited to a single discipline (physics, chemistry and biology) (Nguyen et al., 2020 ). The pathway to becoming a science teacher at the secondary level does not allow for teacher development of interdisciplinary content expertise. Pre-service teachers are not prepared to become future instructors of STEM even though that is de facto the type of professional expertise expected of them at the policy level. Another pressing challenge is the requirement for the implementation of STEM education by in-service teachers. These teachers were originally trained in specialized fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, or mathematics. They need to undergo retraining (in STEM knowledge, integrated teaching methods, and teaching organization skills) to adapt to the current demands of STEM education. As Nguyen et al. ( 2020 ) write, One of the greatest challenges for teachers who normally taught single science subjects has been becoming acquainted with delivering integrated science topics. This trend has created a need to rapidly increase in-service teacher training in science education teaching and learning. Even though in-service teacher training is being offered by the MoET, it remains unclear the extent to which such official support will in fact help solve the contradiction between teaching preparation and practice that seems to have resulted from international transfer of STEM in Vietnam. The importance of this issue is particularly evident in Vietnamese teachers’ expressed sense of disempowerment over their own professional preparation and school system. Their perceived inability to solve the tensions and contradictions that resulted from the international transfer of STEM education underscores the possibility of such practice having the unintended effect of reducing teachers’ control over their own educational system, making them feel excluded from curricular decisions, and reducing their professional status. As emphasized by Ball ( 2005 ), as a result of globalizing educational practice, “the teacher is ‘re-constructed’ to be a technician and not a professional capable of critical judgment and reflection. Teaching is just a job, a set of skills to be acquired” (p. 548). Transfer as Borrowing versus Transfer as Learning The numerous complications arising from the international transfer of STEM to Vietnam highlight the contentious debates surrounding this educational practice in contemporary scholarly discourse. Many scholars caution against importing methods of teaching and educational models, arguing that care should be taken before deciding to embrace foreign educational approaches like STEM. Pugliese & Santos ( 2022 ) describe STEM education as “an American heritage that is often imported uncritically, also copies the vices and problems of this educational system” (p. 6). Others warn of the dangers of simplistic or uncritical international transfer that ignores local context and cultural differences (Crossley & Watson, 2003; Leung, 2012; Steiner-Khamsi, 2010), without piloting or more extensive research. Raffe ( 2011 ) criticizes the ‘deficit’ model of school reform traditionally taken by policy makers who simply look for a “ quick fix ” solution or a “ shortcut ” abroad as part of their efforts to correct the presumed weaknesses of their own educational system. Rather than blindly borrowing what is assumed to be “transferable best practice” and possibly a panacea, educators should critically learn from the experience of other countries (i.e., carefully consider their success as well as failures, limitations, contextual differences, etc.). Referred to as “policy learning” (Raffe, 2011 ), this latter approach to educational transfer is described as being focused on “good practice” as opposed to “best practice,” and as having the potential to inform and enrich a country’s policy-making process, thus leading to the development of educational policies and practices that better suit national needs and local circumstances. When approached in this reflective and critical manner, educational transfer from abroad can serve as a source of new insights and highlight ways that educators can improve their country’s educational system without overemphasizing competitiveness or being too narrowly focused on standardized student performance on international assessments. As revealed by our literature review, these benefits may include student excitement and joy, increased community engagement in school activities, enhanced public awareness of education, instruction with a stronger emphasis on practical and applied learning, and a curriculum with stronger societal connections that encourages student creativity and innovation, critical thinking, and teamwork. Ambiguity Surrounding STEM The international transfer of STEM should be considered in light of the ambiguity that still surrounds this teaching approach. Recent research has revealed considerable confusion, misunderstanding, and variance in how educators view STEM teaching and learning (Becker & Park, 2011); Breiner et al., 2012; Radloff & Guzzey, 2016). There is also general ambiguity surrounding what constitutes various levels of integration, what the boundaries for each discipline are, and even how many disciplines are integrated (Sanders, 2009 ; English, 2016). There is also a wide variation in the types of lessons that are classified as “STEM,” with most lessons exhibiting a disciplinary bias towards one specific field (Author, 2020 ). This variation in what is purported as integrated STEM curricula suggests a general need for greater clarity about not only what constitutes STEM education but also how educators conceptualize it. Yet, despite this lack of clarity and consensus, international transfer of STEM education has already reached global levels, raising questions about the possibility of this educational practice being transferred too hastily. As Vietnam’s case shows well, educational transfers like these are inevitably risky, being characterized by strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Rather than simply “jumping on the bandwagon,” educators need to take a reflective pause and critically assess the opportunities and risks associated with transferring practices such as STEM from abroad. Additional research is needed to explore the extent to which this decision-making process may be influenced by educators’ risk-taking behaviors (Beghetto, 2009 ; Le Fevre, 2014 ; Ponticell, 2003 ). Future studies will need to examine how educators in different countries deal with the uncertainties of educational transfer, making them more or less amenable to imported innovation and externally adopted reform. Conclusion As science education has become increasingly influenced by globalization, it has created great opportunities for productive sharing of educational practices and exchange of innovative approaches like integrated STEM across national borders. The ultimate result has been the rise of international transfer as a pervasive educational practice on a global scale, broadly shaping curriculum development, teaching methodologies, teacher preparation, and educational policies. However, internationally transferring practice and policy is far from being a panacea for the education of any country. Whether it ultimately amounts to help or hindrance to the improvement of a country’s educational system depends on educators’ ability to critically weigh strengths, opportunities, weaknesses, and threats in light of their own national contexts. This is what we hope the present examination of STEM education in Vietnam will help educators worldwide accomplish. Declarations Ethics and Consent to Publish declaration: not applicable Funding Statement: The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work. Conflicts of interest/Competing interests: The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Consent to Participate declaration: Not applicable. Clinical trial number: Not applicable. Author Contribution Alandeom W. 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Rather than simply reflecting the sociopolitical and historico-cultural idiosyncrasies of a given country, teaching and learning are inevitably entangled with the educational world beyond its national borders. This inevitability underscores the global dimension of modern education as well as a pressing need for scholarship to move past isolationist views and consider educational practices in relation to the wider global context (Silova, Rappleye, \u0026amp; Auld, 2020). A case in point is STEM education. Originally coined in the United States over thirty years ago (Honey et al. 2014; Hudson, 2015), STEM now permeates the rhetoric of the field of education internationally. Designed as an easy reference in English to the numerous professional fields that make up the academic disciplines of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics, STEM has evolved from a mere acronym to a far-reaching \u0026ldquo;buzzword\u0026rdquo; whose deployment transcends national and linguistic borders. Central to political and academic efforts aimed at educational improvement, STEM is now commonly used in places as varied as South Korea (Hong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), Brazil (Pugliese \u0026amp; Santos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), Kazakhstan (Erbolovna et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), Australia (Australian Curriculum, Assessment, and Reporting Authority, 2016), Europe (European Commission, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) to name a few. \u0026ldquo;STEMmania\u0026rdquo; (Sanders, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) appears to have reached an international level, corroborating arguments that education is currently living \u0026ldquo;the age of STEM\u0026rdquo; (Freeman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Roehrig et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLike countless countries worldwide, Vietnam has witnessed an increased emphasis on STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics). Viewed as a critically important driver of economic growth, societal prosperity, and technoscientific advancement, STEM has figured prominently in Vietnamese educational circles, reform efforts, and policy discourse. Such a trend culminated in the recent publication of the \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Gi\u0026aacute;o dục phổ th\u0026ocirc;ng 2018\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e curriculum (CTGDPT 2018), a national education policy with a strong emphasis on STEM education at the primary and secondary school levels (MoET, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Aimed at enhancing teaching and learning effectiveness, this legally mandated curriculum emphasizes interdisciplinary teaching and real-world problem-solving with the goal of equipping Vietnamese students with practical knowledge and skills (creativity, collaboration, communication, etc.) needed to ensure the nation\u0026rsquo;s competitiveness in the twenty first century\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003eFourth Industrial Revolution\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; a new industrial era characterized by the fusion of technological advances in artificial intelligence, robotics, the Internet of Things, genetic engineering, quantum computing, and more.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe seemingly ubiquitous presence of STEM in educational discourse around the globe (regardless of language) points to an instance of \u003cem\u003eeducational transfer\u003c/em\u003e (Crossley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Forestier \u0026amp; Crossley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), a cross-national phenomenon wherein an foreign educational practice or policy seen as a feasible reform option is transferred from \u0026ldquo;somewhere else\u0026rdquo; (abroad) to the educational context of a completely different nation. As a direct result of globalization and the rise of international tests like PISA and TIMSS (Forestier \u0026amp; Crossley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Pugliese, \u0026amp; Santos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), educational reforms now \u0026lsquo;\u0026lsquo;travel\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo; internationally with an accelerated pace, raising questions about the appropriateness, effectiveness, and impact of a practice yet to be well understood (Burdett \u0026amp; O\u0026rsquo;Donnell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Because international transfer so readily informs educational reform, concern has been voiced over the possibility of there being unintended consequences and unforeseen complications (e.g., social inequity/disparity, neocolonialism, Westernization) (Raffle \u0026amp; Semple, 2010). The present study seeks to advance our understanding in this area by examining the process whereby STEM was internationally transferred to Vietnam and how this transfer has impacted Vietnamese science education as revealed by a review of recent research and educational policy in this country.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEducational Transfer\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInternational transfer of educational policy and practice is a highly complex and dynamic phenomenon that has drawn considerable attention in scholarly fields such as comparative education. In this scholarship, educational transfer is theoretically conceived in terms of a variety of metaphorical concepts including lending, borrowing (one-way or two-way), flowing, traveling, transporting, border crossing, entanglement, adoption, emulation, and even learning (Raffe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). A transferred policy or practice can be said to have been imposed, taken, adopted, lent, borrowed, transported, transplanted, etc. Alternatively, its transfer can be seen as a process of traveling somewhere else, crossing national borders, imitating others (mimesis), or akin to countries learning from the experience of other countries. Metaphorical choice is contingent upon a variety of factors such as one\u0026rsquo;s theoretical assumptions about directionality and motivation, perceptions of pejorative connotation, ideological positions, and scholarly values (Silova, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). To ensure consistency and clarity, the more neutral term \u003cem\u003eeducational transfer\u003c/em\u003e is used throughout this paper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA clear trend in this scholarly literature is a growing realization that the movement of educational policy and practice across borders is not unidirectional, from the more developed West to the rest (Rizvi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), as previously thought. Developing countries do not simply locate and borrow narrow practical solutions or \u0026ldquo;quick fixes\u0026rdquo; (Phillips \u0026amp; Ochs, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) from high-performing countries to improve education policy and practice at home. Instead, evidence exists that educational transfer in fact occurs both ways between developing and developed countries (Forestier \u0026amp; Crossley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), giving rise to multiple global trajectories of educational change (Johnson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Silova, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) that are yet to be subjected to systematic scholarly examination and analytical scrutiny.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Vietnamese Context\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to a common interest in STEM, Vietnam shares many cultural similarities to other countries, particularly those with predominantly Confucian heritage cultures (e.g., China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, and Singapore) (Huang \u0026amp; Chang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Some features of traditional Vietnamese culture include spiritual concern, cultivation of virtues (benevolence, righteousness, civility, knowledge, and loyalty) and harmony with natural and social environments, family-centered collectivism, and valuing of theoretical knowledge in ancient classics (Hằng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Shohet, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Also predominant are hierarchical relationships with a strong emphasis on respect for age and position both at home and in school, typically resulting in authoritative parenting styles, teacher-centered didactics, and normative expectations of filial piety, obedience, modesty and deferential respect for teachers (Boman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Like in many other Asian countries, textbooks are generally characterized by under-representation and gender-biased portrayal of women, and female students tend to be given less opportunities to interact with teachers or respond to questions than their male counterparts during classroom instruction (UNESCO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, textbooks tend to be devoid of any explicit messages about the nature of science (Thao-Do \u0026amp; Yuenyong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Other common problems include a lack of continuity between levels, teacher preparation that is too theory rather than practical, and use of obsolete pedagogical methods (Nguyen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotwithstanding such similarities, research has revealed unusual educational trends in Vietnam, pointing to a unique case worthy of more careful consideration. For instance, despite being one of the poorest countries to participate in recent PISA assessments, Vietnam has consistently outperformed all other developing countries and many wealthier countries (Dang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). As Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows, except for PISA 2022, Vietnamese students\u0026rsquo; average scores in science were consistently higher than those of students from other OECD countries, with Vietnam ranking among the top ten highest national performances. Evidence also exists of a \u0026ldquo;reversed gender gap\u0026rdquo; with female students outperforming their male counterparts in STEM academic achievement (higher test scores and representation in higher education) (Ho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). From 2012 to 2013, the rate of female students entering higher education increased from 30.29\u0026ndash;52.49%, whereas male students\u0026rsquo; representation decreased from 69.71 per cent to 47.51 per cent (MoET, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). A 2009 national assessment of achievement in Grade-9 mathematics and physics revealed an 8.4-point difference in mathematics and an 8-point difference in physics in favor of female students (UNESCO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Such unusual trends have been attributed to higher levels of parental encouragement, greater motivation and academic resilience (Boman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Ha \u0026amp; Lin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), and a stronger emphasis on gender-equality in recent government policies and reform initiatives compared to other countries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVietnamese students\u0026rsquo; science performance on PISA examinations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePISA 2012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePISA 2015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePISA 2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePISA 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eViet Nam\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8/65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8/70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4/79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35/81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e528\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e525\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e543\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e472\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS.E.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(4.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3.9)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3.6)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOECD average\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e501\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e493\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e489\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e485\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS.E.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.4)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHistorical Background on STEM Transfer\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTEM education was first introduced to Vietnam in 2010 through a partnership between DTT \u0026ndash; EDUSPEC (a joint venture between DTT Technology Joint Stock Company and Eduspec Holdings Berhad from Malaysia) and the Carnegie Mellon University in the USA. This partnership resulted in a STEM curriculum focused on information technology and robotics for K-12 education, which was piloted in three Vietnamese cities: Hanoi, Da Nang, and Ho Chi Minh City. Although this curriculum was aligned with the objectives (learning standards) of the Vietnamese \u003cem\u003eMinistry of Education and Training\u003c/em\u003e (MoET), these initial STEM education activities did not yet constitute an official initiative within mainstream K-12 education. Instead, they were made available as a curricular alternative (supplementary curricula) independently developed and tested by international educational companies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAround the same time, the political atmosphere was that in the context of the knowledge economy and the Industrial Revolutions 3.0 and 4.0, Vietnam recognized the need for sustainable development and prioritized educational reform to enhance the quality of its human resources and equip future generations with the adaptability to navigate societal and environmental changes. This was shown in Resolution No. 29-NQ/TW, Dated November 4, 2013, from the 8th Conference of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party, on the Fundamental and Comprehensive Renovation of Education and Training, 2013. The introduction of STEM education coincided with such key policy initiatives. Its focus on practical, skills-based, and creative problem-solving approaches naturally aligned with the principles of the educational reform. This alignment likely catalyzed the formal adoption of STEM as a central educational strategy. While the systematic adoption of STEM education, analyzed below, reflects deliberate alignment with national development goals, a more robust theoretical framework might have better substantiated this hypothesis. However, no publication of such a framework has been identified. Nevertheless, the timing of STEM\u0026rsquo;s global emergence and Vietnam's strategic policy reforms appears to have created a unique opportunity to integrate STEM into its educational transformation in Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA little bit earlier, in the preliminary phase, beginning in 2011, \u003cem\u003ethe MoET\u003c/em\u003e issued numerous directives and documents to establish specific legal frameworks, encouraging educational managers across the country to effectively gather and connect resources necessary for implementing STEM education (for a chronological list of legal mandates, see Supplementary Information 1). The year of 2012 was particularly noteworthy as it saw the synchronized implementation of reforms in teaching methods, pedagogy, and educational assessment with the aim of integrating school learning with real-life contexts and hence enhance high school students\u0026rsquo; problem-solving skills. An important outcome of these reforms was the creation of the \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eApplication of Interdisciplinary Knowledge to Solve Real-Life Situations for High School Students\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eIntegrated Thematic Teaching for High School Teachers\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; competitions by the Ministry of Education and Training. Attracting significant attention and active participation from educational leaders, administrators, teachers, students, and parents, these annual competitions encouraged practical application of knowledge from various subjects, were aimed at promoting student self-learning, \u0026ldquo;learning by doing,\u0026rdquo; interdisciplinary teaching, and family and community engagement in education. Entered student projects integrated varied STEM fields such as mechanics, biology, environment, etc. The success of these events was vital to the eventual inclusion of STEM education principles into the Ministry\u0026rsquo;s guidelines for secondary education in 2015.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn 2016, the MoET collaborated with the British Council to pilot STEM education programs in fourteen secondary schools across several Vietnamese provinces. Students engaged in STEM projects are largely inspired by community issues directly affecting students\u0026rsquo; lives (e.g., homemade dishwashing products, organic vegetable production). Many of these projects were entered into and won awards at competitions such as \u003cem\u003eScience and Technology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eApplying Interdisciplinary Knowledge to Solve Real-Life Situations\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eSTEM Education Innovations for High School Students\u003c/em\u003e. Significant steps were also taken at this time toward developing a nationally scaled STEM education program during an international workshop titled \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eInternational Experiences in STEM Education and Challenges for Vietnam\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; which was held in collaboration with Arizona State University in the USA. Additionally, several pilot schools organized STEM fairs where students shared their projects. Professional development workshops were also held at other schools where pilot teachers could share their experiences with instructors from other schools.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis process of transferring STEM was completed in 2018 with the publication of the new \u003cem\u003eReform General Education Program\u003c/em\u003e (RGEP 2018). According to this document,\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSTEM education is an educational model based on an interdisciplinary approach, which helps students apply scientific, technological, technical and mathematical knowledge to solve some practical problems in the specific context\u0026hellip;[STEM] one of the educational trends that is being valued in many countries around the world and given due attention in this education reform of general education of Vietnam (pp. 20/36)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmphasizing the key importance of STEM education for training a technologically skillful and competitive workforce for Vietnam\u0026rsquo;s future, this legally mandated program outlines the basic educational principles, methods, content, and assessment that schools are legally required to implement across all educational levels. Lasting for a total of 12 years, formal science education in Vietnam comprises of \u003cem\u003eprimary education\u003c/em\u003e (grades 1\u0026ndash;5), \u003cem\u003elower secondary education\u003c/em\u003e (grades 6\u0026ndash;9), and \u003cem\u003eupper secondary education\u003c/em\u003e (grades 10\u0026ndash;12). Primary education includes the subjects titled \u003cem\u003eNature and Society\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eScience\u003c/em\u003e. In lower secondary education, students take \u003cem\u003eNatural Science\u003c/em\u003e (a new integrated subject), and in upper secondary education they take more specialized classes (\u003cem\u003ePhysics, Chemistry\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eBiology\u003c/em\u003e, separately). School teachers are expected to take an interdisciplinary approach that combines STEM lessons, STEM experiential activities (STEM clubs where students can explore the applications of science and technology in real life), and research activities (STEM competitions for students\u0026rsquo; innovative research projects).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the primary and lower secondary levels, the integration of Physics, Chemistry, and Biology is meant to enable students to acquire knowledge holistically, develop interdisciplinary thinking, and solve real-world problems (Nguyen, 2021). At the upper secondary level, the STEM activities are intended to encourage students to conduct research that aligns with their career orientations (Tran \u0026amp; Le, 2020) and offer them an opportunity to apply science to real-life situations, enhancing their creativity, collaboration, and problem-solving skills (Bybee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to shifting the focus from teaching for knowledge transfer to teaching for capacity development, RGEP 2018 also emphasizes the need for teachers to promote student development of character (qualities such as patriotism, compassion, diligence, honesty, and responsibility) and several competencies (autonomy and self-learning, communication and collaboration, problem solving and creativity, language, calculation, science, technology, computing, aesthetics, and physique).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe systematic implementation of STEM education in Vietnam gained significant momentum between 2020 and 2024 through a series of targeted circulars from the MoET. In 2020, Circular 3089/BGDĐT-GDTrH provided comprehensive guidance for secondary school teachers on implementing STEM education activities. This document outlined fundamental concepts, various forms of STEM education, evaluation regulations, and organizational frameworks specifically for secondary education. Following this directive, nationwide advanced training courses were conducted to enhance teachers\u0026rsquo; and managers\u0026rsquo; capabilities in organizing and implementing STEM teaching methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe initiative expanded to primary education in 2022 with Circular 909/BGDĐT-GDTH, which adapted STEM education guidelines for primary school teachers. This was followed by widespread training programs for outstanding teachers across the country. Most recently, in 2024, Circular 3898/BGDĐT-GDTH outlined specific tasks for primary education in the 2024\u0026ndash;2025 academic year, emphasizing the widespread implementation of STEM education. This latest directive also introduced digital learning resources to assist teachers in designing STEM teaching activities for their classrooms, marking a significant step toward comprehensive STEM integration across all educational levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn sum, present-day science education in Vietnam is nationally framed by learning standards with a strong emphasis on STEM, a foreign acronym and educational approached believed to represent \u0026ldquo;best practice\u0026rdquo; internationally and thought to be capable of improving Vietnamese school system in terms of both quality and competitiveness. Such embrace of STEM is consistent with \u003cem\u003edoi moi\u003c/em\u003e (innovation), larger socio-economic reforms that have been taking place in Vietnam for the last 30 years aimed at international integration and preparation for a globalized future (Nguyen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The next section describes the methodological approach used to assess the impact of this educational policy intervention on Vietnamese science education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo explore the implications\u0026mdash;both potential benefits and challenges\u0026mdash;of international transfer for science education, this study undertook a comprehensive review of recent literature on STEM education in Vietnam. The topic has garnered significant attention from domestic educational researchers in the years following the RGEP 2018 (spanning 2018\u0026ndash;2024). The review sought to address the following key questions:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat aspects of STEM education in Vietnam reflect strengths and opportunities as identified by the research?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat weaknesses and potential threats have been highlighted in the research regarding the transfer of STEM education in Vietnam?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow does the research characterize the early stages of international STEM transfer in Vietnam, including both progress and areas requiring further development?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuestions 1 focuses on the strengths and opportunities of STEM transfer, while question 2 explores its weaknesses and threats. Question 3 on focuses on providing a holistic view of the early stages of international STEM transfer in Vietnam, balancing an evaluation of the progress made with an analysis of areas that require further development, thus offering insights into the evolving landscape of STEM education in the country.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research team employed the Publish or Perish tool to search for relevant publications within the Google Scholar database. Examples of the Vietnamese search descriptors used include \u0026ldquo;Gi\u0026aacute;o dục STEM\u0026rdquo; (\u0026ldquo;STEM education\u0026rdquo;), \u0026ldquo;B\u0026agrave;i học STEM\u0026rdquo; (\u0026ldquo;STEM lessons\u0026rdquo;), \u0026ldquo;Dạy học STEM\u0026rdquo; (\u0026ldquo;STEM teaching\u0026rdquo;), \u0026ldquo;Chủ đề STEM\u0026rdquo; (\u0026ldquo;STEM topics\u0026rdquo;), \u0026ldquo;T\u0026iacute;ch hợp STEM\u0026rdquo; (\u0026ldquo;STEM integration\u0026rdquo;), and \u0026ldquo;M\u0026ocirc; h\u0026igrave;nh STEM\u0026rdquo; (\u0026ldquo;STEM model\u0026rdquo;). Our decision to use Google Scholar and the Publish or Perish tool was driven by the absence of a formal academic database (such as EBSCO or Scopus) specifically indexing Vietnamese journals. Additionally, challenges such as language barriers and publication fees often lead Vietnamese researchers to favor domestic journals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInitial searches through journal repositories and broader web searches via Google Scholar yielded 360 publications that were subsequently screened and assessed for relevance using the PRISMA flow process (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). In the first screening, the selection criteria for eligible documents required the articles to be peer-reviewed and excluded literature reviews, experience reports, project reports, theses, dissertations, and conference proceedings. This initial screening reduced the dataset to 240 articles. The team reviewed abstracts to identify studies addressing the implementation and management of STEM education in Vietnam. We prioritized studies examining the implementation of STEM education at the school, ward, city, provincial or regional levels over those focused on single subjects and grades. In a second screening, studies examining subject-specific instructional designs (no interdisciplinary integration) or exploring teacher perceptions were excluded from the final dataset, though they were reviewed to provide context for broader studies. This process narrowed the dataset to 19 articles, but five full-text versions were inaccessible. Ultimately, 14 full-text publications met all inclusion criteria. The titles, abstracts, and keywords of these selected studies were translated into English and organized into a logic table.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePRISMA flow of literature review.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMain flow\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReasons for removal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIdentification\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e360 publications identified through Google Scholar search\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eScreening\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e240 journal articles after screening\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e120 publications are removed for being Bachelor/Masters/PhD\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003edissertations and Thesis, conference proceedings, books, book chapters, duplicates of other publications or unable to access full text.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEligibility\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 journal articles with abstracts assessed for eligibility\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e221 publications were removed for being focused on topics such as instructional design and teacher perception.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIncluded\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 journal articles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFive articles were excluded due to lack of access to full-text versions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOut of the 14 articles included in the dataset:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e03 articles about STEM education in top-tier cities (HN, HCM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e01 article about STEM education in second-tier city: Thai Nguyen province\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e01 article about STEM education in Dak Lak province\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e05 articles about STEM education in Northern mountainous areas: Tuyen Quang (3), Dien Bien (1) and Dak Lak (1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e01 article about STEM policy learning (the experience from the USA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e03 articles recommending models and policies to develop STEM education based on literature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe resulting corpus of articles was then analyzed using the four aspects in the SWOT framework (Benzaghta et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), namely Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats, as shown on Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. Two groups of authors divided the task of reading and noting the contents of the reports from the publications. Supplementary Information 2 lists the 14 articles with the abstracts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSWOT analytical framework used to analyze research articles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArticle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReader\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTEM Education Implementation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eW\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e...\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e...\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e...\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e...\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e...\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e...\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Insert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e here]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the notes and data classification in the above table, the research team continued using \u003cb\u003ethematic analysis\u003c/b\u003e with the dataset to produce the results presented in the next section of the paper. Thematic analysis is a qualitative research method aimed at uncovering underlying patterns that emerge from a dataset (Bogdan \u0026amp; Biklen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Creswell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Beginning with up-close reading of the data and memoing, this flexible analytical approach allows for in-depth exploration, identification of nuanced themes, and rich and detailed accounts of a focal topic or phenomena.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eAround the world, STEM education is implemented in a variety of formats. In Vietnam, according to Official Document No. 3089/BGDĐT-GDTrH on the implementation of STEM education in secondary education, it can be categorized into three formats: lessons, experiential activities, and scientific or technical research activities. Most of the current publications on STEM education in Vietnam focus on proposing instructional designs for a specific lesson, subject, or grade level, aiming to share initiatives and experiences with other teachers and educators. These efforts help enrich the teaching resources and instructional suggestions that are still lacking in many schools and regions across the country. Additionally, some publications have started assessing the status of STEM education implementation in particular regions (Dinh \u0026amp; Nguyen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Bui et al., 2023), proposing models for STEM education management in secondary schools (Thai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), offering solutions for developing STEM education in Vietnam (Bui \u0026amp; Nguyen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), or studying international experiences for potential application in Vietnam (Nguyen \u0026amp; Pham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on STEM education in Vietnam has grown steadily, both in quantity (increasing from 22 papers in 2018 to 64 papers in 2023, according to the authors' dataset) and in diversity of topics. However, studies examining the overall situation and impact of STEM implementation remain limited, comprising only 19 out of 240 papers (approximately 8%). Through thematic analysis of these papers, this study explores the key benefits and drawbacks of adopting STEM education in Vietnam. The goal is to examine the existing knowledge base rather than provide a comprehensive review of all published literature.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStrengths and Opportunities\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe strength of Vietnam\u0026rsquo;s STEM Education is first shown in the country\u0026rsquo;s robust commitment to advancing STEM education, supported by strong policy frameworks and a collaborative ecosystem. Since 2017, the nation has implemented numerous policies emphasizing STEM education as a core component of its industrialization and modernization agenda. This demonstrates a clear political will to integrate STEM into the education system. Contributions from diverse stakeholders, including educational entrepreneurs and national research councils, further enhance Vietnam\u0026rsquo;s STEM ecosystem, fostering a synergistic environment for innovation and learning (Thai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Since the latter half of 2024, MoET has implemented various measures to support teachers in designing learning content including Open Educational Resources tailored to each educational level. Funded by the Asian Development Bank STEM teaching resources were developed for teaching STEM at the primary school level (available at \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://stemtieuhoc.edu.vn/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://stemtieuhoc.edu.vn/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) as well as at the secondary school level (available at \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://stemtrunghoc.edu.vn/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://stemtrunghoc.edu.vn/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, textbook providers for general education have supplemented electronic open learning resources, ensuring that teachers across all regions can access them with ease.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother key strength lies in the vibrant STEM activities and ecosystem that have emerged in various schools. Clubs, festivals, and interactive lessons provide students with engaging platforms to explore STEM subjects. These initiatives not only promote community engagement but also help to foster societal connections and increase public awareness about the importance of STEM education (Nguyen \u0026amp; Dang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the dedication to teacher training has bolstered the capacity of educators to effectively implement STEM curricula. Teachers across Vietnam benefit from diverse training methods, including online platforms that facilitate skill enhancement regardless of location. Collaborative communities and knowledge-sharing groups for STEM educators have also emerged, strengthening the network of professionals dedicated to innovative teaching practices (Nguyen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) (Ha \u0026amp; Ma, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVietnam\u0026rsquo;s focus on STEM education also presents significant opportunities for the nation\u0026rsquo;s future, particularly in preparing students to meet global demands and emerging technological trends. The evolution of Vietnam\u0026rsquo;s curriculum toward linking theory with real-world problem-solving provides a dynamic learning environment for students. This practical approach develops critical thinking, teamwork, and problem-solving skills, preparing students for lifelong learning (Pham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In remote areas, such as the mountainous northern regions, the implementation of STEM activities has been particularly impactful, fostering student excitement and significantly improving critical thinking abilities among tenth graders (Nguyen \u0026amp; Dang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Educational institutions have embraced project-based learning and IT integration, further promoting scientific research and hosting competitions that encourage creativity and innovation (Nguyen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobally, Vietnam is well-positioned to capitalize on emerging trends such as the Internet of Things and Artificial Intelligence. These advancements present significant opportunities for students and professionals to participate and excel in the global job market. With its emphasis on applied learning and innovation, Vietnam\u0026rsquo;s STEM education is poised to enable the country\u0026rsquo;s youth to thrive in a competitive international landscape (Nguyen \u0026amp; Pham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eWeaknesses and Threats\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSTEM education in Vietnam faces a range of challenges that threaten its effective implementation and long-term sustainability. These challenges can be divided into weaknesses, which highlight internal constraints, and threats, which stem from external factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the most significant weaknesses of STEM education in Vietnam is the limited financial resources and lack of infrastructure. Funding for STEM activities remains insufficient, leaving both teachers and students without the necessary materials and guidance to conduct effective STEM lessons (Ha \u0026amp; Ma, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Rural schools suffer from a lack of tools and equipment, further widening the gap in STEM education quality between urban and rural areas (Doan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Uneven teacher capacity across regions exacerbates this disparity, as rural teachers often face more difficulties in implementing STEM programs compared to their urban counterparts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother challenge lies in the management and organization of STEM education. Despite the government\u0026rsquo;s educational vision, there is a lack of clear guidance on how policies should be translated into actionable lesson plans and classroom practices. For example, Quang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted the need for structured templates and procedural steps to help teachers develop and execute STEM lessons effectively. Many regions implement STEM education in a superficial manner, lacking the comprehensive planning and regular execution necessary for long-term success (Thai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, both teachers and administrators often lack familiarity with STEM concepts, methods, and skills, resulting in disagreements about implementation strategies (Ha \u0026amp; Ma, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Dinh \u0026amp; Nguyen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe limited capacity of teachers further compounds these issues. Secondary teachers often avoid implementing STEM activities due to time constraints and the pressure to prioritize standardized test scores over skills like critical thinking and problem-solving (Nguyen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Secondary teachers in Nguyen et al.\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) study reported infrequent classroom implementation of STEM activities due to time constraints (STEM activities were considered too time consuming) and pressure to ensure students scored high on standardized examinations. As Nguyen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) write, \u0026ldquo;[Vietnamese] Parents want their children to gain high academic achievements (grades), and they are not concerned about other factors such as the ability to solve problems or to develop critical thinking ability of their children (p. 2)\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, Studies emphasized the content demands (the need to know many subject areas) as a major challenge for Vietnamese teachers who set out to implement STEM. Quang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) writes, \u0026ldquo;Currently, it is not practical to combine all the STEM subjects into a whole for an individual teacher in secondary schools. Therefore, teachers should find out the intersection of subjects to integrate through their collaboration\u0026rdquo; (p. 5). The suggested way of handling this problem is collaboration with teachers of other disciplines. However, the feasibility of such collaboration remains unclear given teachers\u0026rsquo; busy schedules. In addition, teachers struggle to keep pace with rapid technological advancements and face language barriers that restrict their access to international STEM resources (Doan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExternally, Vietnam\u0026rsquo;s STEM education is vulnerable to threats that could hinder its progress. The fast pace of global technological development and the increasing complexity of STEM fields create pressure for Vietnam to remain competitive. Without sufficient investment in teacher training, infrastructure, and resources, the country risks falling behind international standards in STEM education. Additionally, societal attitudes that prioritize grades and academic achievements over practical skills like problem-solving and critical thinking limit the adoption of more holistic STEM approaches (Nguyen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOverall Impact\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe implementation of STEM education in Vietnam reveals significant regional disparities, reflecting the country\u0026rsquo;s diverse socio-economic landscape. The provinces examined in this study represent three distinct tiers of development. The first tier includes the most developed cities, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, characterized by advanced infrastructure and greater economic resources. The second tier consists of medium-sized cities such as Thai Nguyen in Northern Vietnam, which display moderate levels of economic development. Finally, the third tier comprises the less economically developed mountainous northern regions, including Dak Lak, Tuyen Quang, and Dien Bien.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile it may still be premature to draw definitive conclusions, preliminary observations indicate that schools across these varying contexts have made commendable efforts to optimize their resources. Despite the stark differences in facilities and financial support, schools have organized a range of STEM-focused initiatives, including activities, clubs, festivals, and lessons. These efforts underscore a widespread enthusiasm for STEM education and reflect the extensive reach and influence of national STEM policies, even in resource-constrained settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the scope of current research presents notable limitations. Existing studies predominantly focus on small-scale settings, such as individual schools or localities, rather than examining broader socio-economic regions or clusters of provinces and cities with similar demographic and economic characteristics. Consequently, the findings do not allow for generalized conclusions about the state of STEM education across Vietnam. A key factor contributing to this limitation is the relatively recent implementation of the 2018 General Education Program. With only six years since its inception, the program has not yet provided sufficient time or data to facilitate evaluations on a larger scale. This highlights the need for more extensive and longitudinal studies to comprehensively assess the long-term impacts of STEM education across diverse regions of Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eInternational transfer of STEM education to Vietnam has produced benefits and challenges. Key benefits include student excitement and joy, increased community engagement in school activities, enhanced public awareness of education, instruction with a stronger emphasis on practical and applied learning, and a curriculum with stronger societal connections that encourages student creativity, and innovation, critical thinking, and teamwork. However, challenges have also arisen. Important complications include limited financial resources and infrastructure, lack of teacher preparation and training, time constraints, and pressure to ensure students perform well on standardized examinations. The significance of these findings is now considered.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Content, Knowledge and Pedagogy Challenge\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne of the main challenges created by the international transfer of STEM in Vietnam was the content demands. As indicated above, content integration is a major part of GEP 2018 particularly in the lower secondary level where it led to the creation of the completely new school subject of \u003cem\u003enatural science\u003c/em\u003e. However, this requirement is largely inconsistent with the present state of pre-service science teacher training in Vietnam. Most pre-service teacher programs require four years of undergraduate coursework and about 10 weeks of student-teaching practicum, producing specialized teachers whose content knowledge is limited to a single discipline (physics, chemistry and biology) (Nguyen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The pathway to becoming a science teacher at the secondary level does not allow for teacher development of interdisciplinary content expertise. Pre-service teachers are not prepared to become future instructors of STEM even though that is \u003cem\u003ede facto\u003c/em\u003e the type of professional expertise expected of them at the policy level. Another pressing challenge is the requirement for the implementation of STEM education by in-service teachers. These teachers were originally trained in specialized fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, or mathematics. They need to undergo retraining (in STEM knowledge, integrated teaching methods, and teaching organization skills) to adapt to the current demands of STEM education. As Nguyen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) write,\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne of the greatest challenges for teachers who normally taught single science subjects has been becoming acquainted with delivering integrated science topics. This trend has created a need to rapidly increase in-service teacher training in science education teaching and learning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEven though in-service teacher training is being offered by the MoET, it remains unclear the extent to which such official support will in fact help solve the contradiction between teaching preparation and practice that seems to have resulted from international transfer of STEM in Vietnam.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe importance of this issue is particularly evident in Vietnamese teachers\u0026rsquo; expressed sense of disempowerment over their own professional preparation and school system. Their perceived inability to solve the tensions and contradictions that resulted from the international transfer of STEM education underscores the possibility of such practice having the unintended effect of reducing teachers\u0026rsquo; control over their own educational system, making them feel excluded from curricular decisions, and reducing their professional status. As emphasized by Ball (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), as a result of globalizing educational practice, \u0026ldquo;the teacher is \u0026lsquo;re-constructed\u0026rsquo; to be a technician and not a professional capable of critical judgment and reflection. Teaching is just a job, a set of skills to be acquired\u0026rdquo; (p. 548).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTransfer as Borrowing versus Transfer as Learning\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe numerous complications arising from the international transfer of STEM to Vietnam highlight the contentious debates surrounding this educational practice in contemporary scholarly discourse. Many scholars caution against importing methods of teaching and educational models, arguing that care should be taken before deciding to embrace foreign educational approaches like STEM. Pugliese \u0026amp; Santos (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) describe STEM education as \u0026ldquo;an American heritage that is often imported uncritically, also copies the vices and problems of this educational system\u0026rdquo; (p. 6). Others warn of the dangers of simplistic or uncritical international transfer that ignores local context and cultural differences (Crossley \u0026amp; Watson, 2003; Leung, 2012; Steiner-Khamsi, 2010), without piloting or more extensive research. Raffe (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) criticizes the \u0026lsquo;deficit\u0026rsquo; model of school reform traditionally taken by policy makers who simply look for a \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003equick fix\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; solution or a \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eshortcut\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; abroad as part of their efforts to correct the presumed weaknesses of their own educational system.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRather than blindly borrowing what is assumed to be \u0026ldquo;transferable best practice\u0026rdquo; and possibly a panacea, educators should critically learn from the experience of other countries (i.e., carefully consider their success as well as failures, limitations, contextual differences, etc.). Referred to as \u0026ldquo;policy learning\u0026rdquo; (Raffe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), this latter approach to educational transfer is described as being focused on \u0026ldquo;good practice\u0026rdquo; as opposed to \u0026ldquo;best practice,\u0026rdquo; and as having the potential to inform and enrich a country\u0026rsquo;s policy-making process, thus leading to the development of educational policies and practices that better suit national needs and local circumstances. When approached in this reflective and critical manner, educational transfer from abroad can serve as a source of new insights and highlight ways that educators can improve their country\u0026rsquo;s educational system without overemphasizing competitiveness or being too narrowly focused on standardized student performance on international assessments. As revealed by our literature review, these benefits may include student excitement and joy, increased community engagement in school activities, enhanced public awareness of education, instruction with a stronger emphasis on practical and applied learning, and a curriculum with stronger societal connections that encourages student creativity and innovation, critical thinking, and teamwork.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAmbiguity Surrounding STEM\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe international transfer of STEM should be considered in light of the ambiguity that still surrounds this teaching approach. Recent research has revealed considerable confusion, misunderstanding, and variance in how educators view STEM teaching and learning (Becker \u0026amp; Park, 2011); Breiner et al., 2012; Radloff \u0026amp; Guzzey, 2016). There is also general ambiguity surrounding what constitutes various levels of integration, what the boundaries for each discipline are, and even how many disciplines are integrated (Sanders, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; English, 2016). There is also a wide variation in the types of lessons that are classified as \u0026ldquo;STEM,\u0026rdquo; with most lessons exhibiting a disciplinary bias towards one specific field (Author, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This variation in what is purported as integrated STEM curricula suggests a general need for greater clarity about not only what constitutes STEM education but also how educators conceptualize it.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYet, despite this lack of clarity and consensus, international transfer of STEM education has already reached global levels, raising questions about the possibility of this educational practice being transferred too hastily. As Vietnam\u0026rsquo;s case shows well, educational transfers like these are inevitably risky, being characterized by strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Rather than simply \u0026ldquo;jumping on the bandwagon,\u0026rdquo; educators need to take a reflective pause and critically assess the opportunities and risks associated with transferring practices such as STEM from abroad. Additional research is needed to explore the extent to which this decision-making process may be influenced by educators\u0026rsquo; risk-taking behaviors (Beghetto, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Le Fevre, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Ponticell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Future studies will need to examine how educators in different countries deal with the uncertainties of educational transfer, making them more or less amenable to imported innovation and externally adopted reform.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eAs science education has become increasingly influenced by globalization, it has created great opportunities for productive sharing of educational practices and exchange of innovative approaches like integrated STEM across national borders. The ultimate result has been the rise of international transfer as a pervasive educational practice on a global scale, broadly shaping curriculum development, teaching methodologies, teacher preparation, and educational policies. However, internationally transferring practice and policy is far from being a panacea for the education of any country. Whether it ultimately amounts to help or hindrance to the improvement of a country\u0026rsquo;s educational system depends on educators\u0026rsquo; ability to critically weigh strengths, opportunities, weaknesses, and threats in light of their own national contexts. This is what we hope the present examination of STEM education in Vietnam will help educators worldwide accomplish.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics and Consent to Publish declaration:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003enot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Statement:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of interest/Competing interests:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate declaration:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlandeom W. Oliveira \u0026ndash; review \u0026amp; editing, conceptualization, supervision; Nguyen Yen Chi- formal analysis, writing \u0026ndash; original draft; L\u0026ecirc; Hiếu Học - conceptualization, formal analysis; Phạm Thị Thanh Hải - conceptualization, formal analysis; \u0026amp; Dang Thi Van - formal analysis, writing \u0026ndash; original draft.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAustralian Curriculum, Assessment, and Reporting Authority (2016). \u003cem\u003eACARA STEM Connections Project Report\u003c/em\u003e. Retrieved from https://www.acara.edu.au/docs/default-source/default-document-library/29062016-stem-connections-report.pdf?sfvrsn=2 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAuthor (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBall, S.J. (2005) Profissionalismo, gerencialismo e performatividade. \u003cem\u003eCadernos de Pesquisa\u003c/em\u003e, 35(126), 539-564.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBeghetto, R.A. (2009). 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Tổ chức hoạt động gi\u0026aacute;o dục STEM trong dạy học m\u0026ocirc;n To\u0026aacute;n ở trường phổ th\u0026ocirc;ng gắn với bảo vệ, ph\u0026aacute;t huy gi\u0026aacute; trị văn ho\u0026aacute; d\u0026acirc;n tộc. \u003cem\u003eTạp Ch\u0026iacute; Gi\u0026aacute;o dục\u003c/em\u003e, 23(12), 5\u0026ndash;11.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUNESCO (2015). \u003cem\u003eA complex formula: Girls and women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics in Asia\u003c/em\u003e. Thailand: UNESCO Bangkok.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diedu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/44217)","snPcode":"44217","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44217/3","title":"Discover Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"international educational transfer, Vietnamese STEM education, science education in Vietnam, integrated STEM","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6345329/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6345329/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAimed at advancing our understanding of \u003cem\u003eeducational transfer\u003c/em\u003e (a cross-national phenomenon wherein an foreign educational practice or policy is transferred from abroad), this paper examines how international transfer of STEM has impacted Vietnamese science education. To this end, we conducted a comprehensive review of recent research and educational policy on STEM education in Vietnam. It is reported that international transfer of STEM education to Vietnam has produced both benefits and challenges. Key benefits include student excitement and joy, increased community engagement in school activities, enhanced public awareness of education, instruction with a stronger emphasis on practical and applied learning, and a curriculum with stronger societal connections that encourages student creativity, and innovation, critical thinking, and teamwork. However, challenges have also arisen. Important complications include limited financial resources and infrastructure, lack of teacher preparation and training, time constraints, and pressure to ensure students perform well on standardized examinations. Based on these findings, it is argued that educational transfers are inevitably risky, being characterized by strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Educators need to reflectively and critically assess the opportunities and risks associated with transferring practices such as STEM from abroad (i.e., learn from other countries\u0026rsquo; educational experiences rather than borrow from them).\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"STEM Education in Vietnam: Examining the Impact of an Internationally Transferred Educational Approach","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-12 07:50:11","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6345329/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-06-25T14:48:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"1951792142507307150583205780814690654","date":"2025-06-19T15:25:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-06-14T04:35:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"257935058135675111961423868464267540841","date":"2025-06-13T14:02:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-27T08:36:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"258208564342050334313631288750386085756","date":"2025-05-27T06:54:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"150449241987081401154076992661892390405","date":"2025-05-12T01:04:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"105592835961180382768549963858199031778","date":"2025-05-07T12:09:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-05-07T11:50:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-04-29T04:50:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-04-23T14:28:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Education","date":"2025-04-23T14:27:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-education","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"diedu","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Education](https://www.springer.com/journal/44217)","snPcode":"44217","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44217/3","title":"Discover Education","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c918eb22-6567-44e4-b1c4-03d0bac1a932","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 12th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-23T06:08:56+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-12 07:50:11","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6345329","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6345329","identity":"rs-6345329","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}