Policy Design and Enactment in a Federalist School System: Understanding Contextual Responsiveness in Educational Governance

Policy Design and Enactment in a Federalist School System: Understanding Contextual Responsiveness in Educational Governance | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Policy Design and Enactment in a Federalist School System: Understanding Contextual Responsiveness in Educational Governance Michelle Jutzi, Thomas Wicki, Marina Grgic, Ueli Hostettler This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4595889/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This article examines the design and enactment of a Media and Information Literacy (MIL) curriculum within the decentralized, federalist Swiss education system. It explores how power dynamics between federal and state actors shape education policy. In Switzerland, cantons possess significant autonomy in interpreting national policy, leading to diverse approaches in response to societal shifts such as the growing need for digital skills. The data shows that the design of the national curriculum involved stakeholder dialogue and aimed for inclusivity. The expert interviews highlight this collaborative process behind national policy design. Furthermore, the article profiles six sub-unit governments (cantons) revealing varied strategies in MIL policy enactment. Qualitative data integration and the formulation of vignettes illustrates the iterative nature of policy design and enactment, demonstrating that not all cantons align with national policy. The Swiss case underscores how societal demands often precede national policy, emphasizing the importance of contextual responsiveness in educational governance. Overall, the analysis provides insights into the complex interplay between national authority, sub-unity governments, and societal needs in shaping education policy, particularly in the area of MIL. Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Educational policy design and enactment present a multifaceted challenge, involving diverse levels of the educational hierarchy, ranging from school leadership to instructional practices [ 2 ]; [ 13 ]; [ 41 ]. The complexity further stems from the engagement of numerous stakeholders in the discourse leading to new policies. This is especially pertinent for decentralized, federalist countries, where different levels of government (federal and state or sub-unit governments) may be involved in policy design and its enactment [ 35 ]. In this paper, a “polyphonic federalism” model [ 35 ]; [ 30 ] is adopted to describe the reciprocal and interactive relationship between the federal and the sub-unit governments (states). This translation of national policy into state policy and practice, or “policy enactment” [ 22 ], is subject to the influence of various actors and their demands and expectations [ 10 ]; [ 11 ]. While implementation often follows a signal-response logic, where states, municipalities or teachers make sense of policy requirements [ 42 ], the enactment theory focuses more on dialogue between actors [ 21 ]. Therefore, this article focuses on how sub-unit governments play a pivotal role in policy enactment and may influence national policy design in a reciprocal process. Building on prior research, this study explores the relevance of international theories of reciprocal policy design and enactment for Swiss national and cantonal actors. The analysis centers on a specific context: Media and Information Literacy (MIL). This context is particularly intriguing due to the development and design of a new curriculum serving as the foundation for all schools in Switzerland. The national curriculum as a core document of national policy may have varying impacts on educational practice in sub-unit governments, since these so-called cantons have a lot of autonomy in the decentralized Swiss system. The cantons decide on how national policy reaches practice, as they interpret the policy against the backdrop of their distinct regional context. This paper analyses the process of policy design and enactment in the specific context of the Swiss federal, decentralized education system and examines the role of sub-unit governments on the one hand, and the federal government on the other. 2. The Swiss Context for Policy Design and Enactment Switzerland is among the most decentralized federal systems “where states or provinces are responsible for delivering education” [ 32 ]. Decentralization refers to systems, where there is no national institution which defines and guides policy alone (ibid. p. 108). The OCED report [ 32 ] implies that – accounting for different roles of the state government – one similarity between decentralized systems, such as Australia, Germany, Canada and the United States, is that one institution has to bring those regional institutions together for policy design. Although policy design and enactment in Switzerland has been researched from historical [ 8 ]; [ 15 ] and contemporary perspectives [ 2 ]; [ 29 ], it remains unclear how cantonal and national actors interact when designing respective policies and which aspects of policy are enacted on cantonal level. The Swiss federal system is based on 26 constituent cantons. They hold political and legislative power including the full responsibility for the school system. There is no central institution, like a national Ministry of Education, which defines binding national policy might limit the influence of the cantons [ 23 ]. However, a non-legislative body of all 26 state ministers of education (EDK) is involved in coordinating nation-wide aspects of the school system. The cantons are organized as sub-unit governments, which interpret and adapt national policy [ 16 ]. One peculiarity of Swiss federal system is that the cantons vary in their degree of decentralization and the municipalities also have a considerable amount of autonomy to shape their schools. The municipalities are mainly responsible for funding and the use of resources (e.g., teaching materials, infrastructure, etc.) [ 18 ]. Maag Merki and Büeler [ 28 ] note an overall tendency towards more autonomy for in Switzerland at the regional and local level and therefore, not all actors are influenced in the same way by national policies. On the national level, the influence of the EDK in coordinating education policy has increased in the last 30 years. In 2007, the EDK has issued the harmonization of some aspects of the school system (school enrolment age, number of school years etc.) as well as the design of a comprehensive curriculum for the German part of Switzerland (called Lehrplan21[1] ). Due to its societal importance, two new disciplines have been added in the curriculum: education for sustainable development and media and information literacy (MIL) [ 4 ]. The curriculum commission decided to design those two disciplines as modular subjects, which can be taught integrated or as a standalone subject. The cantons are free to choose how they want to implement MIL in their schools. Nevertheless, the development of the national curriculum is a major shift in Swiss educational policy and a push towards central governance [ 1 ]. Furthermore, it obligates the cantons to collaborate concerning the priorities in the education system and reaching consensus [ 36 ]. The sub-unit governments can adjust the curriculum and provide support for municipalities and schools. Therefore, the Switzerland’s education system gives leeway to cantonal education policy enactment to adapt the national policy to their needs [ 3 ]. Yet, how the cantons interpret and enact national policy and how they differ in this decision-making process remains unclear. 3. Theory: Educational Policy Design and Enactment In the following section, the relationship between sub-unit and national government in policy design and enactment will be described from a theoretical perspective, combining different theoretical approaches. Several authors argue that the concept of dual federalism – which separates national and state policy-making processes – has become obsolete in educational policy and practice [ 35 ]; [ 30 ]. Therefore, more interactive models of federalism have been developed and described (cooperative or coercive federalism). Yet, only the model of “polyphonic federalism” [ 35 ] assumes that the policies on both levels may overlap [ 30 ]. In federalist systems, national interests often hinge on political decisions involving sub-level government`s participation [ 48 ]. Tarr [ 43 ] notes the that governance strategies, though promoting convergence, face criticism for undermining diversity and neglecting the social geographies of educational change [ 19 ]; [ 20 ]. Successful national policy design, therefore, depends on adaptation to regional contexts, considering power relations and sensemaking [ 42 ]. Whereas the term implementation is often used to describe how sub-unit actors react to signals from national policy, enactment in this case focuses more on the reciprocal and dialectic nature of the process. As Heimans states: “Policy is not exclusively a product of the environment in which it acts, or from which it is produced, but is always more than what it is and more than what the environment it enters is; it always is both plus a bit more”[ 21 ]. Building on Ball’s [ 5 ] conceptualization, policy is not merely a set of normative texts, but a discourse crafted by specific actors, intricately linked to the developmental context, multiple societal purposes, and immediate practical challenges. As Ball (1993) articulates, policy formulation or design involves a dynamic process characterized by struggles, compromises, and ad hoc decision-making, reflecting the interplay of individuals engaged in their distinct professional roles. This highlights that policy design is a product of the interactions and influences of those present during the development process. While policy design often follows a structured process, it is, in essence, a “multidimensional and value-laden state activity” [ 39 ]. This underscores the complexity and subjectivity embedded in the policymaking process. The multidimensional nature implies that policy decisions are shaped by a myriad of factors, including political, social, economic, and cultural considerations. The next step after policy design is its enactment, which is described as a recontextualization process. For policy analysis, there is a theoretical distinction between the “Official Recontextualizing Field” (ORF) and the “Pedagogic Recontextualizing Field” (PRF) [ 39 ]. According to Singh et al. (2013), the “state and its selected agents and ministries” (p. 468) mainly engage in the ORF, meaning that they produce official policy. In the PRF, actors develop materials on how to translate this policy into practice, which might entail manuals, handbooks, or support (training etc.) (ibid.). During this process, the actors “make meaning” of the policy in light of their traditional concepts, values and recent developments. Ball and colleagues (2011) formulate different types of actors inside schools and discuss how those react to policy [ 7 ]; [ 6 ]. Yet, little is known how the sub-unit governments enact national policy and therefore create the context for school development. In line with these three theoretical perspectives, the design of educational policies, including those related to Media and Information Literacy (MIL), is a dynamic process where actors navigate through a web of contextual factors, competing interests, and diverse viewpoints. Understanding the intricacies of this process is crucial for comprehending how policies are conceptualized and shaped before their enactment in educational settings. As we delve into the specific case of MIL policy in Switzerland, the theoretical framework outlined by Schapiro (2005), Ball (1993) as well as Singh et al. (2013) will guide our exploration of the multifaceted nature of policy design, shedding light on the actors, contextual dynamics, and complexities inherent in the development of educational policies. 4. Research on Curricula as Policy with a Focus on MIL As Evans [ 17 ] states, the curriculum is an important part of the national identity. It reflects where a society puts its focus concerning the future education. In federalist systems, policy enactment takes place, when sub-unit governments interpret national policy – such as curricula – [ 39 ] or when schools read and interpret the policy for their everyday practice [ 44 ]. In the following, specific research is presented to show, how the MIL curriculum has been designed and enacted in different countries. Many countries have been focusing on the development of a national curriculum in the field of Media Education and ICT, like the MIL curriculum in Switzerland. The following research points out four conditions which are crucial in curriculum design: including teacher voices and service providers with technological knowledge, interactive and reflective dialogue and having a coherent overall strategy. Evans [ 17 ] shows for Wales that it was crucial to involve teachers process of MIL curriculum design and thereby sensitize them to the need to integrate digital tools in their classrooms [ 33 ]. Apart from school teachers, policy design in MIL, has to take other stakeholders outside the school system (such as service providers) into account, who are the important partners for the technological side of the process [ 34 ]. Yet often, standards or guidelines for technological infrastructure are not defined at a national level but delegated to sub-unit governments [ 24 ]. The importance of inclusive stakeholder management in curriculum design is supported by Colwill and Gallagher [ 14 ], who highlight for England and Northern Ireland that the actual curriculum design is preceded by phases of participative dialogue. According to Shirley and Noble [ 37 ], the rapid expansion of technologies has created a “sense of urgency and anticipation” (p. 144) to integrate MIL in education systems. Yet, a common (national) strategy on how to integrate MIL in schools seems to be crucial. Toh [ 45 ] calls this a “ecological coherence” which has to be achieved between the goals of the actors on national, regional and local level. Shirley and Noble [ 37 ] argue that a voluntariness of change without any sanctions that might actually promote educational change in MIL. To sum up, research on successful design and enactment of policy in MIL hinges on four conditions, which to some extent are important for any policy independent of the curriculum topic. Yet, MIL is on the one hand a new subject, which little didactical traditions and there is a high demand of the society to include MIL competences in schools. Lastly, it is argued that consistency and coherence are key to combine local demands and opportunities in a national strategy or policy for the integration of MIL in any classroom. 5. Research Questions The following diagram depicts, the assumption, that the national and cantonal levels interact in the development and enactment of the MIL curriculum (Fig. 1 ). Adopting the “polyphonic federalism” model [ 30 ]; [ 35 ], we assume that there is continuing interaction between national level and the sub-unit governments, but there may also be overlap between the national and cantonal policies. As suggested by Viennet & Pont (2017), Fig. 1 describes a multidirectional process, where the inclusive stakeholder engagement and recognizing existing policy and the societal context are important aspects of designing national policy. In the case of the decentralized, federalist Swiss education system, the MIL working group was installed at the national level oversees designing the national curriculum. The sub-unit governments are interpreting, enacting and recontextualizing this policy. Yet, this process may also be reciprocal and a constant interaction between the two levels, which may also lead to overlap between the national and cantonal policies. Therefore, we assume a reciprocal relationship between the state and the federalist government [ 35 ]. In the following, the approach is twofold: On the cantonal level on the development policies, strategies and enactment plans for MIL are focused on exploratory case descriptions. On the national level, the study focuses on policy design concerning the national curriculum. This study is explorative in nature, because the degree of interaction or overlap of national and cantonal policy has not been studies yet in the Swiss context. Our main research question is therefore: In what ways do beliefs, interests, and strategies of various actors unfold in the process of designing and enacting the MIL curriculum in Switzerland? How do national actors contribute to the design of Media and Information Literacy (MIL) policies in Switzerland? To what extent do contextual aspects influence the enactment and interpretation of national MIL policy of sub-unit governments? Are there comparable enactment strategies across the cantons which depend on the cantons` reaction to national policy? We assume that the national policy design is a process in the official recontextualization frame (ORF), which precedes the pedagogical recontextualization (PRF) on cantonal level. Furthermore, sub-unit governments may develop their own policy and therefore engage in the ORF as well, while also developing enactment plans (manuals guidelines etc.) for schools. During the process of policy enactment cantonal authorities may emphasize certain aspects, which might also be based on (or driven by) their own interpretations, needs and translations of national policy. 6. Methods We use a three-step approach and integrate different qualitative data to explore the complex process of policy design and its enactment. Firstly, the process of policy design is described on a national level using insights from expert interviews. We will secondly describe the different enactment strategies using official documents from six Swiss cantons. Six cantons have been chosen for this study, because they officially started to implement the curriculum in the same year (2017/2018). Furthermore, the six cantons represent the different language regions at least some extent as well as the regional differences of Switzerland (population density, urban or rural contexts as well as more secluded mountain regions). This procedure, thus allows to systematically document and analyze the natural variation [ 12 ] of policy enactment between the cantons and show comparable strategies. 6.1 Qualitative Analysis of Documents and Expert Interviews In this multiple case study, the aim of involving five different experts is to present different points of view [ 31 ]. As sampling parameters, the involvement of the actors in the policy design process was crucial. These interviewees were either part of the curriculum committee, the national coordinating body for education or the national expert body in MIL. Five semi-structured, guided interviews [ 25 ] have been conducted with experts. All interviews lasted approximately 60 minutes during which participants were asked to reflect on their perception of the process of policy design and exchange with other involved actors. They were also asked to comment on their own beliefs according to the importance of a national policy for MIL. To obtain an overview of different enactment strategies on the cantonal level, the second step was to collect and analyze official documents on the introduction of the MIL curriculum. A systematic search enabled the compilation of a comprehensive corpus of data. The research team gathered 103 publicly available policy documents from national stakeholders as well as media reports about the new curriculum for MIL. The documents and expert interviews were coded with the same system of inductive thematic categories using MaxQDA [ 46 ]: (1) Development process of the curriculum (e.g. project planning and schedule), (2) societal importance of MIL, (3) professionalization and training, (4) infrastructure and partnerships with providers, (5) opportunities and challenges. The analysis of both documents and interview transcripts was conducted using MaxQDA 2020 [ 26 ] and is based on the principles of qualitative content analysis [ 25 ]. First, the text passages in the documents and transcripts were highlighted and thematic main categories were developed inductively. In a second research step, the different characteristics of the cantons were discussed in the research team and the similarities and differences between the six cantons have been summarized in short portraits. 6.2 Constructing Vignettes of Policy Enactment of Sub-unit Governments This study uses vignettes to illustrate cantonal enactment strategies. Miles et al. [ 31 ] call vignettes a “focused description of a series of events taken to be representative, typical, or emblematic” (p. 166). The method helps to formulate core issues of a case by providing a narrative structure. Vignettes are usually chosen as a methodology to accentuate different real or hypothetical situations (for example teacher actions or beliefs in class) [ 27 ]. According to Skilling and Stylianides [ 40 ] vignettes are “descriptive episodes of specific situations that simulate real events or problems”. Therefore, the vignettes make it possible to reduce the complexity of the data and peel out options for actions or reactions to change. The use of the vignettes also helps to protect the sub-unit governments used in this study as it allows for an anonymous description of their actions [ 9 ]. Moreover, since the policy enactment is still an ongoing process, the vignettes show a snapshot of cantonal actions, processes, and experiences. The vignettes are formulated based on an integration of the results from the document analysis, expert interviews, and case specific knowledge members of the research team. 7. Results The description in the following section is based on the extensive material from interview transcripts and documents. Firstly, the statements of the national experts are analyzed according to thematic categories (7.1.), secondly, the document analysis produced short summaries of the cantonal enactment strategies (7.2.). In Chap. 7.3. we describe the two case vignettes. 7.1. Analysis of the National Policy Design Process In this section, we show the three main characteristics of the design process on the national level: Use of a working group to develop the new MIL policy, negotiation processes between cantons and the public and settling for a minimal consensus. Installing a Working Group to Develop and Design the National Policy The policy design process commenced in 2013 with the establishment of a working group tasked with devising a strategy for integrating MIL into the new curriculum (Arbeitsgruppe ICT und Medien, 2015). The experts involved in this working group emphasized the significance of engaging critical and contentious voices in the discourse. A primary goal of engaging these experts was to “guarantee that the space for digital education is constructed in a harmonious manner” (Expert 4). Despite this, highly specialized areas in the realm of digitalization necessitate collaboration with subject matter specialists. Examples include data protection, digital systems for schools and further education. Therefore, the working group and national stakeholders sought networking opportunities with experts throughout the policy design process. The experts referred to the emergence of a “new discipline” (Expert 1) that demands meticulous design, labeling and alignment with established school practices. Their rationale was that “anything new to schools should not appear as a disease, as the school’s immune system will activate otherwise” (Expert 1). Negotiation Processes between Cantons and the Public The process of policy design is shaped by the mechanisms of the decentralized system. According to the experts, a curriculum for MIL has been discussed in the cantons thoroughly even before the curriculum assumed form, but the national curriculum design called for a new and inclusive policy which would be compatible for all cantons. The experts report that they have been included in policy design in different stages of the process and for different reasons. Primarily, the focus of the national working group was set on media education which was by that time already taught in Swiss schools. According to the experts, the first draft of the MIL curriculum was rejected by some cantons and the discussion was also picked up by national media. The discussion in the working group was described as a protracted and very interest-led process, because it was known that not all cantons were willing to allocate time in the children’s weekly schedule to this new discipline. Also, the criticism that the curriculum contains too little computer science compared to media literacy was met by revising the curriculum content. The experts see the “joint and collaborative work” (Expert 4) of developing a national policy as more important than the result of the discussions. Especially because the field of MIL changes rapidly and the curriculum content may already be outdated the moment it comes into effect. As a result, a national strategy with a corresponding action plan was published to accompany the new curriculum for MIL. Settling for a Minimal Consensus : The working group appears to have reached a minimal consensus on the MIL policy design and is hoping that cantonal authorities will take over the details. Some experts believe that “if there had been more experts involved, the outcome might have been different. However, there weren’t enough experts. There was too much politics and too little factual discussion” (Expert 1). The final two policy instruments, the strategy and action plan, reveal that there are no specific goals that would put pressure on cantons to meet certain standards or infrastructure requirements: “We don’t want to overwhelm or stab them in the back by imposing requirements” (Expert 3) or allow comparisons between cantons: “If you start comparing, we don’t want that – it’s first difficult and second you quickly create a bad atmosphere” (Expert 4). The experts argue that the design process aligns with the established practice of avoiding comparisons in other areas of the Swiss education system, such as student competency measurements. The current challenge is that there is no clear understanding of where the cantons stand in terms of school digitalization, infrastructure, teaching standards, or the use of teaching materials. Additionally, there are currently no binding guidelines that allow for the monitoring of student performance or teacher competencies. Further, the working group reached the conclusion not to coordinate teacher training or provide further specifications or examples regarding infrastructure requirements or equipment for schools. However, a national network to coordinate the development of teaching materials has been established, initiated by the experts. Therefore, we conclude that active and inclusive dialogue and stakeholder management is essential for reaching consensus at the national level. It is also apparent that the national actors in the working group avoided setting standards and establishing a monitoring for the implementation of the curriculum for MIL. 7.2. Portraits of Cantonal Enactment Strategies In the following, the results of the qualitative document analyses are described. The portraits summarize how each sub-unit government has to some extent distinctive traditions and options to tackle to question of MIL policy design and enactment. Canton 1 has established an ICT service provider to develop a joint electronical government strategy. This provider is responsible for the basic technical infrastructure of schools, while municipalities are responsible for network (wifi) components and end-user devices. Cantonal authorities provide support for municipalities developing pedagogical and technological concepts. Mandatory teacher training is organized. Teachers and school administrators are responsible to decide upon teaching materials and further teacher training. Specific support, such as a job description for ICT coordinators, is provided and comprehensively documented. Canton 2 has partnered with the University of Teacher Education to assess the needs of elementary schools in MIL. Based on this assessment, support documents have been developed for school administrators and school leaders. The canton is funding and providing access to basic and further teacher training at the University of Teacher Education. Support materials are also provided concerning infrastructure. The canton has developed recommendations for municipalities and school administrations in collaboration with practitioners and other stakeholders. Canton 3 developed a handout on MIL infrastructure for schools. Local school authorities developed their own school concepts for MIL, some with the help of private companies. The canton provided minimal guidance for support. The University of Teacher Education sets strict specifications for teaching material use and further training of teachers. It serves as a consulting and contact point for school principals and teachers. Canton 4 has a long history of teaching MIL in elementary schools, with a dedicated Competence Center established at the University of Teacher Education in 2004 and a comprehensive development concept for all K-12 schools in 2008. A weekly MIL lesson is mandatory for most pupils. The canton has a coherent strategy, provides support for teaching materials, and offers extensive information resources. Municipalities and individual schools have significant autonomy in local enactment, while the authorities focus on structuring information and facilitating partnerships. In Canton 5 2014, the Competence Center for ICT in Schools was established within the Department of Elementary School and Education. The authorities play a central role in regulating and financing infrastructure, structuring information, and mandating teaching materials and teacher training. The canton collaborates with the University of Teacher Education to provide further training for teachers, offering guidance for instruction and infrastructure recommendations. Municipalities often are responsible for financing the infrastructure. In Canton 6 authorities have been actively promoting MIL in public schools for the past 20 years. They launched their first strategy in 2004 and have commissioned various projects to support its enactment. The current approach focuses on providing supporting materials and further training for teachers. A website offers guidelines and examples for developing MIL concepts. While the canton sets overall guidelines, a large part of the administrative responsibility is delegated to individual schools. Teachers are required to undergo extensive basic training to teach MIL. This description of six cantons shows that some have long-standing traditions of promoting MIL and developing their own guidelines and policies for schools and municipalities. Cantons four and six for example, have started their own policy enactment and design process much before the national foundations were laid. The document analysis shows that the cantons provide very different contexts for MIL policy and use different strategies – such as the collaboration with the teacher universities to account for the societal demands of incorporating more MIL in public schools. 7.3. Development of the Vignettes Following these descriptions, the next step of analysis is to integrate both data sources and formulate vignettes [ 31 ], which illustrate and accentuate strategies which differentiate the cantons from each another. The research team formulated two contrasting vignettes to emphasize two different approaches. Vignette 1 – The Enabler In the Enabler canton, a long-standing tradition of MIL education exists. In the early 2000s, the cantonal authorities initiated a systematic approach to MIL in schools, recognizing the need for new competencies in the digital age. Measures included developing a dedicated MIL subject with a corresponding curriculum and time allocation in the official school schedule. Pilot schools were also enabled to experiment with new approaches, receiving financial incentives to explore innovative solutions in infrastructure and pedagogy. The Enabler canton takes on a supportive role, establishing a framework with conditions that aim to stimulate strategic developments in schools and communities with minimal pressure or interference. A competence center has been established to support this effort, providing information, and developing content for schools. The Enabler canton adheres to the principles of “communities know what is right for them” and “he who pays commands,” resulting in limited knowledge of the current situation in schools and the satisfaction levels of teachers and school leaders regarding MIL implementation. Regional solutions are emerging with significant differences, raising concerns about equity of access and development of uniform competencies as mandated by the curriculum. Vignette 2 – The Developer The Developer canton only began discussing MIL with the introduction of the national curriculum. Prior to that, there were minimal guidelines for communities regarding MIL. Driven by national regulations, the Developer canton felt compelled to swiftly introduce a comprehensive MIL enactment plan and a cohesive strategy to ensure schools have the necessary resources to teach the subject. To accomplish this, the authority partnered with specific service providers, such as the University of Teacher Education, external infrastructure providers, and experts, to develop concepts for providing teaching materials and purchasing equipment. A comprehensive cantonal plan for digital expansion and basic equipment for all schools is in place, with infrastructure managed and coordinated by a central office. Since the public discussion about the importance of MIL gained traction, the canton has produced a series of policy documents, instructions, and guidelines. For instance, a job description for ICT-coordinators has been established, a minimum requirement for teacher training for all teachers has been implemented and teaching materials were declared mandatory. The Developer canton is making concerted efforts to rectify past developmental shortcomings and missed opportunities. The cantonal documents extensively reference the national curriculum to emphasize the significance of adapting MIL. The Developer canton intends to monitor the development in schools and has instructed school inspectors to conduct quality controls through monitoring strategies. The canton has provided schools with a substantial amount of information in a short period of time. However, the individual experiences and frameworks of the schools have been largely overlooked. Some schools or communities feel disregarded and wish to develop their own approach to the task by involving local ICT services. In summary, the Enabler canton has a longer history of MIL education and a more decentralized approach to enactment. The Developer canton has a more centralized approach and has quickly developed a comprehensive strategy for MIL implementation using regulations, standards, and monitoring. The Enabler canton’s approach may be more effective in fostering innovation and experimentation in schools, as it provides technical and pedagogical guidance and support. However, it may also lead to equity issues and a lack of standardization in MIL education. The Developer canton’s approach may help to ensure that all schools have the resources they need to teach MIL but may also inhibit innovation and create a lack of self-responsibility and autonomy among schools. The vignettes show that there are two parallel development processes that are based on different premises. How these two approaches may influence schools and teachers in their practice, will be discussed in the following. 8. Discussion The analysis shows an interaction and overlap between national policy design and cantonal enactment strategies for the Swiss case. The two levels can build on each other and are not mutually exclusive. On the national level (research question 1), design of the new curriculum was formulated carefully and prudently. Various interests and interest groups have been included in the dialogue of policy design [ 47 ]; [ 5 ]; [ 7 ]. This serves both justification and task allocation because different areas of expertise and specialization are considered. Therefore, the new policy must fill a need, unregulated area, or gap to be embraced by practitioners. It is clear from the analysis of the expert interviews that the formulation of a national framework for MIL was overdue. At the time the curriculum was developed, various aspects of MIL were already being taught in school. The argument of connectivity to actual practice was also mentioned repeatedly by the national experts. In this way, a viable compromise was found. Therefore, policy design only partially broke new ground, but rather sought connectable solutions. Thus, some experts believe that the politically motivated discussion diluted the national governance impulse. The experts expressed their hope that the cantons would take the necessary and especially specific measures to standardize the system of MIL education, for example about the financing of infrastructure or the further training of teachers. Compared to more centralized countries [ 32 ], the national working group in Switzerland is not very firmly anchored in the cantons and have no decision-making power. It is therefore particularly important for them to take the different backgrounds of the cantons into account in the policy design. On the cantonal level (research question 2), the results show that although the national policy reached the cantons roughly in the same time, their traditional strategies and previous commitment to promote MIL were very different. These strategies are rooted in the regional demand, context, and tradition, especially regarding the collaboration with training institutions and public or private service providers. Therefore, in the case of the Swiss MIL curriculum, the pedagogical recontextualization (PRF) [ 39 ]; [ 38 ] to some extend happened before the official recontextualization (ORF). It is noteworthy that cantons directly support the schools and districts by providing information, manuals, or formulating examples for practice. Moreover, most cantons bear at least part of the costs for further training of teachers and regulate the infrastructure in some form. While some cantons have had a coherent enactment strategy for some time, others have only begun to manage the process more actively with the introduction of the national curriculum. Finally (research question 3) two vignettes have been formulated to have a more abstract view on context specific enactment strategies. The Developer on the one hand portrays cantons, where the enactment strategies only set of after the national policy has been put forward. This highlights a more conservative approach, but nonetheless can lead to an appropriate strategy of MIL enactment in schools today. The Enabler on the other hand shows that in some contexts, the interest in MIL has developed bottom-up, for example by the demand in schools or by teachers who valued MIL competences for their schools, notwithstanding the national regulation. This might characterize cantons which are more innovative to align what is taught in schools to the demands of modern society. This distinction between the two vignettes further shows that the Enabler cantons early on design their own official policy (ORF) and thereof derive the pedagogical guidelines (PRF) [ 39 ]. Lastly, the Developer canton reacts to national policy by swiftly producing cantonal guidelines. This shows that in the case of MIL in the Swiss education system, some cantons chose not to wait for the signal of national policy [ 42 ] to integrate MIL in their schools but take autonomous action. This might point to a further theoretical discussion that neither implementation nor enactment are the right terms to describe autonomous development and design actions of sub-unit governments as shown here for the Swiss example. Overall, the portraits of the cantons show that policy enactment is not hierarchical process, but a reciprocal relationship [ 21 ]; [ 38 ]; [ 47 ]. Some cantons took early action to introduce MIL in their schools. Some developed their own policies and strategies ten years before the national policy was published. This time lag is also acknowledged by the national MIL working group in the expert interviews. They see that it is important to reflect on where the cantons are in the development of MIL policies and strategies. Nevertheless, this consortium of experts manages to find a minimum national consensus, which should be inclusive enough to allow for variations at the cantonal level. The cantons can adopt different implementation strategies with regard to the discipline of MIL. The vignettes show how national and cantonal policies interact and build on each other. The national MIL working group is very cautious in designing a national policy that is retroactive for some cantons and thus points to a deliberately overlapping “polyphonic federalism” [ 30 ]; [ 35 ]. It would be interesting to see how the other 15 Swiss cantons would fit into one of the two vignettes, or if there are additional patterns. Furthermore, we suspect that these different approaches highlighted by the vignettes might be transferable to other federalist, decentralized countries where regional authorities have scope to implement educational policies. 9. Limitation and Outlook Considering this analysis, it becomes evident that cantonal authorities have embraced diverse strategies for policy enactment. While the policy design process was meticulously conducted and involved various stakeholders, there remains a gap in providing practical guidance for enactment, including general recommendations, tools, and best practices. It’s essential to note that this study focuses solely on media and information literacy (MIL) as a specific discipline, which has gained significance in school curricula only recently. Consequently, observing and tracing the policy design and enactment processes for MIL becomes more feasible. It has not yet been investigated, whether similar processes may apply to other subject areas, particularly concerning negotiation dynamics between state and cantonal levels. As a caveat, this qualitative and explorative study captures a moment in time, as cantons and schools are still in the process of enacting the curriculum. Additionally, the initial phase of policy enactment in cantons doesn’t ensure comparability, as other factors may play a more substantial role in discerning similarities and differences in policy enactment. Future studies could examine the reform process at a later stage and assess the extent to which cantonal enactment strategies contribute to successful learning practices, as perceived by teachers and school principals directly involved. Understanding these processes and action patterns within their respective contexts is pivotal for collaboratively planning and designing future educational reforms. Furthermore, the utilization of vignettes offers valuable insights into cantonal behavior during enactment. These could be used to further investigate the differences between the cantons. In summary, the analysis underscores how a decentralized system affords cantons considerable flexibility, empowering school principals and teachers to collaborate with communities in shaping student preparation for the digital era. While this flexibility fosters tailored solutions at the local level, there’s a noticeable absence of sustained monitoring to gauge goal attainment. This is exemplified by a diffusion of responsibility, where individual teachers ultimately decide the frequency, depth, and purpose of utilizing digital resources in classrooms. Declarations Funding: This research was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) project “Reform@Work”. Conflicts of interest/Competing interests: The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article. Informed consent: “Informed consent" was obtained from the participants to participate in the current study. Ethics statement: The protocol was approved by Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) in accordance with the “code of conduct for scientific integrity” (2021). Authors' contributions: Conceptualization, M.J, T.W., M.G. and U.H.; methodology, M.J. and T.W.; software, M.J., T.W. and M.G.; analysis, M.J., T.W., M.G.; writing—original draft preparation, M.J.; writing— review and editing, M.J., T.W., M.G. and U.H.; visualization, M.J. References Altrichter H, Helm C. Akteure und Instrumente der Schulentwicklung. Baltmannsweiler: Schneider Verlag Hohengehren. 2011. Altrichter H, Maag Merki K. 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Journal of Education Policy. 2013. pp. 465–480. 10.1080/02680939.2013.770554. Skilling K, Stylianides GJ. Using vignettes in educational research: a framework for vignette construction. International Journal of Research & Method in Education. 2020. 5. pp. 541–556. 10.1080/1743727X.2019.1704243. Spillane JP. The more things change, the more things stay the same? Education and Urban Society. 2012. 2. pp. 123–127. 10.1177/0013124511431567. Spillane JP, Reiser BJ, Reimer T. Policy implementation and cognition: Reframing and refocusing implementation research. Review of Educational Research. 2002. 3. pp. 387–431. Tarr A. Laboratories of Democracy? Brandeis, Federalism, and Scientific Management. Publius. 2001. pp. 37–46. Thrupp M, Lupton R. Taking the school contexts more seriously: the social justice challenge. British Journal of Educational Studies. 2006. pp. 308–328. 10.1111/j.1467-8527.2006.00348.x. Toh Y. Leading sustainable pedagogical reform with technology for student-centred learning: A complexity perspective. Journal of Educational Change. 2016. 2. pp. 145–169. 10.1007/s10833-016-9273-9. VERBI Software. MAXQDA. Berlin: VERBI Software. 2020. Viennet R, Pont B. Education policy implementation: A literature review and proposed framework: OECD. 2017. Vogt F. Politisches System und New Public Management in Primarschulen im internationalen Vergleich. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Bildungswissenschaften. 2004. 1. pp. 69–83. Footnotes 21 refers to the 21 German-speaking cantons in Switzerland, which adopted the curriculum. French- and Italian-speaking cantons have an adapted version of this curriculum. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4595889","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":324753997,"identity":"fc979b7f-0f45-47f3-9d52-e3b48765cd21","order_by":0,"name":"Michelle Jutzi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABAUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACZgY2BoYCCyDrABAb2DAYSEAkEvBrASs7wNjAYJBGhBYGuBYGoBaGw4S16LYzP3vwwUBCjoHxjPnDHwXn88ylm499LmCwy8Olxewwm7nhDAMJYwaGM4YNEga3iy3nHEuePYMhuRi3Fh42aR4DicQGkBYDg9uJG27kGDPzMBwAiuDR8sdAoh6sJcHgHFBL/mfCWoBeTgA77IDBAZAtzAS0sJlJ9hhIGLYxHCuc2WCQXGxw5xjQYQbJuLWcP/xM4keFjTy/xOENH3/8scszuN38mJmnwg6nFjhgkzgAphMgXANC6kGAvwFZyygYBaNgFIwCBAAA4PBUnwAVIX8AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Pädagogische Hochschule Bern","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Michelle","middleName":"","lastName":"Jutzi","suffix":""},{"id":324753998,"identity":"b3e119ad-461c-4602-a62f-6954f1ae420a","order_by":1,"name":"Thomas Wicki","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Pädagogische Hochschule Bern","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Thomas","middleName":"","lastName":"Wicki","suffix":""},{"id":324753999,"identity":"9c45d72d-b41a-48c1-9330-faee3ed19633","order_by":2,"name":"Marina Grgic","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Pädagogische Hochschule Bern","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Marina","middleName":"","lastName":"Grgic","suffix":""},{"id":324754000,"identity":"23b2fdda-3bc9-4783-9138-0f55e53beefe","order_by":3,"name":"Ueli Hostettler","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Pädagogische Hochschule Bern","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ueli","middleName":"","lastName":"Hostettler","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-06-17 19:33:45","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4595889/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4595889/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":60852347,"identity":"8eb49074-6545-44a1-8034-700a3a0e94eb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-22 21:09:31","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":220719,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFramework of the policy design and enactment process (designed by the authors, and based on the theoretical assumptions)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4595889/v1/8cfb6e3bcdf5c027f77c9619.png"},{"id":69867676,"identity":"68ca740f-007f-43f9-9ff2-781135ac20bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-26 07:17:21","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":733272,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4595889/v1/c0a9dda6-0ec2-40fb-8e9d-857c530fc670.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Policy Design and Enactment in a Federalist School System: Understanding Contextual Responsiveness in Educational Governance","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eEducational policy design and enactment present a multifaceted challenge, involving diverse levels of the educational hierarchy, ranging from school leadership to instructional practices [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. The complexity further stems from the engagement of numerous stakeholders in the discourse leading to new policies. This is especially pertinent for decentralized, federalist countries, where different levels of government (federal and state or sub-unit governments) may be involved in policy design and its enactment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. In this paper, a \u0026ldquo;polyphonic federalism\u0026rdquo; model [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] is adopted to describe the reciprocal and interactive relationship between the federal and the sub-unit governments (states). This translation of national policy into state policy and practice, or \u0026ldquo;policy enactment\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], is subject to the influence of various actors and their demands and expectations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. While implementation often follows a signal-response logic, where states, municipalities or teachers make sense of policy requirements [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e], the enactment theory focuses more on dialogue between actors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, this article focuses on how sub-unit governments play a pivotal role in policy enactment and may influence national policy design in a reciprocal process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuilding on prior research, this study explores the relevance of international theories of reciprocal policy design and enactment for Swiss national and cantonal actors. The analysis centers on a specific context: Media and Information Literacy (MIL). This context is particularly intriguing due to the development and design of a new curriculum serving as the foundation for all schools in Switzerland. The national curriculum as a core document of national policy may have varying impacts on educational practice in sub-unit governments, since these so-called cantons have a lot of autonomy in the decentralized Swiss system. The cantons decide on how national policy reaches practice, as they interpret the policy against the backdrop of their distinct regional context. This paper analyses the process of policy design and enactment in the specific context of the Swiss federal, decentralized education system and examines the role of sub-unit governments on the one hand, and the federal government on the other.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. The Swiss Context for Policy Design and Enactment","content":"\u003cp\u003eSwitzerland is among the most decentralized federal systems \u0026ldquo;where states or provinces are responsible for delivering education\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Decentralization refers to systems, where there is no national institution which defines and guides policy alone (ibid. p. 108). The OCED report [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] implies that \u0026ndash; accounting for different roles of the state government \u0026ndash; one similarity between decentralized systems, such as Australia, Germany, Canada and the United States, is that one institution has to bring those regional institutions together for policy design. Although policy design and enactment in Switzerland has been researched from historical [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] and contemporary perspectives [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], it remains unclear how cantonal and national actors interact when designing respective policies and which aspects of policy are enacted on cantonal level.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Swiss federal system is based on 26 constituent cantons. They hold political and legislative power including the full responsibility for the school system. There is no central institution, like a national Ministry of Education, which defines binding national policy might limit the influence of the cantons [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. However, a non-legislative body of all 26 state ministers of education (EDK) is involved in coordinating nation-wide aspects of the school system. The cantons are organized as sub-unit governments, which interpret and adapt national policy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. One peculiarity of Swiss federal system is that the cantons vary in their degree of decentralization and the municipalities also have a considerable amount of autonomy to shape their schools. The municipalities are mainly responsible for funding and the use of resources (e.g., teaching materials, infrastructure, etc.) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Maag Merki and B\u0026uuml;eler [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] note an overall tendency towards more autonomy for in Switzerland at the regional and local level and therefore, not all actors are influenced in the same way by national policies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the national level, the influence of the EDK in coordinating education policy has increased in the last 30 years. In 2007, the EDK has issued the harmonization of some aspects of the school system (school enrolment age, number of school years etc.) as well as the design of a comprehensive curriculum for the German part of Switzerland (called Lehrplan21[1]\u003ca class=\"FNLink\" href=\"#Fn1\" id=\"#FNLinkFn1\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e). Due to its societal importance, two new disciplines have been added in the curriculum: education for sustainable development and media and information literacy (MIL) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. The curriculum commission decided to design those two disciplines as modular subjects, which can be taught integrated or as a standalone subject. The cantons are free to choose how they want to implement MIL in their schools. Nevertheless, the development of the national curriculum is a major shift in Swiss educational policy and a push towards central governance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, it obligates the cantons to collaborate concerning the priorities in the education system and reaching consensus [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. The sub-unit governments can adjust the curriculum and provide support for municipalities and schools. Therefore, the Switzerland\u0026rsquo;s education system gives leeway to cantonal education policy enactment to adapt the national policy to their needs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Yet, how the cantons interpret and enact national policy and how they differ in this decision-making process remains unclear.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Theory: Educational Policy Design and Enactment","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the following section, the relationship between sub-unit and national government in policy design and enactment will be described from a theoretical perspective, combining different theoretical approaches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral authors argue that the concept of dual federalism \u0026ndash; which separates national and state policy-making processes \u0026ndash; has become obsolete in educational policy and practice [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, more interactive models of federalism have been developed and described (cooperative or coercive federalism). Yet, only the model of \u0026ldquo;polyphonic federalism\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] assumes that the policies on both levels may overlap [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. In federalist systems, national interests often hinge on political decisions involving sub-level government`s participation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. Tarr [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e] notes the that governance strategies, though promoting convergence, face criticism for undermining diversity and neglecting the social geographies of educational change [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Successful national policy design, therefore, depends on adaptation to regional contexts, considering power relations and sensemaking [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Whereas the term implementation is often used to describe how sub-unit actors react to signals from national policy, enactment in this case focuses more on the reciprocal and dialectic nature of the process. As Heimans states: \u0026ldquo;Policy is not exclusively a product of the environment in which it acts, or from which it is produced, but is always more than what it is and more than what the environment it enters is; it always is both plus a bit more\u0026rdquo;[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuilding on Ball\u0026rsquo;s [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] conceptualization, policy is not merely a set of normative texts, but a discourse crafted by specific actors, intricately linked to the developmental context, multiple societal purposes, and immediate practical challenges. As Ball (1993) articulates, policy formulation or design involves a dynamic process characterized by struggles, compromises, and ad hoc decision-making, reflecting the interplay of individuals engaged in their distinct professional roles. This highlights that policy design is a product of the interactions and influences of those present during the development process. While policy design often follows a structured process, it is, in essence, a \u0026ldquo;multidimensional and value-laden state activity\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. This underscores the complexity and subjectivity embedded in the policymaking process. The multidimensional nature implies that policy decisions are shaped by a myriad of factors, including political, social, economic, and cultural considerations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe next step after policy design is its enactment, which is described as a recontextualization process. For policy analysis, there is a theoretical distinction between the \u0026ldquo;Official Recontextualizing Field\u0026rdquo; (ORF) and the \u0026ldquo;Pedagogic Recontextualizing Field\u0026rdquo; (PRF) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. According to Singh et al. (2013), the \u0026ldquo;state and its selected agents and ministries\u0026rdquo; (p. 468) mainly engage in the ORF, meaning that they produce official policy. In the PRF, actors develop materials on how to translate this policy into practice, which might entail manuals, handbooks, or support (training etc.) (ibid.). During this process, the actors \u0026ldquo;make meaning\u0026rdquo; of the policy in light of their traditional concepts, values and recent developments. Ball and colleagues (2011) formulate different types of actors inside schools and discuss how those react to policy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Yet, little is known how the sub-unit governments enact national policy and therefore create the context for school development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn line with these three theoretical perspectives, the design of educational policies, including those related to Media and Information Literacy (MIL), is a dynamic process where actors navigate through a web of contextual factors, competing interests, and diverse viewpoints. Understanding the intricacies of this process is crucial for comprehending how policies are conceptualized and shaped before their enactment in educational settings. As we delve into the specific case of MIL policy in Switzerland, the theoretical framework outlined by Schapiro (2005), Ball (1993) as well as Singh et al. (2013) will guide our exploration of the multifaceted nature of policy design, shedding light on the actors, contextual dynamics, and complexities inherent in the development of educational policies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Research on Curricula as Policy with a Focus on MIL","content":"\u003cp\u003eAs Evans [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] states, the curriculum is an important part of the national identity. It reflects where a society puts its focus concerning the future education. In federalist systems, policy enactment takes place, when sub-unit governments interpret national policy \u0026ndash; such as curricula \u0026ndash; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] or when schools read and interpret the policy for their everyday practice [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. In the following, specific research is presented to show, how the MIL curriculum has been designed and enacted in different countries. Many countries have been focusing on the development of a national curriculum in the field of Media Education and ICT, like the MIL curriculum in Switzerland.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following research points out four conditions which are crucial in curriculum design: including teacher voices and service providers with technological knowledge, interactive and reflective dialogue and having a coherent overall strategy. Evans [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e] shows for Wales that it was crucial to involve teachers process of MIL curriculum design and thereby sensitize them to the need to integrate digital tools in their classrooms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Apart from school teachers, policy design in MIL, has to take other stakeholders outside the school system (such as service providers) into account, who are the important partners for the technological side of the process [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYet often, standards or guidelines for technological infrastructure are not defined at a national level but delegated to sub-unit governments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The importance of inclusive stakeholder management in curriculum design is supported by Colwill and Gallagher [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e], who highlight for England and Northern Ireland that the actual curriculum design is preceded by phases of participative dialogue.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Shirley and Noble [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e], the rapid expansion of technologies has created a \u0026ldquo;sense of urgency and anticipation\u0026rdquo; (p. 144) to integrate MIL in education systems. Yet, a common (national) strategy on how to integrate MIL in schools seems to be crucial. Toh [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e] calls this a \u0026ldquo;ecological coherence\u0026rdquo; which has to be achieved between the goals of the actors on national, regional and local level. Shirley and Noble [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e] argue that a voluntariness of change without any sanctions that might actually promote educational change in MIL.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo sum up, research on successful design and enactment of policy in MIL hinges on four conditions, which to some extent are important for any policy independent of the curriculum topic. Yet, MIL is on the one hand a new subject, which little didactical traditions and there is a high demand of the society to include MIL competences in schools. Lastly, it is argued that consistency and coherence are key to combine local demands and opportunities in a national strategy or policy for the integration of MIL in any classroom.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Research Questions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe following diagram depicts, the assumption, that the national and cantonal levels interact in the development and enactment of the MIL curriculum (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Adopting the \u0026ldquo;polyphonic federalism\u0026rdquo; model [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e], we assume that there is continuing interaction between national level and the sub-unit governments, but there may also be overlap between the national and cantonal policies. As suggested by Viennet \u0026amp; Pont (2017), Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e describes a multidirectional process, where the inclusive stakeholder engagement and recognizing existing policy and the societal context are important aspects of designing national policy. In the case of the decentralized, federalist Swiss education system, the MIL working group was installed at the national level oversees designing the national curriculum. The sub-unit governments are interpreting, enacting and recontextualizing this policy. Yet, this process may also be reciprocal and a constant interaction between the two levels, which may also lead to overlap between the national and cantonal policies. Therefore, we assume a reciprocal relationship between the state and the federalist government [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the following, the approach is twofold: On the cantonal level on the development policies, strategies and enactment plans for MIL are focused on exploratory case descriptions. On the national level, the study focuses on policy design concerning the national curriculum. This study is explorative in nature, because the degree of interaction or overlap of national and cantonal policy has not been studies yet in the Swiss context. Our main research question is therefore: \u003cem\u003eIn what ways do beliefs, interests, and strategies of various actors unfold in the process of designing and enacting the MIL curriculum in Switzerland?\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow do national actors contribute to the design of Media and Information Literacy (MIL) policies in Switzerland?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo what extent do contextual aspects influence the enactment and interpretation of national MIL policy of sub-unit governments?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAre there comparable enactment strategies across the cantons which depend on the cantons` reaction to national policy?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe assume that the national policy design is a process in the official recontextualization frame (ORF), which precedes the pedagogical recontextualization (PRF) on cantonal level. Furthermore, sub-unit governments may develop their own policy and therefore engage in the ORF as well, while also developing enactment plans (manuals guidelines etc.) for schools. During the process of policy enactment cantonal authorities may emphasize certain aspects, which might also be based on (or driven by) their own interpretations, needs and translations of national policy.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe use a three-step approach and integrate different qualitative data to explore the complex process of policy design and its enactment. Firstly, the process of policy design is described on a national level using insights from expert interviews. We will secondly describe the different enactment strategies using official documents from six Swiss cantons. Six cantons have been chosen for this study, because they officially started to implement the curriculum in the same year (2017/2018). Furthermore, the six cantons represent the different language regions at least some extent as well as the regional differences of Switzerland (population density, urban or rural contexts as well as more secluded mountain regions). This procedure, thus allows to systematically document and analyze the natural variation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] of policy enactment between the cantons and show comparable strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.1 Qualitative Analysis of Documents and Expert Interviews\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this multiple case study, the aim of involving five different experts is to present different points of view [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. As sampling parameters, the involvement of the actors in the policy design process was crucial. These interviewees were either part of the curriculum committee, the national coordinating body for education or the national expert body in MIL. Five semi-structured, guided interviews [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] have been conducted with experts. All interviews lasted approximately 60 minutes during which participants were asked to reflect on their perception of the process of policy design and exchange with other involved actors. They were also asked to comment on their own beliefs according to the importance of a national policy for MIL.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo obtain an overview of different enactment strategies on the cantonal level, the second step was to collect and analyze official documents on the introduction of the MIL curriculum. A systematic search enabled the compilation of a comprehensive corpus of data. The research team gathered 103 publicly available policy documents from national stakeholders as well as media reports about the new curriculum for MIL.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe documents and expert interviews were coded with the same system of inductive thematic categories using MaxQDA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]: (1) Development process of the curriculum (e.g. project planning and schedule), (2) societal importance of MIL, (3) professionalization and training, (4) infrastructure and partnerships with providers, (5) opportunities and challenges. The analysis of both documents and interview transcripts was conducted using MaxQDA 2020 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] and is based on the principles of qualitative content analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. First, the text passages in the documents and transcripts were highlighted and thematic main categories were developed inductively. In a second research step, the different characteristics of the cantons were discussed in the research team and the similarities and differences between the six cantons have been summarized in short portraits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2 Constructing Vignettes of Policy Enactment of Sub-unit Governments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study uses vignettes to illustrate cantonal enactment strategies. Miles et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] call vignettes a \u0026ldquo;focused description of a series of events taken to be representative, typical, or emblematic\u0026rdquo; (p. 166). The method helps to formulate core issues of a case by providing a narrative structure. Vignettes are usually chosen as a methodology to accentuate different real or hypothetical situations (for example teacher actions or beliefs in class) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. According to Skilling and Stylianides [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e] vignettes are \u0026ldquo;descriptive episodes of specific situations that simulate real events or problems\u0026rdquo;. Therefore, the vignettes make it possible to reduce the complexity of the data and peel out options for actions or reactions to change. The use of the vignettes also helps to protect the sub-unit governments used in this study as it allows for an anonymous description of their actions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, since the policy enactment is still an ongoing process, the vignettes show a snapshot of cantonal actions, processes, and experiences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe vignettes are formulated based on an integration of the results from the document analysis, expert interviews, and case specific knowledge members of the research team.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"7. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe description in the following section is based on the extensive material from interview transcripts and documents. Firstly, the statements of the national experts are analyzed according to thematic categories (7.1.), secondly, the document analysis produced short summaries of the cantonal enactment strategies (7.2.). In Chap.\u0026nbsp;7.3. we describe the two case vignettes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.1. Analysis of the National Policy Design Process\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this section, we show the three main characteristics of the design process on the national level: Use of a working group to develop the new MIL policy, negotiation processes between cantons and the public and settling for a minimal consensus.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eInstalling a Working Group to Develop and Design the National Policy\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe policy design process commenced in 2013 with the establishment of a working group tasked with devising a strategy for integrating MIL into the new curriculum (Arbeitsgruppe ICT und Medien, 2015). The experts involved in this working group emphasized the significance of engaging critical and contentious voices in the discourse. A primary goal of engaging these experts was to \u0026ldquo;guarantee that the space for digital education is constructed in a harmonious manner\u0026rdquo; (Expert 4). Despite this, highly specialized areas in the realm of digitalization necessitate collaboration with subject matter specialists. Examples include data protection, digital systems for schools and further education. Therefore, the working group and national stakeholders sought networking opportunities with experts throughout the policy design process. The experts referred to the emergence of a \u0026ldquo;new discipline\u0026rdquo; (Expert 1) that demands meticulous design, labeling and alignment with established school practices. Their rationale was that \u0026ldquo;anything new to schools should not appear as a disease, as the school\u0026rsquo;s immune system will activate otherwise\u0026rdquo; (Expert 1).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eNegotiation Processes between Cantons and the Public\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe process of policy design is shaped by the mechanisms of the decentralized system. According to the experts, a curriculum for MIL has been discussed in the cantons thoroughly even before the curriculum assumed form, but the national curriculum design called for a new and inclusive policy which would be compatible for all cantons. The experts report that they have been included in policy design in different stages of the process and for different reasons. Primarily, the focus of the national working group was set on media education which was by that time already taught in Swiss schools. According to the experts, the first draft of the MIL curriculum was rejected by some cantons and the discussion was also picked up by national media. The discussion in the working group was described as a protracted and very interest-led process, because it was known that not all cantons were willing to allocate time in the children\u0026rsquo;s weekly schedule to this new discipline. Also, the criticism that the curriculum contains too little computer science compared to media literacy was met by revising the curriculum content. The experts see the \u0026ldquo;joint and collaborative work\u0026rdquo; (Expert 4) of developing a national policy as more important than the result of the discussions. Especially because the field of MIL changes rapidly and the curriculum content may already be outdated the moment it comes into effect. As a result, a national strategy with a corresponding action plan was published to accompany the new curriculum for MIL.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eSettling for a Minimal Consensus\u003c/em\u003e: The working group appears to have reached a minimal consensus on the MIL policy design and is hoping that cantonal authorities will take over the details. Some experts believe that \u0026ldquo;if there had been more experts involved, the outcome might have been different. However, there weren\u0026rsquo;t enough experts. There was too much politics and too little factual discussion\u0026rdquo; (Expert 1). The final two policy instruments, the strategy and action plan, reveal that there are no specific goals that would put pressure on cantons to meet certain standards or infrastructure requirements: \u0026ldquo;We don\u0026rsquo;t want to overwhelm or stab them in the back by imposing requirements\u0026rdquo; (Expert 3) or allow comparisons between cantons: \u0026ldquo;If you start comparing, we don\u0026rsquo;t want that \u0026ndash; it\u0026rsquo;s first difficult and second you quickly create a bad atmosphere\u0026rdquo; (Expert 4). The experts argue that the design process aligns with the established practice of avoiding comparisons in other areas of the Swiss education system, such as student competency measurements. The current challenge is that there is no clear understanding of where the cantons stand in terms of school digitalization, infrastructure, teaching standards, or the use of teaching materials. Additionally, there are currently no binding guidelines that allow for the monitoring of student performance or teacher competencies. Further, the working group reached the conclusion not to coordinate teacher training or provide further specifications or examples regarding infrastructure requirements or equipment for schools. However, a national network to coordinate the development of teaching materials has been established, initiated by the experts. Therefore, we conclude that active and inclusive dialogue and stakeholder management is essential for reaching consensus at the national level. It is also apparent that the national actors in the working group avoided setting standards and establishing a monitoring for the implementation of the curriculum for MIL.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.2. Portraits of Cantonal Enactment Strategies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the following, the results of the qualitative document analyses are described. The portraits summarize how each sub-unit government has to some extent distinctive traditions and options to tackle to question of MIL policy design and enactment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eCanton 1\u003c/em\u003e has established an ICT service provider to develop a joint electronical government strategy. This provider is responsible for the basic technical infrastructure of schools, while municipalities are responsible for network (wifi) components and end-user devices. Cantonal authorities provide support for municipalities developing pedagogical and technological concepts. Mandatory teacher training is organized. Teachers and school administrators are responsible to decide upon teaching materials and further teacher training. Specific support, such as a job description for ICT coordinators, is provided and comprehensively documented.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eCanton 2\u003c/em\u003e has partnered with the University of Teacher Education to assess the needs of elementary schools in MIL. Based on this assessment, support documents have been developed for school administrators and school leaders. The canton is funding and providing access to basic and further teacher training at the University of Teacher Education. Support materials are also provided concerning infrastructure. The canton has developed recommendations for municipalities and school administrations in collaboration with practitioners and other stakeholders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eCanton 3\u003c/em\u003e developed a handout on MIL infrastructure for schools. Local school authorities developed their own school concepts for MIL, some with the help of private companies. The canton provided minimal guidance for support. The University of Teacher Education sets strict specifications for teaching material use and further training of teachers. It serves as a consulting and contact point for school principals and teachers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eCanton 4\u003c/em\u003e has a long history of teaching MIL in elementary schools, with a dedicated Competence Center established at the University of Teacher Education in 2004 and a comprehensive development concept for all K-12 schools in 2008. A weekly MIL lesson is mandatory for most pupils. The canton has a coherent strategy, provides support for teaching materials, and offers extensive information resources. Municipalities and individual schools have significant autonomy in local enactment, while the authorities focus on structuring information and facilitating partnerships.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn \u003cem\u003eCanton 5\u003c/em\u003e 2014, the Competence Center for ICT in Schools was established within the Department of Elementary School and Education. The authorities play a central role in regulating and financing infrastructure, structuring information, and mandating teaching materials and teacher training. The canton collaborates with the University of Teacher Education to provide further training for teachers, offering guidance for instruction and infrastructure recommendations. Municipalities often are responsible for financing the infrastructure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn \u003cem\u003eCanton 6\u003c/em\u003e authorities have been actively promoting MIL in public schools for the past 20 years. They launched their first strategy in 2004 and have commissioned various projects to support its enactment. The current approach focuses on providing supporting materials and further training for teachers. A website offers guidelines and examples for developing MIL concepts. While the canton sets overall guidelines, a large part of the administrative responsibility is delegated to individual schools. Teachers are required to undergo extensive basic training to teach MIL.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis description of six cantons shows that some have long-standing traditions of promoting MIL and developing their own guidelines and policies for schools and municipalities. Cantons four and six for example, have started their own policy enactment and design process much before the national foundations were laid. The document analysis shows that the cantons provide very different contexts for MIL policy and use different strategies \u0026ndash; such as the collaboration with the teacher universities to account for the societal demands of incorporating more MIL in public schools.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.3. Development of the Vignettes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing these descriptions, the next step of analysis is to integrate both data sources and formulate vignettes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], which illustrate and accentuate strategies which differentiate the cantons from each another. The research team formulated two contrasting vignettes to emphasize two different approaches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eVignette 1 \u0026ndash; The Enabler\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the Enabler canton, a long-standing tradition of MIL education exists. In the early 2000s, the cantonal authorities initiated a systematic approach to MIL in schools, recognizing the need for new competencies in the digital age. Measures included developing a dedicated MIL subject with a corresponding curriculum and time allocation in the official school schedule. Pilot schools were also enabled to experiment with new approaches, receiving financial incentives to explore innovative solutions in infrastructure and pedagogy. The Enabler canton takes on a supportive role, establishing a framework with conditions that aim to stimulate strategic developments in schools and communities with minimal pressure or interference. A competence center has been established to support this effort, providing information, and developing content for schools. The Enabler canton adheres to the principles of \u0026ldquo;communities know what is right for them\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;he who pays commands,\u0026rdquo; resulting in limited knowledge of the current situation in schools and the satisfaction levels of teachers and school leaders regarding MIL implementation. Regional solutions are emerging with significant differences, raising concerns about equity of access and development of uniform competencies as mandated by the curriculum.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eVignette 2 \u0026ndash; The Developer\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Developer canton only began discussing MIL with the introduction of the national curriculum. Prior to that, there were minimal guidelines for communities regarding MIL. Driven by national regulations, the Developer canton felt compelled to swiftly introduce a comprehensive MIL enactment plan and a cohesive strategy to ensure schools have the necessary resources to teach the subject. To accomplish this, the authority partnered with specific service providers, such as the University of Teacher Education, external infrastructure providers, and experts, to develop concepts for providing teaching materials and purchasing equipment. A comprehensive cantonal plan for digital expansion and basic equipment for all schools is in place, with infrastructure managed and coordinated by a central office. Since the public discussion about the importance of MIL gained traction, the canton has produced a series of policy documents, instructions, and guidelines. For instance, a job description for ICT-coordinators has been established, a minimum requirement for teacher training for all teachers has been implemented and teaching materials were declared mandatory. The Developer canton is making concerted efforts to rectify past developmental shortcomings and missed opportunities. The cantonal documents extensively reference the national curriculum to emphasize the significance of adapting MIL. The Developer canton intends to monitor the development in schools and has instructed school inspectors to conduct quality controls through monitoring strategies. The canton has provided schools with a substantial amount of information in a short period of time. However, the individual experiences and frameworks of the schools have been largely overlooked. Some schools or communities feel disregarded and wish to develop their own approach to the task by involving local ICT services.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, the Enabler canton has a longer history of MIL education and a more decentralized approach to enactment. The Developer canton has a more centralized approach and has quickly developed a comprehensive strategy for MIL implementation using regulations, standards, and monitoring. The Enabler canton\u0026rsquo;s approach may be more effective in fostering innovation and experimentation in schools, as it provides technical and pedagogical guidance and support. However, it may also lead to equity issues and a lack of standardization in MIL education. The Developer canton\u0026rsquo;s approach may help to ensure that all schools have the resources they need to teach MIL but may also inhibit innovation and create a lack of self-responsibility and autonomy among schools. The vignettes show that there are two parallel development processes that are based on different premises. How these two approaches may influence schools and teachers in their practice, will be discussed in the following.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"8. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe analysis shows an interaction and overlap between national policy design and cantonal enactment strategies for the Swiss case. The two levels can build on each other and are not mutually exclusive. On the national level (research question 1), design of the new curriculum was formulated carefully and prudently. Various interests and interest groups have been included in the dialogue of policy design [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. This serves both justification and task allocation because different areas of expertise and specialization are considered. Therefore, the new policy must fill a need, unregulated area, or gap to be embraced by practitioners. It is clear from the analysis of the expert interviews that the formulation of a national framework for MIL was overdue. At the time the curriculum was developed, various aspects of MIL were already being taught in school. The argument of connectivity to actual practice was also mentioned repeatedly by the national experts. In this way, a viable compromise was found. Therefore, policy design only partially broke new ground, but rather sought connectable solutions. Thus, some experts believe that the politically motivated discussion diluted the national governance impulse. The experts expressed their hope that the cantons would take the necessary and especially specific measures to standardize the system of MIL education, for example about the financing of infrastructure or the further training of teachers. Compared to more centralized countries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e], the national working group in Switzerland is not very firmly anchored in the cantons and have no decision-making power. It is therefore particularly important for them to take the different backgrounds of the cantons into account in the policy design.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the cantonal level (research question 2), the results show that although the national policy reached the cantons roughly in the same time, their traditional strategies and previous commitment to promote MIL were very different. These strategies are rooted in the regional demand, context, and tradition, especially regarding the collaboration with training institutions and public or private service providers. Therefore, in the case of the Swiss MIL curriculum, the pedagogical recontextualization (PRF) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] to some extend happened before the official recontextualization (ORF). It is noteworthy that cantons directly support the schools and districts by providing information, manuals, or formulating examples for practice. Moreover, most cantons bear at least part of the costs for further training of teachers and regulate the infrastructure in some form. While some cantons have had a coherent enactment strategy for some time, others have only begun to manage the process more actively with the introduction of the national curriculum.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally (research question 3) two vignettes have been formulated to have a more abstract view on context specific enactment strategies. The Developer on the one hand portrays cantons, where the enactment strategies only set of after the national policy has been put forward. This highlights a more conservative approach, but nonetheless can lead to an appropriate strategy of MIL enactment in schools today. The Enabler on the other hand shows that in some contexts, the interest in MIL has developed bottom-up, for example by the demand in schools or by teachers who valued MIL competences for their schools, notwithstanding the national regulation. This might characterize cantons which are more innovative to align what is taught in schools to the demands of modern society. This distinction between the two vignettes further shows that the Enabler cantons early on design their own official policy (ORF) and thereof derive the pedagogical guidelines (PRF) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Lastly, the Developer canton reacts to national policy by swiftly producing cantonal guidelines. This shows that in the case of MIL in the Swiss education system, some cantons chose not to wait for the signal of national policy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e] to integrate MIL in their schools but take autonomous action. This might point to a further theoretical discussion that neither implementation nor enactment are the right terms to describe autonomous development and design actions of sub-unit governments as shown here for the Swiss example.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the portraits of the cantons show that policy enactment is not hierarchical process, but a reciprocal relationship [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. Some cantons took early action to introduce MIL in their schools. Some developed their own policies and strategies ten years before the national policy was published. This time lag is also acknowledged by the national MIL working group in the expert interviews. They see that it is important to reflect on where the cantons are in the development of MIL policies and strategies. Nevertheless, this consortium of experts manages to find a minimum national consensus, which should be inclusive enough to allow for variations at the cantonal level. The cantons can adopt different implementation strategies with regard to the discipline of MIL. The vignettes show how national and cantonal policies interact and build on each other. The national MIL working group is very cautious in designing a national policy that is retroactive for some cantons and thus points to a deliberately overlapping \u0026ldquo;polyphonic federalism\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt would be interesting to see how the other 15 Swiss cantons would fit into one of the two vignettes, or if there are additional patterns. Furthermore, we suspect that these different approaches highlighted by the vignettes might be transferable to other federalist, decentralized countries where regional authorities have scope to implement educational policies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"9. Limitation and Outlook","content":"\u003cp\u003eConsidering this analysis, it becomes evident that cantonal authorities have embraced diverse strategies for policy enactment. While the policy design process was meticulously conducted and involved various stakeholders, there remains a gap in providing practical guidance for enactment, including general recommendations, tools, and best practices. It\u0026rsquo;s essential to note that this study focuses solely on media and information literacy (MIL) as a specific discipline, which has gained significance in school curricula only recently. Consequently, observing and tracing the policy design and enactment processes for MIL becomes more feasible. It has not yet been investigated, whether similar processes may apply to other subject areas, particularly concerning negotiation dynamics between state and cantonal levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a caveat, this qualitative and explorative study captures a moment in time, as cantons and schools are still in the process of enacting the curriculum. Additionally, the initial phase of policy enactment in cantons doesn\u0026rsquo;t ensure comparability, as other factors may play a more substantial role in discerning similarities and differences in policy enactment. Future studies could examine the reform process at a later stage and assess the extent to which cantonal enactment strategies contribute to successful learning practices, as perceived by teachers and school principals directly involved. Understanding these processes and action patterns within their respective contexts is pivotal for collaboratively planning and designing future educational reforms. Furthermore, the utilization of vignettes offers valuable insights into cantonal behavior during enactment. These could be used to further investigate the differences between the cantons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, the analysis underscores how a decentralized system affords cantons considerable flexibility, empowering school principals and teachers to collaborate with communities in shaping student preparation for the digital era. While this flexibility fosters tailored solutions at the local level, there\u0026rsquo;s a noticeable absence of sustained monitoring to gauge goal attainment. This is exemplified by a diffusion of responsibility, where individual teachers ultimately decide the frequency, depth, and purpose of utilizing digital resources in classrooms.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eFunding: This research was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) project \u0026ldquo;Reform@Work\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConflicts of interest/Competing interests: The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent: \u0026ldquo;Informed consent\u0026quot; was obtained from the participants to participate in the current study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthics statement: The protocol was approved by Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) in accordance with the \u0026ldquo;code of conduct for scientific integrity\u0026rdquo; (2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions: Conceptualization, M.J, T.W., M.G. and U.H.; methodology, M.J. and T.W.; software,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM.J., T.W. and M.G.; analysis, M.J., T.W., M.G.; writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, M.J.; writing\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ereview and editing, M.J., T.W., M.G. and U.H.; visualization, M.J.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAltrichter H, Helm C. 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French- and Italian-speaking cantons have an adapted version of this curriculum.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4595889/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4595889/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis article examines the design and enactment of a Media and Information Literacy (MIL) curriculum within the decentralized, federalist Swiss education system. It explores how power dynamics between federal and state actors shape education policy. In Switzerland, cantons possess significant autonomy in interpreting national policy, leading to diverse approaches in response to societal shifts such as the growing need for digital skills. The data shows that the design of the national curriculum involved stakeholder dialogue and aimed for inclusivity. The expert interviews highlight this collaborative process behind national policy design. Furthermore, the article profiles six sub-unit governments (cantons) revealing varied strategies in MIL policy enactment. Qualitative data integration and the formulation of vignettes illustrates the iterative nature of policy design and enactment, demonstrating that not all cantons align with national policy. The Swiss case underscores how societal demands often precede national policy, emphasizing the importance of contextual responsiveness in educational governance. Overall, the analysis provides insights into the complex interplay between national authority, sub-unity governments, and societal needs in shaping education policy, particularly in the area of MIL.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Policy Design and Enactment in a Federalist School System: Understanding Contextual Responsiveness in Educational Governance","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-07-22 21:09:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4595889/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"d80d9af0-b849-47d5-ad49-ff6ebbc814de","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 22nd, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-11-26T07:09:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-07-22 21:09:26","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4595889","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4595889","identity":"rs-4595889","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}