Voices from the Ocean: Human-Wildlife Coexistence Through the Lens of Fishermen’s Knowledge and Lived Experience

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Crowder This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4797408/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Climate change-related shifts in marine resource availability and species behavior are increasing rates of human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Although this trend poses significant risks to both human livelihoods and conservation efforts, strategies to resolve HWC focus largely on ecological outcomes, overlooking key impacts and contributions of human resource users. Here, we draw on the case study of whale entanglement in the Dungeness crab (Metacarcinus magister) fishery in California, U.S.A. to demonstrate the promise of integrating – and the consequences of neglecting – the voice and expertise of fishing communities. Semi-structured interviews with 27 commercial fishermen across nine towns in California revealed the diverse sociocultural impacts of HWC – often converging on livelihood and identity losses – as well as fishermen’s potential role in addressing HWC as long-time experts in the marine ecosystem. Our findings highlight pathways for achieving human-wildlife coexistence, underscoring the need to engage the knowledge and lived experience of local communities affected by HWC. Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental social sciences/Sustainability Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental social sciences Earth and environmental sciences/Ocean sciences Social science/Environmental studies Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 INTRODUCTION The world’s oceans harbor rich biodiversity and represent an important source of human nutrition, livelihood, and culture. Yet as climate change-related shifts in resource availability and species behavior increase rates of human-wildlife conflict 1 (HWC), tensions between ocean-based livelihoods and marine wildlife have escalated 2 , 3 . Numerous scholars recognize the complex social-ecological nature of HWC 4 and call for balanced, interdisciplinary approaches that protect both human livelihoods and conservation targets 5 . However, current efforts to resolve HWC largely focus on the ecological dimension, overlooking key impacts and contributions of human resource users 6 – 8 . High-profile examples of marine-related HWC feature tensions between fishing activity and recovering marine mammal populations – such as the entanglement of large whales in fishing gear 9 , 10 . Incidental fisheries bycatch of large marine mammals is an issue of global concern – from the North Atlantic 11 to the East Sea of South Korea 12 – that has been described as “the single greatest threat to cetaceans from human activities” 13 . In many cases of fishery-wildlife conflict, enduring efforts to protect charismatic marine megafauna outpace efforts to protect fishing livelihoods 14 . Some researchers have noted these asymmetric tradeoffs between fishery and conservation goals, advocating instead for win-win scenarios that are both ecologically and socioeconomically tenable 15 – 18 . To this end, it would be beneficial to engage directly with fishing communities in order to understand the complete landscape of HWC-related impacts and solutions 16 , 19 , 20 . Yet systemic biases within fisheries management have historically impeded the contributions of this key stakeholder group 21 – 23 . Here, we focus on a case study of humpback whale entanglement in the Dungeness crab fishery in California, U.S.A. to demonstrate the promises of integrating – and the consequences of neglecting – the lived experience and expertise of fishermen (note: the term ‘fishermen’ is used to honor participants’ preference). Dungeness crab ( Metacarcinus magister ) has long represented one of the most economically and culturally important fisheries along the U.S. West Coast. In California, the fishery generates more than $ 53 million in seasonal revenue 24 , providing the primary basis of many fishermen’s livelihoods 25 , 26 and supporting a robust value chain of sustainable seafood consumption 27 , 28 . However, the Dungeness crab fishery generates, on average, < 0.001% of California’s total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 29 and thus has limited economic and political leverage. In the past decade, interaction with humpback whales ( Megaptera novaeangliae ) has become a critical issue for the Dungeness crab fishery. A prolonged marine heatwave event and associated harmful algal bloom between 2014 and 2016 drove a sharp spike in whale entanglements in fishing gear 10 , 30 , 31 . From 2014 to 2017, there was an annual average of 42 confirmed whale entanglements in fishing gear along the U.S. West Coast, with commercial Dungeness crab fishing gear implicated in an average of 12 cases per year 32 . From 2018 to 2023, coastwide entanglement rates decreased to an average of 28, with commercial Dungeness crab gear implicated in 6 cases per year on average 32 . Despite these marked decreases in annual entanglement rates from historic 2014–2017 highs, growing whale populations 33 and future extreme weather events continue to pose elevated risk for fishery-whale overlap 34 . To reduce this risk, the California Department of Fish & Wildlife (CDFW) developed a Risk Assessment and Mitigation Program (RAMP) in 2017 35 . Based on environmental monitoring and ecological data, RAMP assesses whale entanglement risk, then outputs management measures – most often in the form of fishery delays and closures – when certain risk triggers are met 36 . In the 2024 fishing season, RAMP management actions included multiple delays and an early closure of the fishing season based on the anticipated arrival of humpback whales 37 . RAMP has been criticized by social scientists 16 and industry stakeholders 38 for focusing primarily on the ecological dimension (i.e., risk to whales) while overlooking impacts to fishermen – which are felt across a range of social, economic, and cultural scales 18 , 25 , 28 , 39 , 40 . Researchers have called for more holistic perspectives on whale entanglement that reflect the complex human dimensions of the issue, yet these integrated approaches are precluded by an absence of social science research that engages the fishermen 15 , 16 , 18 . Our study addresses this gap, illuminating both the sociocultural impacts of fishery perturbations and the critical role that fishermen can play in both understanding and resolving fishery-wildlife conflict as long-time experts in the marine ecosystem. As understandings of human-wildlife interaction expand to develop models of coexistence, this kind of social science research accounting for the needs, ways of life, and potential contributions of local resource users will become increasingly important 41 – 44 . The approaches and methods of this Northern California case study can therefore be employed across broad contexts, where they will lend valuable insight into the practical steps needed to achieve balanced and sustainable outcomes for coupled human-environmental systems. Our work is situated within an emerging body of literature that confirms the need for fisheries managers to look beyond the ecological dimension, embrace the human dimensions, and develop more complex conceptualizations of fisheries as social-ecological systems (SES) 45 , 46 . In the wake of Elinor Ostrom’s 2009 canonical work on common-pool resources 47 , a growing number of social scientists have leveraged the SES model to encourage interdisciplinary approaches to resource management that reflect the intrinsic coupling of humans and their environment 48 , 49 . However, SES research has often reduced intricate human dimensions issues to mere quantitative metrics and variables that can be easily modeled. By contrast, we purposefully prioritize voices and lived experience, presenting an extensive corpus of qualitative data, narratives, and oral histories that enrich our current understanding of the human dimensions of this fishery. In demonstrating fishermen’s critical role in achieving win-win scenarios for people and the planet, we highlight the reality that achieving fishery-wildlife coexistence is just as much about understanding the social, economic, and cultural dynamics of fishing communities as it is about understanding species biology and ecology. RESULTS Semi-structured interviews revealed both the impacts of human-wildlife conflict (HWC) that fishermen face as well as their potential role in addressing the issue. We present this dual narrative of impact and contribution in the following section, placing an emphasis on participants’ voice and lived experience. IMPACTS The central impact of HWC on commercial Dungeness crab fishermen is a loss of livelihood and identity. These overarching losses are fueled by a diverse set of intermediate impacts, as outlined in Figure 1. Specifically, we identify negative public perception and reduced fishing opportunity as the most primary and direct human consequences of HWC – both of which in turn contribute to marginalization, erosion of trust, exacerbation of conflict and inequity, and income loss. Declining Public Perception “All they hear is crab fishermen are killing whales. It’s on the news. It’s everywhere. That’s all they hear.” Incidents of whale entanglement in fishing gear exacerbate negative public perception of the fishing industry and reinforce the narrative that fishermen are antagonists to the marine environment. “They think we’re the ogres of the ocean,” said one participant, who, alongside many others, described feeling “looked down upon” for his perceived role in HWC. Others frequently noted a “real divide between our industry and the world at large” that is fueled by California’s ‘green’ political climate and its powerful sector of environmental NGOs (ENGOs). “They make it sound like we’re out there just murdering the whales intentionally,” said one fisherman, in reference to the actions of a particular ENGO. “And I’m not sure that the people who are sending them money are getting a true vision of what’s really taking place or why it’s taking place.” Marginalization “I feel like we’re the handicapped kid and we’re getting pushed out of our wheelchair. It’s a brutal way to say it, but it’s true. It’s like we can’t fight back.” Mounting bias against the fishing industry contributes to fishermen’s perception of increasing marginalization from society. Feelings of powerlessness and exclusion were frequently voiced during interviews and rooted in the growing sense that fishermen are insignificant or unimportant to the state at large. “We’re not essential. We’re an easy target,” said one participant. “If we’re not allowed to catch crabs anymore, California will be just fine. Nobody’s going to miss us.” Similar sentiments of peripherality were mentioned in the context of fishermen’s role in management and decision-making. “You can go up there and tell ’em till you’re blue in the face the way you feel about it. But they just go right back to what they’ve already decided,” described one participant on his communications with fisheries managers. “I think everybody should be able to give their information. I just feel like the fishermen get left out,” noted another. Ultimately, the experience of marginalization was shared to such a universal degree among fishermen that it allowed for a sense of solidarity, as one participant poignantly described: “We didn’t agree as fishermen on a lot of things, but we felt the same pain on how we were treated.” Erosion of Trust “It all boils back to the trust side of it. When you have zero trust with the people you’re working with, you just kind of throw up your hands and walk away. You don’t wanna be involved with it.” Declining public perception of the fishing industry erodes trust between fishermen and external actors comprising two main groups: fisheries managers and members of ENGOs. With regards to the former group, fishermen view the actions of various government agencies as largely “driven by public opinion,” biased towards environmental protection, and negligent of the fleet’s interests. “Their goal is entirely to protect the whales, not protect the industry,” noted one participant. Said another, “It seems like they're more worried about having a bad newspaper article written about 'em than they are about actually managing in the best way.” A similar lack of trust was reported between fishermen and ENGOs, with participants communicating suspicion about the agenda of such organizations and claiming they are “not driven necessarily by wanting to protect marine mammals.” “It’s in their business plan to show a crisis,” said one participant, who later went on to describe whale entanglement as a “cash cow” for ENGOs. Many others echoed this view, describing that they have been “regulated out of business just because it fits the agenda of these ENGOs.” Importantly, participants pointed out, a sense of mistrust goes both ways, with fishermen often discounted as “a bunch of liars” who are concerned only with their own personal interests. “It’s just the fishermen trying to get more time. The fishermen just want more fish,” said one participant, as he described the perceived motives ascribed to the fishing fleet. Reduced Fishing Opportunity “Those opportunities are just getting slimmer and slimmer every year. I mean we’re just getting chopped down to nothing.” In addition to fueling negative public perception of the fishing industry, HWC has also curtailed fishing opportunities. “I would say the biggest threat to the crab fishery right now is the diminishing time on the water; the days we’re allowed to fish. And it’s because of the whales,” said one participant. Indeed, the Dungeness crab fishing season, which used to run for nearly eight months from late fall to mid-summer, has consistently been shortened in recent years to only a couple of months during the winter. “Now we’re down to just a few of the worst months of weather,” explained one fisherman. Although many participants recognized that restrictions on fishing activity are a necessary aspect of HWC risk mitigation, they also noted that there still need to be opportunities for fishermen to earn a living. “If you don’t have an opportunity, you don’t have anything,” explained one participant. “Your whole business model is based on opportunity.” Another similarly described, “In the past, if we didn’t get 200, 225 days a year on the water, we’d go crazy. Now if I get 90, I’m lucky. What am I going to get this year?” He later went on to say, “You have to adapt. I get that. But you have to have the opportunity to adapt. The way this whale thing’s working out, we’re not given the opportunity to adapt. They’re not going to let me survive.” Income Losses “I’ve taken a hit. I’m struggling. I haven’t made a dime. And we gotta invest $20,000 just to get started.” Income losses resulting from reduced fishing opportunities were another frequently cited impact of HWC. The Dungeness crab fishery, once a cornerstone of many fishermen’s livelihoods and one of the most lucrative fisheries along the U.S. West Coast, now yields only a fraction of its historic profit due to HWC-related restrictions. One fisherman reported a nearly forty percent loss in total income, joining many others in expressing concern that he would no longer be able to earn a living: “They’re making it so difficult that you can’t make it pay. I mean I’ve been doing it a long time and I never thought it would come to this.” Another lifelong fisherman lamented, “It’s hard. Not just for me but for my crew. You know? They’re taking outside jobs…they got families to feed. We don’t know when we’re going.” One participant newer to the fishing industry provided a vivid account of the economic impact that he suffered during the previous season’s early closure: “It really, really hurt…You’re waiting for that paycheck to come to keep moving. I didn’t have a lot of money. I was a small boat, small person, trying to keep bills going. I was living out on my boat actually. I didn’t have anything. I was down to nickels and I was screaming. I didn’t understand. I was so frustrated. I wanted to go, let me go try to make a living. Let me try.” Conflict & Inequity “Small boats, big boats, large permits, small permits…everyone's battling each other for a right to have their own business model.” Increasingly scarce fishing opportunities lead to rising tensions within the fleet as individuals compete to sustain their own livelihood. In the case of highly individualized industries such as fishing, business models and operations vary greatly, which leads to conflict over who should be able to fish and when. “Every boat here is their own business,” explained one fisherman, “What works for me doesn’t work for someone else. And it’s his livelihood too. And he has a right to his opinion too...So then everyone just butts heads.” Competition for viability in the face of reduced fishing opportunities not only undermines social cohesion but also exacerbates inequity within the fleet. “At some point, this isn’t going to be viable for everybody,” explained one fisherman. He joined many others in noting that smaller-scale fishing operations, which often rely heavily on crab, are disproportionately impacted by fishing restrictions. “It really hurts the smaller boats ’cause the big guys go shrimp fishing and dragging, the medium size boats take off and go salmon fishing or do something, and then the small guys just...they have nothing. Just devastating to a lot of ’em,” described one participant. Finally, the recent authorization of testing for alternative gear designed to reduce whale entanglement risk has exacerbated conflict and inequity within the fleet, as select fishermen are granted exclusive access to the crab resource while others are excluded. Loss of Livelihood & Identity “I’m just Grandpa, trying to do right by my family, you know? And it breaks my heart. There’s nobody following. There’s nobody to give the boat to. Nobody’s going to follow what this family has done for a lot of years.” Individually and in aggregate, the impacts of HWC described in this section contribute to pervasive losses of livelihood and identity among fishermen. “It’s just one, after the other, after the other…just eliminating us as a fishery,” remarked one individual. “Death by a thousand cuts as they say.” For nearly all participants, the crab fishery transcends mere economic value and embodies a profound sense of self and cultural significance. “Since I was a little kid, it’s been in my blood,” said one fisherman. “I'm a lifer, I'm a career guy. This is what I do. I don't have a pension. I got nowhere else to go,” noted another. Identity-related ties to the crab fishery are experienced not just individually but communally, creating an interconnected cultural system that spans the California coast. “It’s our jobs, it’s our families, it’s our towns,” said one participant. “Some of these coastal towns are based on their fisheries, Fort Bragg and a lot of Eureka.” Familial ties to the fishery were present in 56% of the study population, and, even for those without, the crab fishery was viewed not just as a profession but as a way of life. “This is what I do. I didn’t grow up in the business. I earned my way into the business. You know? I don’t want to do anything else. But I’m losing that option. This isn’t gonna work,” said one fisherman. The relentless struggle to preserve the fishery has exacted a steep psychological toll on many participants, leaving them drained and disillusioned. “I’m getting tired. I mean, I’m getting tired of the fight. It’s depressing,” said one fisherman. Another described feeling “torn up mentally,” and later went on to say, “How much more do you got? I mean, there’s not a lot left in my heart and soul to continue this quest right now. Looking back here from today, I wish I maybe would’ve sold the boat. You only got so much. You only got so much.” CONTRIBUTIONS Fishermen’s role in understanding and addressing HWC can be assessed through four lenses – ecological knowledge, resource stewardship, on-water experience, and understanding of the human-nature relationship. While distinct, each of these contributions does not exist in isolation and is instead part of a larger and interconnected network of involvement (Figure 2). Ecological Knowledge “You’ve got a data-rich community here, and it’s so sad that it’s not tapped. Participants often pointed out that their expertise in the marine ecosystem could play a critically important role in understanding and mitigating HWC. “There’s nobody here that knows more than the fishermen,” said one participant, who argued that a lifetime of experience on the ocean affords himself and others “more knowledge than any biologist is ever going to have.” Whereas current datasets used to manage the fishery and map HWC risk rely largely on the work of outside scientists and government agencies, participants envision an alternative approach that engages fishermen’s own “wealth of knowledge.” “Listen to what we have to say. We’re pretty sharp guys,” said one participant. Another added, “I think that we could have a lot of common ground with the science advisors because we see it empirically. We see what their models predict and we can corroborate each other’s data.” In addition to expressing interest in collaborating with scientists, participants also saw a potential role for themselves as the “eyes and ears” of the fisheries managers, explaining, “They’re making decisions outside of the field and we’re seeing it all in real-time. We could be their support, but our voices are not being heard.” On-Water Experience “Guys like Bill, Tom, they’ve been here forever, you know? I mean, I’ve been on the water since I was 18 years old, diving and fishing out here off the coast.” Fishermen’s extensive experience on the ocean represents another crucial contribution towards understanding and mitigating HWC. “We were some of the very first guys doing this, like literally the first guys vertical fishing for years and years,” explained one participant, as he spoke on the longevity of the crab fishery and the firsthand practical knowledge that much of the fishing fleet boasts. “We’ve always fished around whales,” noted another participant. “I mean, I’ve fished around whales my whole life.” According to many participants, this extensive experience has allowed the fleet to make “great strides” in mitigating the chance and risk of HWC – including through a universally adopted ‘Best Practices’ guide that informs optimal rope and buoy. Several participants noted that their valuable contributions are largely discounted by fisheries managers who think “five years of education is worth more than fifty years of experience.” “They don’t ask the guys that are doing it. I’ve been doing this since I was 12 years old,” lamented one participant. Another poignantly noted, “Fishermen have to be able, to some extent, have an influence on their own fate.” “We’re talking about radical changes in the way we fish. And I don't think that that should be left up to a couple [fisheries managers].” Environmental Stewardship “I think all commercial fishermen are environmentalists…It behooves us, benefits us, to protect our fishery.” Fishermen’s stewardship of the marine environment was recognized as another critical contribution made by the fishing fleet. This sense of stewardship is rooted in both moral imperative and self-preservation: participants noted that their livelihood depends on the health of the environment, so it is within their best interest to sustain and protect it. “Just by being a fisherman you’re an environmentalist,” explained one participant. “Just by the nature of what we do. If we screw up the environment, it directly impacts us.” Said another, “We always have been environmentally proactive, regardless of what some people in the state say. We’re the ones that are trying to do it right.” In many cases, participants’ belief in environmental stewardship is what attracts them to the fishing industry. “I find so much romance in it,” remarked one participant, who pivoted to a career in commercial fishing later in life. “Of harvesting your food and bringing it to the consumer and doing it as sustainability as you can. I love that. It’s neat.” Others similarly celebrated their role in supporting the public’s access to a sustainable food source, with one lifelong fisherman describing environmental stewardship as the “essence of the fishery” and the basis of “what’s in our heart, what’s coming from our mind, what we believe in.” Understanding of Human-Nature Relationship “It’s part of life and coexisting on this planet that these things sometimes happen.” Participants frequently demonstrated a nuanced understanding of the human-nature relationship. The contribution of this understanding represents the final – and perhaps most abstract – missed opportunity to address HWC. During interviews, participants invoked principles of coexistence to assert that human-wildlife interaction is not only inevitable but essential. “We have a flourishing population of humpbacks, which is awesome, and it should be celebrated more than anything,” said one fisherman. “But therefore, inherently, unfortunately, we’re going to have more interactions with the animals.” Participants called for a re-imagined approach to HWC that balances outcomes for both the fishery and whale populations by permitting an “acceptable level of interaction.” “The solution isn’t to have an unlimited number of whales that we can tangle,” said one fisherman. “But the solution is also not to have such a low threshold of interaction that we can’t operate what once was the most valuable fishery in California. There needs to be a balanced approach that takes in all the factors and is realistic.” Given their belief that current rates of entanglement pose little risk to whale population viability, many participants asserted that HWC mitigation efforts should not come at the expense of their livelihood. They expressed frustration with current approaches to HWC, which they feel fail to acknowledge the realities of coexistence by seeking to eliminate all instances of overlap. “We’re trying on our end, but I feel like the environmentalists, all they’re doing is saying ‘There’s a dead whale, it’s your fault. That’s it. Nobody should fish anymore. Everyone should eat plant based.’” Another participant poignantly asked, “Is a whale’s life more valuable than a fisherman’s life?” then noted, “I definitely don’t want to see any whales tangled. But I definitely need a job. I need to survive.” DISCUSSION This study reveals the many impacts of whale entanglement on commercial Dungeness crab fishermen, extending beyond the commonly recognized economic losses 25 , 39 , 40 . Participants recount how reduced fishing opportunities and declining public perception of the fishing industry resulting from human-wildlife conflict (HWC) exacerbate feelings of marginalization, fuel conflict and inequity within the fishing fleet, and erode trust between fishermen and external actors. Collectively, these impacts contribute to a loss of livelihood and identity on both the individual and community level. Current approaches for addressing whale entanglement largely overlook these sociocultural and economic risks to fishermen, instead focusing primarily on ecological impact (i.e., risk to whales). Sidelining the human dimensions of fisheries in this way not only undermines the needs and ways of life of fishing communities 15 , 18 , 28 but also limits strategies for HWC resolution 16 . Indeed, our study highlights the valuable contributions that fishermen stand to make in addressing whale entanglement as long-time experts in the marine ecosystem. Specifically, we find that engaging fishermen’s ecological knowledge, on-water experience, and resource stewardship ethos could inform more effective, balanced HWC management strategies. This form of stakeholder engagement has proven effective in similar cases of HWC, such as the incidental bycatch of sea turtles in the U.S. shrimp trawl fishery and the bycatch of dolphin in the U.S. tuna purse seine fishery. In both cases, fishermen played a critical role in designing effective gear innovations to reduce HWC while maintaining viability for fishing livelihoods 50 . Our research challenges the historically dominant practices of conservation that position human and wildlife interests as fundamentally separate 51 . In cases of HWC, this dualistic perspective gives rise to win-lose outcomes by implying a need to ‘choose’ between human livelihoods and conservation targets 8 , 43 . For example, in California, ongoing efforts to protect humpback whale populations have outpaced considerations for human livelihoods, resulting in steep economic and sociocultural costs to fishermen. Responding to these seemingly imbalanced tradeoffs, fishermen in this study call for an expanded understanding of the human-nature relationship. They invoke principles of coexistence and mutual dependence, explaining that their role as stewards of a marine resource depends on – and oftentimes contributes to – the health of the oceans. In these contexts where human and environmental outcomes are inextricably linked, some level of HWC is both natural and inevitable 44 . Rather than seeking to eliminate all instances of conflict, there is a need to reframe HWC based on principles of tolerance and mutuality that recognize and promote sustainability for people and the planet 8 , 43 , 44 . By integrating – rather than dichotomizing – the needs of resource users and wildlife populations, this coexistence framing of HWC will expand opportunities for win-win outcomes 52 within complex social-ecological systems. Transitioning from antagonistic to cooperative framings of the human-nature relationship will require engaging multiple disciplines 5 , 41 , 42 and multiple stakeholders 19 , 20 . Whereas the biophysical and ecological aspects of HWC are well-researched, the underlying sociocultural and economic dimensions of the issue are less understood 6 , 7 . Narrow perspectives on HWC threaten to exacerbate conflict 3 , 51 and obscure notions of coexistence 8 , 43 , 44 . Our study demonstrates the value of qualitative social science research for uncovering a more complete understanding of impacts and solutions to HWC. Specifically, we show that engaging the knowledge and lived experience of local communities affected by HWC could lead to more balanced solutions, paving the way for human-wildlife coexistence. METHODS This study embraced a phenomenological and grounded theory approach that built up from the data rather than beginning with existing theories or assumptions 53 . In the social sciences, phenomenology relies on shared human experiences and perspectives to explain intersubjective phenomena, calling for prolonged engagement with participants to discern patterns and relationships of meaning 54 – 56 . Accordingly, this study employed semi-structured interviews as the foundational method for understanding fishermen’s lived experiences and perceptions regarding human-wildlife conflict (HWC). To the extent that this research posits an integrated framework for HWC management, it can also be characterized as a case study elucidating the real-world example of whale entanglement in California’s commercial Dungeness crab fishery. Population Sample & Selection All research methodologies were conducted in compliance with Stanford University’s Institutional Review Board policies and procedures for human subjects research under Protocol no. 67793. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with twenty-seven members (twenty-six men and one woman) of the California commercial Dungeness crab fleet ranging in age from approximately thirty to seventy-five years. Individuals of any gender and racial or ethnic background were invited to participate in this study, provided they spoke English and were over the age of eighteen. Interviews were conducted across nine fishing towns in California, and participants were categorized on strata relating to production level, commercial fishing experience, and home fishing port (Table 1 ). To ensure adequate participation within each stratification, a non-probabilistic method of respondent-driven sampling was used 57 . Potential interviewees were identified from the Dungeness Crab Task Force charter and regional fishermen’s associations in an effort to reach members of the fleet with strong cultural competency and specialized knowledge. A key collaborator provided contact information for prospective participants and helped to set up interviews. Snowball sampling – wherein existing participants identified potential interviewees based on their peer networks – was used to augment the study population until saturation was reached (i.e., additional interviews yielded redundancies rather than novel insight) 58 . Building trust and rapport with participants was an integral element of the study design 59 . During the two months prior to the data collection period, the research objectives and design were frequently discussed with key collaborators and industry representatives, and purposeful efforts were made to integrate their feedback, insight, and knowledge while acknowledging potential power dynamics. Table 1 Characteristics of study participants. Participants (n = 27) Home port Crescent City San Francisco Bodega Bay Eureka Morro Bay Bolinas Fort Bragg Half Moon Bay Santa Cruz 8 7 4 2 2 1 1 1 1 (29.6%) (22.2%) (14.8%) (7.4%) (7.4%) (3.7%) (3.7%) (3.7%) (3.7%) Experience < 15 years 15–30 years 30 + years 6 9 12 (22.2%) (33.3%) (44.4%) Production level Lower Upper 10 17 (37.0%) (63.0%) Interview format In-person By phone 21 6 (77.8%) (22.2%) Data Collection Data collection spanned three weeks during December of 2022. Throughout this period, a combination of single-day and overnight trips were made across California to conduct in-person interviews. Travel and lodging expenses were covered by funding from The Nature Conservancy. All interviews were conducted on a voluntary basis with informed consent according to IRB guidelines. In keeping with guidance from a key collaborator, participants chose the location of their interview to ensure comfort and foster candid conversation. Most participants elected for interviews to take place on their boat, though some chose to speak in cafés near the fishing dock. Six participants requested that their interview be conducted by phone. Interviews ranged from thirty minutes to three hours in length, with most lasting about one and a half hours. Emerging themes, noteworthy quotes, and nonverbal cues were recorded in a notebook for the duration of each interview, and audio recordings were captured using a Zoom H1n portable audio recorder. Each recording was transcribed within 24 hours of the interview using Otter.ai Pro software. In accordance with IRB consent protocol, interview recordings and transcripts were stored securely and not made publicly available. Standardized delivery of a semi-structured interview protocol limited researcher bias while still allowing for ease and flexibility of conversation 60 . The interview protocol, which contained a blend of fixed-response and open-ended questions, was pilot-tested with a key collaborator to strengthen validity and integrate knowledge of the local context (see Supplementary Information) 61 . Fixed-response questions mainly solicited demographic information – such as boat size, distribution model, and income diversification – while open-ended questions explored participants’ beliefs and experiences surrounding whale entanglement and fisheries management. Unscripted follow-up questions were occasionally leveraged when the topic of conversation was deemed productive with regard to the research question 60 , thereby allowing participants to elaborate and/or emphasize their personal experiences and topics they felt strongly about. Finally, extended fieldwork was a cornerstone of the study design. In the months leading up to the data collection period, considerable time was spent with participants, and, during the data collection period, in-person interviews were prioritized. Spending prolonged time with participants in their own settings not only bolsters an understanding of the nuances of the field but also lends credibility to the study’s inductive hypotheses and resulting theoretical frameworks 62 . Data Analysis Data collection and analysis proceeded concurrently, with emerging themes and insights documented frequently throughout the interview process. Following the data collection period, a codebook (i.e., a set of words or short phrases that “symbolically assign a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of data” 63 ) was developed using coupled inductive and deductive analytic approaches 64 (see Supplementary Information). Whereas inductive codes were extrapolated from internal patterns within the data, deductive codes relied on external research objectives and literature-backed theories 64 . This approach enabled organic identification of themes 65 while also integrating predetermined codes derived from prior experience with and knowledge of the fishery. The resulting sixty-six codes were applied line by line to interview transcripts in two passes using NVivo 12 qualitative data analysis software. First-pass codes were discrete and descriptive, serving as high-level organization for the data. By contrast, second-pass coding required more interpretation and consisted of focused subcodes that added specificity to the identified themes. In particular, second-pass coding prioritized the voices of study participants through the use of in vivo codes, which originate from frequently repeated phrases 64 . Examples of in vivo codes include “infighting,” “real science,” and “death by a thousand cuts.” Throughout the coding process, reflective analytic memos were written to identify themes and propose explanations for relationships within the data 64 . A clustering technique involving inductive categorization and iterative sorting of the data was also used to facilitate pattern recognition 64 . Matrices, network models, and other forms of data display were constructed to test research propositions and assertions and further extrapolate meaning from the data 64 . In the final step, data-driven themes and patterns were interpreted in the context of the research question and adjusted for clarity and coherence, ultimately allowing for analytical conclusions to be made. To address the potential effects of researcher bias, frequent reflections on positionality were made, and preconceptions were purposefully bracketed throughout the data collection, analysis, and writing process 64 , 66 . For instance, the results of this study were intentionally framed as a distillation of participants’ lived experiences and perspectives to bolster objectivity and minimize the influence of researcher assumptions and personal beliefs 62 , 66 . Negative case sampling – in which the researcher “actively seeks disconfirmation” of what they believe to be true 62 , 66 – was also used to minimize potential bias. In this study, the negative case sampling strategy involved applying codes in later passes to look for disconfirming evidence about emerging propositions. For example, when participants’ desire for improved fisheries management emerged as a theme early on, a “satisfied [with management]” code was added to the codebook to isolate and examine all cases where this pattern did not hold. Additional strategies to promote interpretive validity – which describes the “degree that the participants’ viewpoints, thoughts, intentions, and experiences are accurately understood and reported” 62 – were integrated throughout the study design. For instance, participants were frequently invited to provide verification and insight into the interpretations and conclusions drawn from interviews 62 , 66 . The resulting feedback was incorporated into the research and interpretations were adjusted when necessary. Additionally, throughout the results report, a purposeful emphasis was placed on the use of verbatims (i.e., direct quotations) to honor participants’ voice and language 62 . Declarations COMPETING INTERESTS The authors declare no competing interests. Author Contribution M.G. conceived and designed the study, conducted data collection (interviews), analyzed results, and drafted the manuscript, with input from all authors at each stage. D.O. served as an industry representative and provided relevant expertise; M.M.E.C. defined the study methodology, supported data analysis, and provided substantive feedback on all drafts of the manuscript alongside L.B.C. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank the twenty-seven fishermen whose voices and knowledge ground this research. We also thank Richard Nevle, Jenn Humberstone, and Lisa Damrosch for their kind contributions to the design and development of this study. Financial support for the fieldwork component was provided by The Nature Conservancy. The funder played no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, or preparation of the manuscript. Data Availability The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to the sensitive and confidential nature of interview data. To protect the privacy of participants, all interview data (including field notes, audio recordings, and transcriptions) are stored in secure archives and may only be accessed by the core research team (Molly Glickman, Michelle María Early Capistrán, Dick Ogg, and Larry Crowder), in compliance with the ethical guidelines of the Institutional Review Board (IRB). References Abrahms, B. Human-wildlife conflict under climate change. Science 373, 484–485 (2021). Guerra, A. S. Wolves of the Sea: Managing human-wildlife conflict in an increasingly tense ocean. Mar. Policy 99, 369–373 (2019). Madden, F. & McQuinn, B. Understanding Social Conflict and Complexity in Marine Conservation. in Human-Wildlife Conflict: Complexity in the Marine Environment (eds. Draheim, M., Madden, F., McCarthy, J.-B. & Parsons, C.) 0 (Oxford University Press, 2015). doi: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199687145.003.0001 . Hull, V. et al. Living with wildlife: a review of advances in social-ecological analysis across landscapes. Landsc. Ecol. 38, 4385–4402 (2023). Nyhus, P. J. Human–Wildlife Conflict and Coexistence. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 41, 143–171 (2016). Pooley, S. et al. An interdisciplinary review of current and future approaches to improving human–predator relations. Conserv. Biol. 31, 513–523 (2017). Barua, M., Bhagwat, S. A. & Jadhav, S. The hidden dimensions of human–wildlife conflict: Health impacts, opportunity and transaction costs. Biol. Conserv. 157, 309–316 (2013). Redpath, S. M., Bhatia, S. & Young, J. Tilting at wildlife: reconsidering human–wildlife conflict. Oryx 49, 222–225 (2015). Hamilton, S. & Baker, G. B. Technical mitigation to reduce marine mammal bycatch and entanglement in commercial fishing gear: lessons learnt and future directions. Rev. Fish Biol. Fish. 29, 223–247 (2019). Feist, B. E., Samhouri, J. F., Forney, K. A. & Saez, L. E. Footprints of fixed-gear fisheries in relation to rising whale entanglements on the U.S. West Coast. Fish. Manag. Ecol. 28, 283–294 (2021). Johnson, A. et al. Fishing Gear Involved In Entanglements of Right and Humpback Whales. Mar. Mammal Sci. 21, 635–645 (2005). Song, K.-J., Kim, Z. G., Zhang, C. I. & Kim, Y. H. Fishing gears involved in entanglements of minke whales ( Balaenoptera acutorostrata ) in the East Sea of Korea. Mar. Mammal Sci. 26, 282–295 (2010). Smith, Z., Gilroy, M., Eisenson, M., Schnettler, E. & Stefanski, S. Net loss: The killing of marine mammals in foreign fisheries. Nat. Resour. Def. Counc. (2014). Manning, L. L. Marine mammals and fisheries conflicts: A philosophical dispute. Ocean Shorel. Manag. 12, 217–232 (1989). Samhouri, J. F. et al. Marine heatwave challenges solutions to human–wildlife conflict. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 288, 20211607 (2021). Hodgson, E. E. et al. Integrated Risk Assessment for the Blue Economy. Front. Mar. Sci. 6, (2019). Riekkola, L. et al. Retrospective analysis of measures to reduce large whale entanglements in a lucrative commercial fishery. Biol. Conserv. 278, 109880 (2023). Free, C. M. et al. Impact of the 2014–2016 marine heatwave on US and Canada West Coast fisheries: Surprises and lessons from key case studies. Fish Fish. 24, 652–674 (2023). Treves, A., Wallace, R. B., Naughton-Treves, L. & Morales, A. Co-Managing Human–Wildlife Conflicts: A Review. Hum. Dimens. Wildl. 11, 383–396 (2006). Marshall, K., White, R. & Fischer, A. Conflicts between humans over wildlife management: on the diversity of stakeholder attitudes and implications for conflict management. Biodivers. Conserv. 16, 3129–3146 (2007). Voiland, M. P. & Duttweiler, M. W. Where’s the Humanity? A Challenge and Opportunity for the Fisheries Community. Fisheries 9, 10–12 (1984). Syed, S., Borit, M. & Spruit, M. Narrow lenses for capturing the complexity of fisheries: A topic analysis of fisheries science from 1990 to 2016. Fish Fish. 19, 643–661 (2018). Siddique, M. R. H., Hossain, M. & Rashid, A. Z. M. M. The dilemma of prioritizing conservation over livelihoods: Assessing the impact of fishing restriction to the fishermen of the Sundarbans. Trees For. People 11, 100366 (2023). NOAA Fisheries. NOAA Landings Tracker. Territorial Landings https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/foss/f?p=215:27 :2351216433373::::: (2022). Fisher, M. C., Moore, S. K., Jardine, S. L., Watson, J. R. & Samhouri, J. F. Climate shock effects and mediation in fisheries. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 118, e2014379117 (2021). Dewees, C., Sortais, K., Krachey, M., Hackett, S. & Hankin, D. Racing for crabs… Costs and management options evaluated in Dungeness crab fishery. Calif. Agric. 58, 186–189 (2004). Richerson, K., Punt, A. E. & Holland, D. S. Nearly a half century of high but sustainable exploitation in the Dungeness crab (Cancer magister) fishery. Fish. Res. 226, 105528 (2020). Ritzman, J. et al. Economic and sociocultural impacts of fisheries closures in two fishing-dependent communities following the massive 2015 U.S. West Coast harmful algal bloom. Harmful Algae 80, 35–45 (2018). Woodruff, C. Gross Domestic Product by State and Personal Income by State, 4thQuarter 2023 and Preliminary 2023 . 8 https://www.bea.gov/sites/default/files/2024-03/stgdppi4q23-a2023.pdf (2024). Santora, J. A. et al. Habitat compression and ecosystem shifts as potential links between marine heatwave and record whale entanglements. Nat. Commun. 11, 536 (2020). Saez, L. Large whale entanglements off the U.S. West Coast, from 1982–2017. (2021) doi: 10.25923/EFFX-KV36 . NOAA Fisheries. West Coast Large Whale Entanglement Response Program. Marine Mammal Protection https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/west-coast/marine-mammal-protection/west-coast-large-whale-entanglement-response-program (2024). Calambokidis, J. & Barlow, J. Updated abundance estimates for blue and humpback whales along the U.S. West Coast using data through 2018. (2020). Free, C. M. et al. Static management presents a simple solution to a dynamic fishery and conservation challenge. Biol. Conserv. 285, 110249 (2023). California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW). Risk Assessment and Mitigation Program (RAMP). Whale Safe Fisheries https://wildlife.ca.gov/Conservation/Marine/Whale-Safe-Fisheries#559973609-2022-23-season (2023). California Code of Regulations (CCR) Title 14 § 132.8 . vol. 132.8. California Department of Fish and Wildlife. Final Assessment of Marine Life Entanglement Risk and Management . https://nrm.dfg.ca.gov/FileHandler. ashx?DocumentID=222496&inline (2024). The Nature Conservancy (TNC). Case Study: California Dungeness Crab Fishing Gear Working Group . 36 (2020). Seary, R. et al. Revenue Loss Due to Whale Entanglement Mitigation and Fishery Closures . https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-1432669/v1 (2022) doi: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1432669/v1 . Holland, D. S. & Leonard, J. Is a delay a disaster? economic impacts of the delay of the california dungeness crab fishery due to a harmful algal bloom. Harmful Algae 98, 101904 (2020). Dickman, A. J. Complexities of conflict: the importance of considering social factors for effectively resolving human–wildlife conflict. Anim. Conserv. 13, 458–466 (2010). König, H. J. et al. Human–wildlife coexistence in a changing world. Conserv. Biol. 34, 786–794 (2020). Pooley, S., Bhatia, S. & Vasava, A. Rethinking the study of human–wildlife coexistence. Conserv. Biol. 35, 784–793 (2021). Peterson, M. N., Birckhead, J. L., Leong, K., Peterson, M. J. & Peterson, T. R. Rearticulating the myth of human–wildlife conflict. Conserv. Lett. 3, 74–82 (2010). Hall-Arber, M., Pomeroy, C. & Conway, F. Figuring Out the Human Dimensions of Fisheries: Illuminating Models. Mar. Coast. Fish. 1, 300–314 (2009). Koehn, J. Z., Reineman, D. R. & Kittinger, J. N. Progress and promise in spatial human dimensions research for ecosystem-based ocean planning. Mar. Policy 42, 31–38 (2013). Ostrom, E. A General Framework for Analyzing Sustainability of Social-Ecological Systems. Science 325, 419–422 (2009). Stephenson, R. L. et al. Practical steps toward integrating economic, social and institutional elements in fisheries policy and management. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 74, 1981–1989 (2017). Tackling Wicked Problems: Through the Transdisciplinary Imagination . (Earthscan, London, 2010). Jenkins, L. D. Turtles, TEDs, tuna, dolphins, and diffusion of innovations: key drivers of adoption of bycatch reduction devices. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 80, 417–436 (2023). Linnell, J. D. C., Kaczensky, P., Wotschikowsky, U., Lescureux, N. & Boitani, L. Framing the relationship between people and nature in the context of European conservation. Conserv. Biol. 29, 978–985 (2015). Persha, L., Fischer, H., Chhatre, A., Agrawal, A. & Benson, C. Biodiversity conservation and livelihoods in human-dominated landscapes: Forest commons in South Asia. Biol. Conserv. 143, 2918–2925 (2010). Creswell, J. W. & Poth, C. N. Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches . (SAGE, Los Angeles, 2018). Husserl, E. Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy: First Book: General Introduction to a Pure Phenomenology . (Springer Science & Business Media, 1983). Neubauer, B. E., Witkop, C. T. & Varpio, L. How phenomenology can help us learn from the experiences of others. Perspect. Med. Educ. 8, 90–97 (2019). Van Manen, M. Researching Lived Experience: Human Science for an Action Sensitive Pedagogy . (Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, London New York, 1990). Navarrete, M. S., Adrián, C. & Bachelet, V. C. Respondent-driven sampling: Advantages and disadvantages from a sampling method. Medwave 22, e002528–e002528 (2022). Bryman, A. Social Research Methods . (Oxford University Press, Oxford; New York, 2016). Ayers, A. L. & Leong, K. Focusing on the human dimensions to reduce protected species bycatch. Fish. Res. 254, 106432 (2022). Padgett, D. K. Qualitative Methods in Social Work Research: Challenges and Rewards . xiv, 178 (Sage Publications, Inc, Thousand Oaks, CA, US, 1998). Majid, M. A., Othman, M., Mohamad, S. F., Lim, S. & Yusof, A. Piloting for Interviews in Qualitative Research: Operationalization and Lessons Learnt. Int. J. Acad. Res. Bus. Soc. Sci. 7, 1073–1080 (2017). Peshkin, A. In Search of Subjectivity—One’s Own. Educ. Res. 17, 17–21 (1988). Saldaña, J. The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers . (SAGE Publications, UK, 2021). Miles, M. B., Michael Huberman, A. & Saldaña, J. Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook . (SAGE Publications, Inc., 2020). Babbie, E. R. The Basics of Social Research . (Cengage Learning, Boston, MA, USA, 2017). Merriam, S. B. Qualitative Research in Practice: Examples for Discussion and Analysis . (Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 2002). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4797408","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":341242728,"identity":"d21a2937-ecc2-40c2-a529-6bacdc646e29","order_by":0,"name":"Molly Glickman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Stanford University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Molly","middleName":"","lastName":"Glickman","suffix":""},{"id":341242729,"identity":"11b4413d-00d4-45e3-9b29-4a6ad0e65ad2","order_by":1,"name":"Michelle María Early-Capistrán","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA30lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACxgMMDDZg1gcGBmYglUBYD1BLGgMPUO8MUrQcJkELP/vZB4d5as7b27OfPdjwcY81UCTHAK8WyZ50g8M8x24n9vDkJTbOeJYOFHmDX4vBgTSGw7wNtxN4GHLMH/McOMxgcIOALfbnn4G0nLPn4X9j2AzSYk9Ii4EE2JYDjD0SORAtBhIEtEjceMZwcM6x5MSeG28MG2ccSOeROPOsAK8W/v40xgdvauzs2ftzDBs+HLCW429P3oBXCwgw8SBxeHAqQwaMP4hSNgpGwSgYBSMWAABuRUifdeEVHgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Stanford University","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Michelle","middleName":"María","lastName":"Early-Capistrán","suffix":""},{"id":341242730,"identity":"2887125d-2205-4504-8863-14e36982aef0","order_by":2,"name":"Dick Ogg","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"● Commercial Fisherman","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dick","middleName":"","lastName":"Ogg","suffix":""},{"id":341242731,"identity":"031fdbd9-6be9-4f7e-8565-c9a1d88fbd03","order_by":3,"name":"Larry B. Crowder","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Stanford University","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Larry","middleName":"B.","lastName":"Crowder","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-07-24 18:49:01","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4797408/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4797408/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":63407001,"identity":"8dd5a225-95fa-45af-9909-a26d246cd3e8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-27 21:48:27","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":261251,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eImpacts of Human-Wildlife Conflict on Commercial Dungeness Crab Fishermen\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4797408/v1/f7cb1297f47890d2a3637c57.png"},{"id":63407620,"identity":"50b00769-6b6c-4386-88c6-458e312695fd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-27 21:56:27","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":353265,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFishermen’s Potential Contributions Towards Understanding and Addressing HWC\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4797408/v1/34e00c2f775c92abe62e2a69.png"},{"id":63407812,"identity":"8e4fd4f0-291d-4656-aff7-89f41245e538","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-27 22:04:33","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1103695,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4797408/v1/9598ca43-c01d-4f8b-b301-aa22c9545446.pdf"},{"id":63407799,"identity":"692daf02-7973-4f69-bd95-83b34985c36e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-27 22:04:28","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":256914,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"MGnpjSupplementaryInformation.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4797408/v1/0863a08cc95940d9d3c1a7b4.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Voices from the Ocean: Human-Wildlife Coexistence Through the Lens of Fishermen’s Knowledge and Lived Experience","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe world\u0026rsquo;s oceans harbor rich biodiversity and represent an important source of human nutrition, livelihood, and culture. Yet as climate change-related shifts in resource availability and species behavior increase rates of human-wildlife conflict\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (HWC), tensions between ocean-based livelihoods and marine wildlife have escalated\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Numerous scholars recognize the complex social-ecological nature of HWC\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and call for balanced, interdisciplinary approaches that protect both human livelihoods and conservation targets\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, current efforts to resolve HWC largely focus on the ecological dimension, overlooking key impacts and contributions of human resource users\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh-profile examples of marine-related HWC feature tensions between fishing activity and recovering marine mammal populations \u0026ndash; such as the entanglement of large whales in fishing gear\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Incidental fisheries bycatch of large marine mammals is an issue of global concern \u0026ndash; from the North Atlantic\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e to the East Sea of South Korea\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026ndash; that has been described as \u0026ldquo;the single greatest threat to cetaceans from human activities\u0026rdquo;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In many cases of fishery-wildlife conflict, enduring efforts to protect charismatic marine megafauna outpace efforts to protect fishing livelihoods\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Some researchers have noted these asymmetric tradeoffs between fishery and conservation goals, advocating instead for win-win scenarios that are both ecologically and socioeconomically tenable\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR16 CR17\" citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. To this end, it would be beneficial to engage directly with fishing communities in order to understand the complete landscape of HWC-related impacts and solutions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Yet systemic biases within fisheries management have historically impeded the contributions of this key stakeholder group\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR22\" citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Here, we focus on a case study of humpback whale entanglement in the Dungeness crab fishery in California, U.S.A. to demonstrate the promises of integrating \u0026ndash; and the consequences of neglecting \u0026ndash; the lived experience and expertise of fishermen (note: the term \u0026lsquo;fishermen\u0026rsquo; is used to honor participants\u0026rsquo; preference).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDungeness crab (\u003cem\u003eMetacarcinus magister\u003c/em\u003e) has long represented one of the most economically and culturally important fisheries along the U.S. West Coast. In California, the fishery generates more than \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e53\u0026nbsp;million in seasonal revenue\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e, providing the primary basis of many fishermen\u0026rsquo;s livelihoods\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e and supporting a robust value chain of sustainable seafood consumption\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e. However, the Dungeness crab fishery generates, on average, \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001% of California\u0026rsquo;s total Gross Domestic Product (GDP)\u003csup\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e and thus has limited economic and political leverage. In the past decade, interaction with humpback whales (\u003cem\u003eMegaptera novaeangliae\u003c/em\u003e) has become a critical issue for the Dungeness crab fishery.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA prolonged marine heatwave event and associated harmful algal bloom between 2014 and 2016 drove a sharp spike in whale entanglements in fishing gear\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. From 2014 to 2017, there was an annual average of 42 confirmed whale entanglements in fishing gear along the U.S. West Coast, with commercial Dungeness crab fishing gear implicated in an average of 12 cases per year\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. From 2018 to 2023, coastwide entanglement rates decreased to an average of 28, with commercial Dungeness crab gear implicated in 6 cases per year on average\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Despite these marked decreases in annual entanglement rates from historic 2014\u0026ndash;2017 highs, growing whale populations\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and future extreme weather events continue to pose elevated risk for fishery-whale overlap\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. To reduce this risk, the California Department of Fish \u0026amp; Wildlife (CDFW) developed a Risk Assessment and Mitigation Program (RAMP) in 2017\u003csup\u003e35\u003c/sup\u003e. Based on environmental monitoring and ecological data, RAMP assesses whale entanglement risk, then outputs management measures \u0026ndash; most often in the form of fishery delays and closures \u0026ndash; when certain risk triggers are met\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In the 2024 fishing season, RAMP management actions included multiple delays and an early closure of the fishing season based on the anticipated arrival of humpback whales\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRAMP has been criticized by social scientists\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and industry stakeholders\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e for focusing primarily on the ecological dimension (i.e., risk to whales) while overlooking impacts to fishermen \u0026ndash; which are felt across a range of social, economic, and cultural scales\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Researchers have called for more holistic perspectives on whale entanglement that reflect the complex human dimensions of the issue, yet these integrated approaches are precluded by an absence of social science research that engages the fishermen\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Our study addresses this gap, illuminating both the sociocultural impacts of fishery perturbations and the critical role that fishermen can play in both understanding and resolving fishery-wildlife conflict as long-time experts in the marine ecosystem. As understandings of human-wildlife interaction expand to develop models of coexistence, this kind of social science research accounting for the needs, ways of life, and potential contributions of local resource users will become increasingly important\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR42 CR43\" citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The approaches and methods of this Northern California case study can therefore be employed across broad contexts, where they will lend valuable insight into the practical steps needed to achieve balanced and sustainable outcomes for coupled human-environmental systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur work is situated within an emerging body of literature that confirms the need for fisheries managers to look beyond the ecological dimension, embrace the human dimensions, and develop more complex conceptualizations of fisheries as social-ecological systems (SES)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In the wake of Elinor Ostrom\u0026rsquo;s 2009 canonical work on common-pool resources\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, a growing number of social scientists have leveraged the SES model to encourage interdisciplinary approaches to resource management that reflect the intrinsic coupling of humans and their environment\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, SES research has often reduced intricate human dimensions issues to mere quantitative metrics and variables that can be easily modeled. By contrast, we purposefully prioritize voices and lived experience, presenting an extensive corpus of qualitative data, narratives, and oral histories that enrich our current understanding of the human dimensions of this fishery. In demonstrating fishermen\u0026rsquo;s critical role in achieving win-win scenarios for people and the planet, we highlight the reality that achieving fishery-wildlife coexistence is just as much about understanding the social, economic, and cultural dynamics of fishing communities as it is about understanding species biology and ecology.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eSemi-structured interviews revealed both the impacts of human-wildlife conflict (HWC) that fishermen face as well as their potential role in addressing the issue. We present this dual narrative of impact and contribution in the following section, placing an emphasis on participants\u0026rsquo; voice and lived experience.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIMPACTS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe central impact of HWC on commercial Dungeness crab fishermen is a loss of livelihood and identity. These overarching losses are fueled by a diverse set of intermediate impacts, as outlined in Figure 1. Specifically, we identify negative public perception and reduced fishing opportunity as the most primary and direct human consequences of HWC \u0026ndash; both of which in turn contribute to marginalization, erosion of trust, exacerbation of conflict and inequity, and income loss.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclining Public Perception\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"603\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;All they hear is crab fishermen are killing whales. It\u0026rsquo;s on the news. It\u0026rsquo;s everywhere. That\u0026rsquo;s all they hear.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIncidents of whale entanglement in fishing gear exacerbate negative public perception of the fishing industry and reinforce the narrative that fishermen are antagonists to the marine environment. \u0026ldquo;They think we\u0026rsquo;re the ogres of the ocean,\u0026rdquo; said one participant, who, alongside many others, described feeling \u0026ldquo;looked down upon\u0026rdquo; for his perceived role in HWC. Others frequently noted a \u0026ldquo;real divide between our industry and the world at large\u0026rdquo; that is fueled by California\u0026rsquo;s \u0026lsquo;green\u0026rsquo; political climate and its powerful sector of environmental NGOs (ENGOs). \u0026ldquo;They make it sound like we\u0026rsquo;re out there just murdering the whales intentionally,\u0026rdquo; said one fisherman, in reference to the actions of a particular ENGO. \u0026ldquo;And I\u0026rsquo;m not sure that the people who are sending them money are getting a true vision of what\u0026rsquo;s really taking place or why it\u0026rsquo;s taking place.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMarginalization\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"603\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I feel like we\u0026rsquo;re the handicapped kid and we\u0026rsquo;re getting pushed out of our wheelchair. It\u0026rsquo;s a brutal way to say it, but it\u0026rsquo;s true. It\u0026rsquo;s like we can\u0026rsquo;t fight back.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMounting bias against the fishing industry contributes to fishermen\u0026rsquo;s perception of increasing marginalization from society. Feelings of powerlessness and exclusion were frequently voiced during interviews and rooted in the growing sense that fishermen are insignificant or unimportant to the state at large. \u0026ldquo;We\u0026rsquo;re not essential. We\u0026rsquo;re an easy target,\u0026rdquo; said one participant. \u0026ldquo;If we\u0026rsquo;re not allowed to catch crabs anymore, California will be just fine. Nobody\u0026rsquo;s going to miss us.\u0026rdquo; Similar sentiments of peripherality were mentioned in the context of fishermen\u0026rsquo;s role in management and decision-making. \u0026ldquo;You can go up there and tell \u0026rsquo;em till you\u0026rsquo;re blue in the face the way you feel about it. But they just go right back to what they\u0026rsquo;ve already decided,\u0026rdquo; described one participant on his communications with fisheries managers. \u0026ldquo;I think everybody should be able to give their information. I just feel like the fishermen get left out,\u0026rdquo; noted another. Ultimately, the experience of marginalization was shared to such a universal degree among fishermen that it allowed for a sense of solidarity, as one participant poignantly described: \u0026ldquo;We didn\u0026rsquo;t agree as fishermen on a lot of things, but we felt the same pain on how we were treated.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eErosion of Trust\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"603\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;It all boils back to the trust side of it. When you have zero trust with the people you\u0026rsquo;re working with, you just kind of throw up your hands and walk away. You don\u0026rsquo;t wanna be involved with it.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeclining public perception of the fishing industry erodes trust between fishermen and external actors comprising two main groups: fisheries managers and members of ENGOs. With regards to the former group, fishermen view the actions of various government agencies as largely \u0026ldquo;driven by public opinion,\u0026rdquo; biased towards environmental protection, and negligent of the fleet\u0026rsquo;s interests. \u0026ldquo;Their goal is entirely to protect the whales, not protect the industry,\u0026rdquo; noted one participant. Said another, \u0026ldquo;It seems like they\u0026apos;re more worried about having a bad newspaper article written about \u0026apos;em than they are about actually managing in the best way.\u0026rdquo; A similar lack of trust was reported between fishermen and ENGOs, with participants communicating suspicion about the agenda of such organizations and claiming they are \u0026ldquo;not driven necessarily by wanting to protect marine mammals.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s in their business plan to show a crisis,\u0026rdquo; said one participant, who later went on to describe whale entanglement as a \u0026ldquo;cash cow\u0026rdquo; for ENGOs. Many others echoed this view, describing that they have been \u0026ldquo;regulated out of business just because it fits the agenda of these ENGOs.\u0026rdquo; Importantly, participants pointed out, a sense of mistrust goes both ways, with fishermen often discounted as \u0026ldquo;a bunch of liars\u0026rdquo; who are concerned only with their own personal interests. \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s just the fishermen trying to get more time. The fishermen just want more fish,\u0026rdquo; said one participant, as he described the perceived motives ascribed to the fishing fleet.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReduced Fishing Opportunity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"603\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Those opportunities are just getting slimmer and slimmer every year. I mean we\u0026rsquo;re just getting chopped down to nothing.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition to fueling negative public perception of the fishing industry, HWC has also curtailed fishing opportunities. \u0026ldquo;I would say the biggest threat to the crab fishery right now is the diminishing time on the water; the days we\u0026rsquo;re allowed to fish. And it\u0026rsquo;s because of the whales,\u0026rdquo; said one participant. Indeed, the Dungeness crab fishing season, which used to run for nearly eight months from late fall to mid-summer, has consistently been shortened in recent years to only a couple of months during the winter. \u0026ldquo;Now we\u0026rsquo;re down to just a few of the worst months of weather,\u0026rdquo; explained one fisherman. Although many participants recognized that restrictions on fishing activity are a necessary aspect of HWC risk mitigation, they also noted that there still need to be opportunities for fishermen to earn a living. \u0026ldquo;If you don\u0026rsquo;t have an opportunity, you don\u0026rsquo;t have anything,\u0026rdquo; explained one participant. \u0026ldquo;Your whole business model is based on opportunity.\u0026rdquo; Another similarly described, \u0026ldquo;In the past, if we didn\u0026rsquo;t get 200, 225 days a year on the water, we\u0026rsquo;d go crazy. Now if I get 90, I\u0026rsquo;m lucky. What am I going to get this year?\u0026rdquo; He later went on to say, \u0026ldquo;You have to adapt. I get that. But you have to have the opportunity to adapt. The way this whale thing\u0026rsquo;s working out, we\u0026rsquo;re not given the opportunity to adapt. They\u0026rsquo;re not going to let me survive.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIncome Losses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"603\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I\u0026rsquo;ve taken a hit. I\u0026rsquo;m struggling. I haven\u0026rsquo;t made a dime. And we gotta invest $20,000 just to get started.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIncome losses resulting from reduced fishing opportunities were another frequently cited impact of HWC. The Dungeness crab fishery, once a cornerstone of many fishermen\u0026rsquo;s livelihoods and one of the most lucrative fisheries along the U.S. West Coast, now yields only a fraction of its historic profit due to HWC-related restrictions. One fisherman reported a nearly forty percent loss in total income, joining many others in expressing concern that he would no longer be able to earn a living: \u0026ldquo;They\u0026rsquo;re making it so difficult that you can\u0026rsquo;t make it pay. I mean I\u0026rsquo;ve been doing it a long time and I never thought it would come to this.\u0026rdquo; Another lifelong fisherman lamented, \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s hard. Not just for me but for my crew. You know? They\u0026rsquo;re taking outside jobs\u0026hellip;they got families to feed. We don\u0026rsquo;t know when we\u0026rsquo;re going.\u0026rdquo; One participant newer to the fishing industry provided a vivid account of the economic impact that he suffered during the previous season\u0026rsquo;s early closure: \u0026ldquo;It really, really hurt\u0026hellip;You\u0026rsquo;re waiting for that paycheck to come to keep moving. I didn\u0026rsquo;t have a lot of money. I was a small boat, small person, trying to keep bills going. I was living out on my boat actually. I didn\u0026rsquo;t have anything. I was down to nickels and I was screaming. I didn\u0026rsquo;t understand. I was so frustrated. I wanted to go, let me go try to make a living. Let me try.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict \u0026amp; Inequity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"603\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Small boats, big boats, large permits, small permits\u0026hellip;everyone\u0026apos;s battling each other for a right to have their own business model.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIncreasingly scarce fishing opportunities lead to rising tensions within the fleet as individuals compete to sustain their own livelihood. In the case of highly individualized industries such as fishing, business models and operations vary greatly, which leads to conflict over who should be able to fish and when. \u0026ldquo;Every boat here is their own business,\u0026rdquo; explained one fisherman, \u0026ldquo;What works for me doesn\u0026rsquo;t work for someone else. And it\u0026rsquo;s his livelihood too. And he has a right to his opinion too...So then everyone just butts heads.\u0026rdquo; Competition for viability in the face of reduced fishing opportunities not only undermines social cohesion but also exacerbates inequity within the fleet. \u0026ldquo;At some point, this isn\u0026rsquo;t going to be viable for everybody,\u0026rdquo; explained one fisherman. He joined many others in noting that smaller-scale fishing operations, which often rely heavily on crab, are disproportionately impacted by fishing restrictions. \u0026ldquo;It really hurts the smaller boats \u0026rsquo;cause the big guys go shrimp fishing and dragging, the medium size boats take off and go salmon fishing or do something, and then the small guys just...they have nothing. Just devastating to a lot of \u0026rsquo;em,\u0026rdquo; described one participant.\u0026nbsp;Finally, the recent authorization of testing for alternative gear designed to reduce whale entanglement risk has exacerbated conflict and inequity within the fleet, as select fishermen are granted exclusive access to the crab resource while others are excluded.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLoss of Livelihood \u0026amp; Identity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"603\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I\u0026rsquo;m just Grandpa, trying to do right by my family, you know? And it breaks my heart. There\u0026rsquo;s nobody following. There\u0026rsquo;s nobody to give the boat to. Nobody\u0026rsquo;s going to follow what this family has done for a lot of years.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndividually and in aggregate, the impacts of HWC described in this section contribute to pervasive losses of livelihood and identity among fishermen. \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s just one, after the other, after the other\u0026hellip;just eliminating us as a fishery,\u0026rdquo; remarked one individual. \u0026ldquo;Death by a thousand cuts as they say.\u0026rdquo; For nearly all participants, the crab fishery transcends mere economic value and embodies a profound sense of self and cultural significance. \u0026ldquo;Since I was a little kid, it\u0026rsquo;s been in my blood,\u0026rdquo; said one fisherman. \u0026ldquo;I\u0026apos;m a lifer, I\u0026apos;m a career guy. This is what I do. I don\u0026apos;t have a pension. I got nowhere else to go,\u0026rdquo; noted another. Identity-related ties to the crab fishery are experienced not just individually but communally, creating an interconnected cultural system that spans the California coast. \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s our jobs, it\u0026rsquo;s our families, it\u0026rsquo;s our towns,\u0026rdquo; said one participant. \u0026ldquo;Some of these coastal towns are based on their fisheries, Fort Bragg and a lot of Eureka.\u0026rdquo; Familial ties to the fishery were present in 56% of the study population, and, even for those without, the crab fishery was viewed not just as a profession but as a way of life. \u0026ldquo;This is what I do. I didn\u0026rsquo;t grow up in the business. I earned my way into the business. You know? I don\u0026rsquo;t want to do anything else. But I\u0026rsquo;m losing that option. This isn\u0026rsquo;t gonna work,\u0026rdquo; said one fisherman. The relentless struggle to preserve the fishery has exacted a steep psychological toll on many participants, leaving them drained and disillusioned. \u0026ldquo;I\u0026rsquo;m getting tired. I mean, I\u0026rsquo;m getting tired of the fight. It\u0026rsquo;s depressing,\u0026rdquo; said one fisherman. Another described feeling \u0026ldquo;torn up mentally,\u0026rdquo; and later went on to say, \u0026ldquo;How much more do you got? I mean, there\u0026rsquo;s not a lot left in my heart and soul to continue this quest right now. Looking back here from today, I wish I maybe would\u0026rsquo;ve sold the boat. You only got so much. You only got so much.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCONTRIBUTIONS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFishermen\u0026rsquo;s role in understanding and addressing HWC can be assessed through four lenses \u0026ndash; ecological knowledge, resource stewardship, on-water experience, and understanding of the human-nature relationship. While distinct, each of these contributions does not exist in isolation and is instead part of a larger and interconnected network of involvement (Figure 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEcological Knowledge\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"603\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;You\u0026rsquo;ve got a data-rich community here, and it\u0026rsquo;s so sad that it\u0026rsquo;s not tapped.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants often pointed out that their expertise in the marine ecosystem could play a critically important role in understanding and mitigating HWC. \u0026ldquo;There\u0026rsquo;s nobody here that knows more than the fishermen,\u0026rdquo; said one participant, who argued that a lifetime of experience on the ocean affords himself and others \u0026ldquo;more knowledge than any biologist is ever going to have.\u0026rdquo; Whereas current datasets used to manage the fishery and map HWC risk rely largely on the work of outside scientists and government agencies, participants envision an alternative approach that engages fishermen\u0026rsquo;s own \u0026ldquo;wealth of knowledge.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;Listen to what we have to say. We\u0026rsquo;re pretty sharp guys,\u0026rdquo; said one participant. Another added, \u0026ldquo;I think that we could have a lot of common ground with the science advisors because we see it empirically. We see what their models predict and we can corroborate each other\u0026rsquo;s data.\u0026rdquo; In addition to expressing interest in collaborating with scientists, participants also saw a potential role for themselves as the \u0026ldquo;eyes and ears\u0026rdquo; of the fisheries managers, explaining, \u0026ldquo;They\u0026rsquo;re making decisions outside of the field and we\u0026rsquo;re seeing it all in real-time. We could be their support, but our voices are not being heard.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOn-Water Experience\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"603\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Guys like Bill, Tom, they\u0026rsquo;ve been here forever, you know? I mean, I\u0026rsquo;ve been on the water since I was 18 years old, diving and fishing out here off the coast.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFishermen\u0026rsquo;s extensive experience on the ocean represents another crucial contribution towards understanding and mitigating HWC. \u0026ldquo;We were some of the very first guys doing this, like literally the first guys vertical fishing for years and years,\u0026rdquo; explained one participant, as he spoke on the longevity of the crab fishery and the firsthand practical knowledge that much of the fishing fleet boasts. \u0026ldquo;We\u0026rsquo;ve always fished around whales,\u0026rdquo; noted another participant. \u0026ldquo;I mean, I\u0026rsquo;ve fished around whales my whole life.\u0026rdquo; According to many participants, this extensive experience has allowed the fleet to make \u0026ldquo;great strides\u0026rdquo; in mitigating the chance and risk of HWC \u0026ndash; including through a universally adopted \u0026lsquo;Best Practices\u0026rsquo; guide that informs optimal rope and buoy. Several participants noted that their valuable contributions are largely discounted by fisheries managers who think \u0026ldquo;five years of education is worth more than fifty years of experience.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;They don\u0026rsquo;t ask the guys that are doing it. I\u0026rsquo;ve been doing this since I was 12 years old,\u0026rdquo; lamented one participant. Another poignantly noted, \u0026ldquo;Fishermen have to be able, to some extent, have an influence on their own fate.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;We\u0026rsquo;re talking about radical changes in the way we fish. And I don\u0026apos;t think that that should be left up to a couple [fisheries managers].\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEnvironmental Stewardship\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"603\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I think all commercial fishermen are environmentalists\u0026hellip;It behooves us, benefits us, to protect our fishery.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFishermen\u0026rsquo;s stewardship of the marine environment was recognized as another critical contribution made by the fishing fleet. This sense of stewardship is rooted in both moral imperative and self-preservation: participants noted that their livelihood depends on the health of the environment, so it is within their best interest to sustain and protect it. \u0026ldquo;Just by being a fisherman you\u0026rsquo;re an environmentalist,\u0026rdquo; explained one participant. \u0026ldquo;Just by the nature of what we do. If we screw up the environment, it directly impacts us.\u0026rdquo; Said another, \u0026ldquo;We always have been environmentally proactive, regardless of what some people in the state say. We\u0026rsquo;re the ones that are trying to do it right.\u0026rdquo; In many cases, participants\u0026rsquo; belief in environmental stewardship is what attracts them to the fishing industry. \u0026ldquo;I find so much romance in it,\u0026rdquo; remarked one participant, who pivoted to a career in commercial fishing later in life. \u0026ldquo;Of harvesting your food and bringing it to the consumer and doing it as sustainability as you can. I love that. It\u0026rsquo;s neat.\u0026rdquo; Others similarly celebrated their role in supporting the public\u0026rsquo;s access to a sustainable food source, with one lifelong fisherman describing environmental stewardship as the \u0026ldquo;essence of the fishery\u0026rdquo; and the basis of \u0026ldquo;what\u0026rsquo;s in our heart, what\u0026rsquo;s coming from our mind, what we believe in.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUnderstanding of Human-Nature Relationship\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"603\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"100%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s part of life and coexisting on this planet that these things sometimes happen.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants frequently demonstrated a nuanced understanding of the human-nature relationship. The contribution of this understanding represents the final \u0026ndash; and perhaps most abstract \u0026ndash; missed opportunity to address HWC. During interviews, participants invoked principles of coexistence to assert that human-wildlife interaction is not only inevitable but essential. \u0026ldquo;We have a flourishing population of humpbacks, which is awesome, and it should be celebrated more than anything,\u0026rdquo; said one fisherman. \u0026ldquo;But therefore, inherently, unfortunately, we\u0026rsquo;re going to have more interactions with the animals.\u0026rdquo; Participants called for a re-imagined approach to HWC that balances outcomes for both the fishery and whale populations by permitting an \u0026ldquo;acceptable level of interaction.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;The solution isn\u0026rsquo;t to have an unlimited number of whales that we can tangle,\u0026rdquo; said one fisherman. \u0026ldquo;But the solution is also not to have such a low threshold of interaction that we can\u0026rsquo;t operate what once was the most valuable fishery in California. There needs to be a balanced approach that takes in all the factors and is realistic.\u0026rdquo; Given their belief that current rates of entanglement pose little risk to whale population viability, many participants asserted that HWC mitigation efforts should not come at the expense of their livelihood. They expressed frustration with current approaches to HWC, which they feel fail to acknowledge the realities of coexistence by seeking to eliminate all instances of overlap. \u0026ldquo;We\u0026rsquo;re trying on our end, but I feel like the environmentalists, all they\u0026rsquo;re doing is saying \u0026lsquo;There\u0026rsquo;s a dead whale, it\u0026rsquo;s your fault. That\u0026rsquo;s it. Nobody should fish anymore. Everyone should eat plant based.\u0026rsquo;\u0026rdquo; Another participant poignantly asked, \u0026ldquo;Is a whale\u0026rsquo;s life more valuable than a fisherman\u0026rsquo;s life?\u0026rdquo; then noted, \u0026ldquo;I definitely don\u0026rsquo;t want to see any whales tangled. But I definitely need a job. I need to survive.\u0026rdquo;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study reveals the many impacts of whale entanglement on commercial Dungeness crab fishermen, extending beyond the commonly recognized economic losses\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Participants recount how reduced fishing opportunities and declining public perception of the fishing industry resulting from human-wildlife conflict (HWC) exacerbate feelings of marginalization, fuel conflict and inequity within the fishing fleet, and erode trust between fishermen and external actors. Collectively, these impacts contribute to a loss of livelihood and identity on both the individual and community level. Current approaches for addressing whale entanglement largely overlook these sociocultural and economic risks to fishermen, instead focusing primarily on ecological impact (i.e., risk to whales). Sidelining the human dimensions of fisheries in this way not only undermines the needs and ways of life of fishing communities\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e but also limits strategies for HWC resolution\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Indeed, our study highlights the valuable contributions that fishermen stand to make in addressing whale entanglement as long-time experts in the marine ecosystem. Specifically, we find that engaging fishermen\u0026rsquo;s ecological knowledge, on-water experience, and resource stewardship ethos could inform more effective, balanced HWC management strategies. This form of stakeholder engagement has proven effective in similar cases of HWC, such as the incidental bycatch of sea turtles in the U.S. shrimp trawl fishery and the bycatch of dolphin in the U.S. tuna purse seine fishery. In both cases, fishermen played a critical role in designing effective gear innovations to reduce HWC while maintaining viability for fishing livelihoods\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur research challenges the historically dominant practices of conservation that position human and wildlife interests as fundamentally separate\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In cases of HWC, this dualistic perspective gives rise to win-lose outcomes by implying a need to \u0026lsquo;choose\u0026rsquo; between human livelihoods and conservation targets\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. For example, in California, ongoing efforts to protect humpback whale populations have outpaced considerations for human livelihoods, resulting in steep economic and sociocultural costs to fishermen. Responding to these seemingly imbalanced tradeoffs, fishermen in this study call for an expanded understanding of the human-nature relationship. They invoke principles of coexistence and mutual dependence, explaining that their role as stewards of a marine resource depends on \u0026ndash; and oftentimes contributes to \u0026ndash; the health of the oceans. In these contexts where human and environmental outcomes are inextricably linked, some level of HWC is both natural and inevitable\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Rather than seeking to eliminate all instances of conflict, there is a need to reframe HWC based on principles of tolerance and mutuality that recognize and promote sustainability for people and the planet\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. By integrating \u0026ndash; rather than dichotomizing \u0026ndash; the needs of resource users and wildlife populations, this coexistence framing of HWC will expand opportunities for win-win outcomes\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e within complex social-ecological systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransitioning from antagonistic to cooperative framings of the human-nature relationship will require engaging multiple disciplines\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and multiple stakeholders\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Whereas the biophysical and ecological aspects of HWC are well-researched, the underlying sociocultural and economic dimensions of the issue are less understood\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Narrow perspectives on HWC threaten to exacerbate conflict\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and obscure notions of coexistence\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Our study demonstrates the value of qualitative social science research for uncovering a more complete understanding of impacts and solutions to HWC. Specifically, we show that engaging the knowledge and lived experience of local communities affected by HWC could lead to more balanced solutions, paving the way for human-wildlife coexistence.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study embraced a phenomenological and grounded theory approach that built up from the data rather than beginning with existing theories or assumptions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In the social sciences, phenomenology relies on shared human experiences and perspectives to explain intersubjective phenomena, calling for prolonged engagement with participants to discern patterns and relationships of meaning\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR55\" citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Accordingly, this study employed semi-structured interviews as the foundational method for understanding fishermen\u0026rsquo;s lived experiences and perceptions regarding human-wildlife conflict (HWC). To the extent that this research posits an integrated framework for HWC management, it can also be characterized as a case study elucidating the real-world example of whale entanglement in California\u0026rsquo;s commercial Dungeness crab fishery.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePopulation Sample \u0026amp; Selection\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll research methodologies were conducted in compliance with Stanford University\u0026rsquo;s Institutional Review Board policies and procedures for human subjects research under Protocol no. 67793.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSemi-structured interviews were conducted with twenty-seven members (twenty-six men and one woman) of the California commercial Dungeness crab fleet ranging in age from approximately thirty to seventy-five years. Individuals of any gender and racial or ethnic background were invited to participate in this study, provided they spoke English and were over the age of eighteen. Interviews were conducted across nine fishing towns in California, and participants were categorized on strata relating to production level, commercial fishing experience, and home fishing port (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo ensure adequate participation within each stratification, a non-probabilistic method of respondent-driven sampling was used\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Potential interviewees were identified from the Dungeness Crab Task Force charter and regional fishermen\u0026rsquo;s associations in an effort to reach members of the fleet with strong cultural competency and specialized knowledge. A key collaborator provided contact information for prospective participants and helped to set up interviews. Snowball sampling \u0026ndash; wherein existing participants identified potential interviewees based on their peer networks \u0026ndash; was used to augment the study population until saturation was reached (i.e., additional interviews yielded redundancies rather than novel insight)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuilding trust and rapport with participants was an integral element of the study design\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. During the two months prior to the data collection period, the research objectives and design were frequently discussed with key collaborators and industry representatives, and purposeful efforts were made to integrate their feedback, insight, and knowledge while acknowledging potential power dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCharacteristics of study participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHome port\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrescent City\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSan Francisco\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBodega Bay\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEureka\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMorro Bay\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBolinas\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFort Bragg\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHalf Moon Bay\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSanta Cruz\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(29.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(22.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(14.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(7.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(7.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(3.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;15 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;30 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(22.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(33.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(44.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProduction level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(37.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(63.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterview format\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn-person\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy phone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(77.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(22.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eData Collection\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData collection spanned three weeks during December of 2022. Throughout this period, a combination of single-day and overnight trips were made across California to conduct in-person interviews. Travel and lodging expenses were covered by funding from The Nature Conservancy. All interviews were conducted on a voluntary basis with informed consent according to IRB guidelines. In keeping with guidance from a key collaborator, participants chose the location of their interview to ensure comfort and foster candid conversation. Most participants elected for interviews to take place on their boat, though some chose to speak in caf\u0026eacute;s near the fishing dock. Six participants requested that their interview be conducted by phone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterviews ranged from thirty minutes to three hours in length, with most lasting about one and a half hours. Emerging themes, noteworthy quotes, and nonverbal cues were recorded in a notebook for the duration of each interview, and audio recordings were captured using a Zoom H1n portable audio recorder. Each recording was transcribed within 24 hours of the interview using Otter.ai Pro software. In accordance with IRB consent protocol, interview recordings and transcripts were stored securely and not made publicly available.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStandardized delivery of a semi-structured interview protocol limited researcher bias while still allowing for ease and flexibility of conversation\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The interview protocol, which contained a blend of fixed-response and open-ended questions, was pilot-tested with a key collaborator to strengthen validity and integrate knowledge of the local context (see Supplementary Information)\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Fixed-response questions mainly solicited demographic information \u0026ndash; such as boat size, distribution model, and income diversification \u0026ndash; while open-ended questions explored participants\u0026rsquo; beliefs and experiences surrounding whale entanglement and fisheries management. Unscripted follow-up questions were occasionally leveraged when the topic of conversation was deemed productive with regard to the research question\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, thereby allowing participants to elaborate and/or emphasize their personal experiences and topics they felt strongly about.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, extended fieldwork was a cornerstone of the study design. In the months leading up to the data collection period, considerable time was spent with participants, and, during the data collection period, in-person interviews were prioritized. Spending prolonged time with participants in their own settings not only bolsters an understanding of the nuances of the field but also lends credibility to the study\u0026rsquo;s inductive hypotheses and resulting theoretical frameworks\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eData Analysis\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData collection and analysis proceeded concurrently, with emerging themes and insights documented frequently throughout the interview process. Following the data collection period, a codebook (i.e., a set of words or short phrases that \u0026ldquo;symbolically assign a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of data\u0026rdquo;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e) was developed using coupled inductive and deductive analytic approaches\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e (see Supplementary Information). Whereas inductive codes were extrapolated from internal patterns within the data, deductive codes relied on external research objectives and literature-backed theories\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This approach enabled organic identification of themes\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e while also integrating predetermined codes derived from prior experience with and knowledge of the fishery. The resulting sixty-six codes were applied line by line to interview transcripts in two passes using NVivo 12 qualitative data analysis software.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst-pass codes were discrete and descriptive, serving as high-level organization for the data. By contrast, second-pass coding required more interpretation and consisted of focused subcodes that added specificity to the identified themes. In particular, second-pass coding prioritized the voices of study participants through the use of \u003cem\u003ein vivo\u003c/em\u003e codes, which originate from frequently repeated phrases\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Examples of in vivo codes include \u0026ldquo;infighting,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;real science,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;death by a thousand cuts.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThroughout the coding process, reflective analytic memos were written to identify themes and propose explanations for relationships within the data\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. A clustering technique involving inductive categorization and iterative sorting of the data was also used to facilitate pattern recognition\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Matrices, network models, and other forms of data display were constructed to test research propositions and assertions and further extrapolate meaning from the data\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In the final step, data-driven themes and patterns were interpreted in the context of the research question and adjusted for clarity and coherence, ultimately allowing for analytical conclusions to be made.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address the potential effects of researcher bias, frequent reflections on positionality were made, and preconceptions were purposefully bracketed throughout the data collection, analysis, and writing process\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. For instance, the results of this study were intentionally framed as a distillation of participants\u0026rsquo; lived experiences and perspectives to bolster objectivity and minimize the influence of researcher assumptions and personal beliefs\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Negative case sampling \u0026ndash; in which the researcher \u0026ldquo;actively seeks disconfirmation\u0026rdquo; of what they believe to be true\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026ndash; was also used to minimize potential bias. In this study, the negative case sampling strategy involved applying codes in later passes to look for disconfirming evidence about emerging propositions. For example, when participants\u0026rsquo; desire for improved fisheries management emerged as a theme early on, a \u0026ldquo;satisfied [with management]\u0026rdquo; code was added to the codebook to isolate and examine all cases where this pattern did not hold.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditional strategies to promote interpretive validity \u0026ndash; which describes the \u0026ldquo;degree that the participants\u0026rsquo; viewpoints, thoughts, intentions, and experiences are accurately understood and reported\u0026rdquo;\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026ndash; were integrated throughout the study design. For instance, participants were frequently invited to provide verification and insight into the interpretations and conclusions drawn from interviews\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The resulting feedback was incorporated into the research and interpretations were adjusted when necessary. Additionally, throughout the results report, a purposeful emphasis was placed on the use of verbatims (i.e., direct quotations) to honor participants\u0026rsquo; voice and language\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCOMPETING INTERESTS\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eM.G. conceived and designed the study, conducted data collection (interviews), analyzed results, and drafted the manuscript, with input from all authors at each stage. D.O. served as an industry representative and provided relevant expertise; M.M.E.C. defined the study methodology, supported data analysis, and provided substantive feedback on all drafts of the manuscript alongside L.B.C.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank the twenty-seven fishermen whose voices and knowledge ground this research. We also thank Richard Nevle, Jenn Humberstone, and Lisa Damrosch for their kind contributions to the design and development of this study. Financial support for the fieldwork component was provided by The Nature Conservancy. The funder played no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, or preparation of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to the sensitive and confidential nature of interview data. To protect the privacy of participants, all interview data (including field notes, audio recordings, and transcriptions) are stored in secure archives and may only be accessed by the core research team (Molly Glickman, Michelle Mar\u0026iacute;a Early Capistr\u0026aacute;n, Dick Ogg, and Larry Crowder), in compliance with the ethical guidelines of the Institutional Review Board (IRB).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbrahms, B. Human-wildlife conflict under climate change. \u003cem\u003eScience\u003c/em\u003e 373, 484\u0026ndash;485 (2021).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGuerra, A. S. Wolves of the Sea: Managing human-wildlife conflict in an increasingly tense ocean. \u003cem\u003eMar. Policy\u003c/em\u003e 99, 369\u0026ndash;373 (2019).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMadden, F. \u0026amp; McQuinn, B. 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(Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, 2002).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-ocean-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"npjoceansustain","sideBox":"Learn more about [npj Ocean Sustainability](https://www.nature.com/npjoceansustain/)","snPcode":"44183","submissionUrl":"https://mts-npjoceansustain.nature.com/cgi-bin/main.plex","title":"npj Ocean Sustainability","twitterHandle":"@NaturePortfolio","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"npj","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4797408/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4797408/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"Climate change-related shifts in marine resource availability and species behavior are increasing rates of human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Although this trend poses significant risks to both human livelihoods and conservation efforts, strategies to resolve HWC focus largely on ecological outcomes, overlooking key impacts and contributions of human resource users. Here, we draw on the case study of whale entanglement in the Dungeness crab (Metacarcinus magister) fishery in California, U.S.A. to demonstrate the promise of integrating – and the consequences of neglecting – the voice and expertise of fishing communities. Semi-structured interviews with 27 commercial fishermen across nine towns in California revealed the diverse sociocultural impacts of HWC – often converging on livelihood and identity losses – as well as fishermen’s potential role in addressing HWC as long-time experts in the marine ecosystem. Our findings highlight pathways for achieving human-wildlife coexistence, underscoring the need to engage the knowledge and lived experience of local communities affected by HWC.","manuscriptTitle":"Voices from the Ocean: Human-Wildlife Coexistence Through the Lens of Fishermen’s Knowledge and Lived Experience","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-08-27 21:48:23","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4797408/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-02-18T17:16:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-02-18T15:41:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"229409865630084193281252863991202595456","date":"2025-01-20T11:31:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"90003889714928230476774317385155041422","date":"2024-10-21T18:00:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-09-24T19:14:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"163512682350653883440109116027463140832","date":"2024-09-03T12:49:05+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-09-03T10:55:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-07-25T12:18:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-07-25T12:09:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"npj Ocean Sustainability","date":"2024-07-24T18:47:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-ocean-sustainability","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"npjoceansustain","sideBox":"Learn more about [npj Ocean Sustainability](https://www.nature.com/npjoceansustain/)","snPcode":"44183","submissionUrl":"https://mts-npjoceansustain.nature.com/cgi-bin/main.plex","title":"npj Ocean Sustainability","twitterHandle":"@NaturePortfolio","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"npj","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0167bdd5-f565-42be-8ca6-3141566c747f","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 27th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":36160163,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental social sciences/Sustainability"},{"id":36160164,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental social sciences"},{"id":36160165,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Ocean sciences"},{"id":36160166,"name":"Social science/Environmental studies"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-24T12:23:28+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-08-27 21:48:23","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4797408","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4797408","identity":"rs-4797408","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"ehx78VzkSd0WSzXnipQa-","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}