Resource Gain or Stress Buffer? The Chain Mediation Path of Mindfulness in Relieving Parenting Burnout of Parents of Children with ADHD

Resource Gain or Stress Buffer? 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The Chain Mediation Path of Mindfulness in Relieving Parenting Burnout of Parents of Children with ADHD Saisai Hu, Ruirui Li, Tingting Yang, Qiangyan Hou, Dandan Tong, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9264815/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often face persistent and intensive caregiving demands, which may increase their vulnerability to parental burnout. Based on Conservation of Resources theory, this study examined the association between mindfulness and parental burnout among parents of children with ADHD and investigated the serial mediating roles of psychological capital and parenting stress. Methods Using a cross-sectional design, this study tested a hypothesized serial mediation model with structural equation modeling (SEM). Mindfulness was specified as the independent variable, parental burnout as the outcome variable, and psychological capital and parenting stress as sequential mediators. Results The results showed that mindfulness was indirectly associated with parental burnout through three significant pathways: the independent mediating effect of psychological capital, the independent mediating effect of parenting stress, and the serial mediating effect of psychological capital and parenting stress. After the inclusion of the mediators, the direct association between mindfulness and parental burnout was no longer significant, indicating full mediation. Overall, mindfulness was associated with lower parental burnout primarily through higher psychological capital and lower parenting stress. Conclusions Psychological capital and parenting stress play important mediating roles in the association between mindfulness and parental burnout among parents of children with ADHD. These findings highlight a dual pathway of resource gain and stress buffering and provide empirical support for interventions targeting parental burnout through mindfulness-based approaches combined with psychological capital enhancement and parenting stress reduction. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Mindfulness Psychological Capital Parenting Stress Parental Burnout Figures Figure 1 Introduction Parenting is a journey filled with both joy and challenge. When parenting demands chronically exceed the resources available to parents, they may enter a state of physical and psychological exhaustion known as parental burnout. Parental burnout refers to a syndrome jointly triggered by stress associated with the parental role and chronic parenting strain, typically characterized by overwhelming exhaustion, emotional distancing from one’s children, and a loss of efficacy in the parenting role [1]. In recent years, parental burnout has attracted increasing attention because of its severe adverse consequences for parents themselves, marital relationships, and child development. Parents experiencing burnout face serious personal risks, including suicidal ideation and escape fantasies, and its prevalence may even exceed that of job burnout or depression [2,3]. In addition, parental burnout may be associated with dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis [4,5]. More alarmingly, parental burnout significantly increases the likelihood of parental violence and neglect, thereby threatening children’s development [2,5]. Although all parents may be vulnerable to parental burnout, this risk is particularly pronounced in certain high-risk groups, including parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood. According to a nationwide survey conducted in China in 2025, approximately 6.4% of school-aged children and adolescents aged 6-16 years were diagnosed with ADHD [6]. This suggests that a substantial number of parents must cope over the long term with challenges associated with their child’s ADHD diagnosis in daily life. Core symptoms of ADHD, such as inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, place persistent and intense parenting demands on parents. In addition to managing daily parenting tasks (e.g., supervising homework and transporting children), parents must also deal with acute stressors (e.g., emotional outbursts and sibling conflict) and chronic stressors (e.g., behavioral and health-related problems) [7,8,2]. When such demands accumulate over time while available resources (e.g., time, emotional energy, and social support) are continuously depleted, parents become more vulnerable to resource exhaustion, thereby increasing the risk of parental burnout [2]. Prior research has shown that, compared with parents of typically developing children, parents of children with neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., ADHD, autism spectrum disorder [ASD], and intellectual disability) report higher levels of anxiety and parental burnout, with anxiety and burnout being especially pronounced among parents of children with ADHD [9,10]. Therefore, paying attention to parental burnout among parents of children with ADHD and clarifying its underlying mechanisms is of considerable practical significance for promoting the mental health of these parents and their families. Existing research indicates that positive psychological characteristics such as self-compassion, emotional intelligence, resilience, optimism, and humor can effectively buffer against parental burnout [11]. Among these positive characteristics, mindfulness has received increasing scholarly attention in recent years [12-14]. Mindfulness refers to purposeful, nonjudgmental awareness of present-moment experience [15]. A large body of research has shown that mindfulness is significantly negatively associated with negative affect, stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms [16,14,17,18]. Within parenting contexts, previous studies have also documented a negative association between mindfulness and parental burnout [19,20]. Mindfulness thus appears to play an important role in preventing and alleviating parental burnout, and this protective effect may also exist—and may even be especially important among parents of children with ADHD, a high-risk population. However, the question of how mindfulness influences parental burnout, that is, through what mechanisms and why, remains unclear. Insufficient understanding of these internal mechanisms limits the development of precise and effective interventions. How, then, does mindfulness alleviate parental burnout among parents of children with ADHD? Conservation of Resources (COR) theory [21] provides an integrative framework for understanding this issue. COR theory posits that individuals are motivated to acquire, protect, and maintain resources. When resources are adequate, individuals are better able to cope with stress, whereas persistent resource loss may culminate in burnout. For parents of children with ADHD, who are exposed to sustained and intense parenting stress arising from their child’s core symptoms, the processes of resource accumulation and depletion are especially salient. From the perspective of COR theory, the effect of mindfulness on parental burnout may operate through two interrelated pathways: one involving the accumulation of positive psychological resources and the other involving the attenuation of stress-related depletion. These two pathways correspond to two key variables: psychological capital and parenting stress. According to COR theory, the accumulation of resources facilitates the acquisition of additional resources. As a foundational personal resource, mindfulness may help parents disengage from negative thinking and view parenting challenges more objectively, thereby fostering positive psychological states such as optimism, hope, and self-efficacy. The integrated manifestation of these positive states constitutes the core meaning of psychological capital [22]. Empirical studies support this reasoning by showing that mindfulness promotes the accumulation of positive psychological resources [23]and, in turn, enhances psychological capital [24-27]. At the same time, psychological capital serves as an important internal resource that helps parents cope with parenting difficulties. A substantial body of research has consistently demonstrated a significant negative association between psychological capital and burnout [28,29], and within family contexts, parents with higher levels of psychological capital report lower parental burnout [30]. Accordingly, psychological capital may constitute an important mediating pathway linking mindfulness to parental burnout. COR theory also emphasizes that continuous environmental stress depletes psychological resources over time, and when cumulative resource loss reaches a critical level, burnout may occur. For parents of children with ADHD, parenting stress, which is the distress or discomfort caused by fulfilling the parenting role [31], is a core source of stress. Mindfulness may reduce such stress because it fundamentally alters how individuals appraise and respond to stressful events. Individuals with higher levels of mindfulness tend to demonstrate greater coping flexibility when facing stressors [32] and are more likely to adopt adaptive coping strategies such as acceptance rather than maladaptive strategies such as rumination [33,34,14]. Consistent with this view, empirical studies have generally found a significant negative association between mindfulness and parenting stress [35,36]. Parenting stress, in turn, is a key antecedent of parental burnout and has been repeatedly shown to positively predict parental burnout [37-39]. Importantly, because the core symptoms of ADHD expose parents to levels of parenting stress that exceed those experienced by many other groups, this mediating pathway may be especially explanatory in this population. Thus, parenting stress may represent another important mediating pathway through which mindfulness affects parental burnout. These two pathways are not independent. Resources are not only tools for coping with stress but also crucial determinants of how individuals cognitively appraise stress. Individuals with abundant resources are more likely to interpret environmental demands as challenges rather than threats, thereby experiencing lower levels of perceived stress [21]. This theoretical proposition suggests that psychological capital may not only directly alleviate parental burnout but may also exert an indirect effect by shaping parents’ cognitive appraisals of parenting stress. Parents with higher psychological capital may be more likely to perceive parenting challenges as controllable and manageable and thus experience lower subjective parenting stress. Empirical findings support this inference, showing that psychological capital is significantly negatively associated with parenting stress [40,41] and may function as a mechanism of “resource transmission” in the processes through which various antecedents influence parenting stress [42-44]. In summary, the present study proposes that mindfulness promotes the accumulation of psychological capital, which in turn changes parents’ cognitive appraisals of parenting situations and reduces their subjective perception of parenting stress. Lower levels of parenting stress then reduce the risk of sustained resource depletion, thereby decreasing parental burnout. Method Participants This study used online convenience sampling to recruit parents of children diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) from mainland China. All children had been formally diagnosed according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [ 45 ] criteria by licensed medical institutions, and written proof of diagnosis was provided. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) the participant’s child had a confirmed diagnosis of ADHD; (2) the participant was the child’s primary caregiver (father or mother); and (3) the participant was able to read and complete Chinese-language questionnaires online. The exclusion criteria were as follows: (1) the child had a major chronic physical illness or another psychiatric disorder (e.g., schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, substance use disorder, anxiety, or depression); and (2) the parent had a psychiatric disorder, was receiving psychotropic medication, or was undergoing psychotherapy. Before participation, all respondents read an online informed consent form and voluntarily selected the “agree” option. The questionnaires were distributed and collected via the WeChat platform. A total of 420 valid questionnaires were obtained, yielding an effective response rate of 97.674%. Among the participating parents of children with ADHD, most were women (n = 371, 88.333%), whereas 49 were men (11.667%). Measures Mindful Attention Awareness Scale Mindfulness was assessed using the Chinese version of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) revised by Chen et al [ 46 ]. This instrument measures individuals’ mindfulness in daily life. It has a single-factor structure and consists of 15 items (e.g., “I break or spill things because of carelessness, not paying attention, or thinking of something else”; “I find myself doing things without paying attention”). Responses are rated on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost always) to 6 (almost never). The mean score across all items was computed, with higher scores indicating higher levels of mindfulness. In the present study, Cronbach’s α for the scale was 0.881, indicating good reliability. Positive Psychological Capital Scale Psychological capital was assessed using the Positive Psychological Capital Scale (PPCS) revised by Zhang et al. [ 47 ]. The scale contains 26 items across four subscales: self-efficacy (7 items), optimism (6 items), resilience (7 items), and hope (6 items). Responses are rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Items 8, 10, 12, 14, and 25 are reverse scored. Higher scores indicate higher levels of psychological capital. In the present study, Cronbach’s α for the scale was 0.933, indicating good reliability. Parenting Stress Scale Parenting stress was measured using the short form of the Parenting Stress Index revised by Luo et al.[ 48 ] (PSI-SF-15), which assesses parents’ perceived stress during everyday parenting. The scale contains 15 items (e.g., “I feel trapped by my responsibilities as a parent”; “My child rarely does things for me that make me feel good”) and includes three dimensions: parental distress, parent-child dysfunctional interaction, and difficult child. Responses are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher scores indicate higher levels of parenting stress. In the present study, Cronbach’s α for the scale was 0.901, indicating good reliability. Parental Burnout Assessment Parental burnout was assessed using the short form of the Parental Burnout Assessment (S-PBA) revised by Wang Wei et al. [ 49 ]. This instrument has a single-factor structure and consists of 7 items rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A sample item is, “When I get up in the morning and have to face another day with my children, I feel exhausted before I’ve even started.” The mean score across all items was used to reflect the level of parental burnout, with higher scores indicating more severe burnout. In the present study, Cronbach’s α for the scale was 0.953, indicating good reliability. Statistical Analysis Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation analyses were first conducted using SPSS 26.0. Subsequently, structural equation modeling was performed in Mplus 8.3 to test the serial mediation model. To reduce the inflation of measurement error that may arise from an excessive number of observed indicators for latent variables, item parceling was applied [ 50 ]. Specifically, unidimensional scales were parceled using the item-to-construct balance approach to create several observed indicators, whereas multidimensional scales were entered into the model using their subdimensions as observed indicators. The significance level was set at p < 0.05. Mediation effects were estimated using the bootstrapping method with 5,000 resamples and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). An effect was considered significant if the confidence interval did not include 0. Model fit was evaluated comprehensively based on the chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (χ²/df), comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR; [ 51 ]). Because χ² is sensitive to sample size, multiple indices were considered jointly. A χ²/df value below 5 indicates acceptable fit, with values between 1 and 3 considered ideal. CFI and TLI values above 0.95 indicate good fit, and values above 0.90 indicate acceptable fit. RMSEA values below 0.05 indicate good fit, whereas values between 0.05 and 0.08 indicate reasonable fit. Results Common Method Bias Test Harman’s single-factor test was used to assess common method bias and examine whether the self-report method might have introduced systematic error. The results showed that, without rotation, the first factor accounted for 25.747% of the total variance, which was below the critical threshold of 40% [ 52 ]. Therefore, no serious common method bias was detected in this study. Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis Table 1 Correlations Among the Study Variables ( N = 420) Variables M ± SD 1 2 3 4 1. Mindfulness 4.018 ± 0.787 1 2. Psychological Capital 3.178 ± 0.624 0.323 *** 1 3. Parenting Stress 2.945 ± 0.697 -0.236 *** -0.492 *** 1 4. Parental Burnout 3.057 ± 1.333 -0.194 *** -0.474 *** 0.589 *** 1 Note : *** p < 0.001. Pearson correlation analyses showed that all variables were significantly correlated ( ps < 0.001). Specifically, mindfulness was significantly positively correlated with psychological capital and significantly negatively correlated with both parenting stress and parental burnout. Psychological capital was also significantly negatively correlated with parenting stress and parental burnout. Parenting stress, in contrast, was significantly positively correlated with parental burnout. Test of the serial mediation Model Table 2 Serial Mediation Effects of Psychological Capital and Parenting Stress on the Association Between Mindfulness and Parental Burnout ( N = 420) Pathway Effect SE BootLLCI BootULCI Total effect −0.205 0.054 −0.311 −0.099 Direct effect: MF → PB 0.013 0.051 −0.085 0.112 MF → PC 0.289 0.058 0.170 0.396 MF → PS –0.124 0.057 −0.236 −0.014 PC → PS −0.554 0.056 −0.655 −0.438 PC → PB −0.161 0.066 −0.291 −0.029 PS → PB 0.605 0.062 0.484 0.726 Total indirect effect −0.218 0.048 −0.316 −0.126 Indirect effect 1 −0.046 0.022 −0.099 −0.010 Indirect effect 2 −0.075 0.036 −0.150 −0.009 Indirect effect 3 −0.097 0.025 −0.153 −0.054 Note: MF = mindfulness; PC = psychological capital; PS = parenting stress; PB = parental burnout. Indirect effect 1 = MF → PC → PB; Indirect effect 2 = MF → PS → PB; Indirect effect 3 = MF → PC → PS → PB. A structural equation model was constructed in Mplus 8.3 to test the serial mediation model. The results indicated that the model fit the data reasonably well (see Table 2 ): χ²/df = 3.58, CFI = 0.953, TLI = 0.935, RMSEA = 0.078, 90% CI [0.067, 0.090], SRMR = 0.048. As shown in Fig. 1 , all factor loadings of the observed indicators on their corresponding latent variables were significant ( ps < 0.001), suggesting adequate measurement quality. At the structural level, the total effect (c) of mindfulness on parental burnout was significant ( Effect = -0.205, SE = 0.054, 95% CI [-0.311, -0.099]), whereas the direct effect (c′) was not significant ( Effect = 0.013, SE = 0.051, 95% CI [-0.085, 0.112]). The total indirect effect was significant ( Effect = -0.218, SE = 0.048, 95% CI [-0.316, -0.126]), and the confidence intervals for all indirect pathways excluded 0, indicating statistical significance. Psychological capital significantly mediated the association between mindfulness and parental burnout ( Effect = -0.046, SE = 0.022, 95% CI [-0.099, -0.010]). Parenting stress also significantly mediated this association ( Effect = -0.075, SE = 0.036, 95% CI [-0.150, -0.009]). In addition, psychological capital and parenting stress formed a significant serial mediation pathway between mindfulness and parental burnout ( Effect = -0.097, SE = 0.025, 95% CI [-0.153, -0.054]). Note MAAS1-MAAS3 represent the three item parcels created from the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale using the item-to-construct balance approach. PBA1-PBA3 represent the three item parcels created from the parental burnout scale using the item-to-construct balance approach. PCDI denotes parent-child dysfunctional interaction. a1, a2, b1, b2, c, c′, and d are structural path coefficients, where c represents the total effect and c′ represents the direct effect. Values shown in the figure are standardized coefficients. * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001. Discussion Grounded in Conservation of Resources theory, this study examined the association between mindfulness and parental burnout among parents of children with ADHD, as well as the serial mediating roles of psychological capital and parenting stress. The findings supported the proposed hypotheses. The major findings are discussed below. The Relationship Between Mindfulness and Parental Burnout This study found that mindfulness was significantly negatively associated with parental burnout among parents of children with ADHD, supporting Hypothesis 1. This finding is consistent with previous evidence from general parent populations [ 19 , 20 ] and extends the protective role of mindfulness to parents of children with ADHD, a high-risk group. Children with ADHD impose persistent and intense parenting demands on parents [ 7 , 2 ], placing them under chronic risk of resource depletion. Mindfulness may enable parents to observe ongoing parenting situations in a nonreactive and nonjudgmental manner, thereby reducing rumination and catastrophic interpretations of negative events and interrupting the vicious cycle of stress, maladaptive reaction, and burnout [ 53 , 54 ]. The Mediating Role of Psychological Capital The present study found that psychological capital significantly mediated the association between mindfulness and parental burnout, supporting Hypothesis 2. This finding shed light on an internal mechanism through which mindfulness alleviates parental burnout by increasing available resources. Mindfulness may help parents disengage from negative rumination and adopt a more balanced perspective on parenting challenges, thereby promoting the development of psychological capital [ 22 ]. In the present study, the significant positive association between mindfulness and psychological capital was consistent with prior findings [ 23 , 24 ], supporting the resource-enhancing function of mindfulness. More importantly, as a composite of positive psychological resources, psychological capital provides parents with an important reservoir of internal resources for coping with parenting difficulties. The present study found that psychological capital was significantly negatively associated with parental burnout, which is in line with previous research [ 28 , 30 ]. For parents of children with ADHD, whose children’s core symptoms often lead to rapid and repeated depletion of psychological resources, the accumulation of psychological capital may be particularly crucial. Parents with higher psychological capital may be more likely to view parenting challenges as manageable, thereby reducing feelings of helplessness and exhaustion. From the perspective of COR theory, mindfulness may indirectly reduce the risk of parental burnout by facilitating the accumulation of psychological capital. The Mediating Role of Parenting Stress This study also found that parenting stress significantly mediated the association between mindfulness and parental burnout, supporting Hypothesis 3. This result reveals another mechanism through which mindfulness alleviates parental burnout, namely by reducing stress. The long-term parenting stress experienced by parents of children with ADHD continually consumes their psychological resources and increases their vulnerability to parental burnout, whereas mindfulness may reduce such stress and thereby mitigate this risk. In the present study, mindfulness was significantly negatively associated with parenting stress, consistent with previous research [ 35 , 36 ]. Individuals with higher levels of mindfulness tend to show greater coping flexibility in response to stressful events and are more likely to adopt adaptive strategies such as acceptance. Alternatively, mindfulness may change parents’ cognitive appraisals of stressful events rather than the events themselves [ 32 , 14 ]. At the same time, parenting stress is a key antecedent of parental burnout, and its positive association with parental burnout was confirmed both in the present study and in a substantial body of prior research [ 37 , 38 ]. For parents of children with ADHD, the child’s core symptoms create a level of parenting stress substantially higher than that seen in many other parent groups, which makes this mediating pathway especially important in explaining parental burnout in this population. The serial mediating Roles of Psychological Capital and Parenting Stress The central finding of this study is that psychological capital and parenting stress together constitute a significant serial mediation pathway linking mindfulness to parental burnout, supporting Hypothesis 4. This finding suggests that mindfulness not only affects parental burnout independently through psychological capital and parenting stress, but also that these two pathways are linked in a progressive sequence: mindfulness first promotes psychological capital, and the accumulated psychological resources then help parents alleviate parenting stress, ultimately reducing the risk of parental burnout. In terms of effect size, the indirect effect of the chain pathway was larger than that of either the pathway through psychological capital alone or the pathway through parenting stress alone. This suggests that the protective effect of mindfulness on parental burnout operates primarily through a continuous process of “resource accumulation followed by stress reduction.” In other words, the beneficial role of mindfulness may depend largely on whether it can be successfully translated into parents’ psychological capital and, in turn, alter their subjective experience of parenting stress. This finding provides new empirical support for COR theory. According to COR theory, individuals with abundant resources are more likely to appraise environmental demands as challenges rather than threats and therefore experience lower levels of stress [ 21 ]. The chain pathway identified in the present study aligns well with this theoretical logic: mindfulness first promotes the accumulation of psychological capital through resource gain, which then reshapes parents’ cognitive appraisals of parenting situations, making them more likely to regard parenting challenges as manageable and thereby reducing their subjective perception of parenting stress. Lower parenting stress subsequently reduces the risk of ongoing resource depletion, which in turn lowers the likelihood of parental burnout. This complete pathway helps explain why and how mindfulness ultimately influences parental burnout by altering both parents’ resource status and their stress-related appraisals. Notably, after the two mediators were included, the direct effect of mindfulness on parental burnout became nonsignificant, suggesting that psychological capital and parenting stress fully mediate this association. This finding further strengthens the theoretical model proposed in this study: the effect of mindfulness on parental burnout is not a direct protective effect per se, but rather one that operates through the activation of parents’ internal psychological resources and the improvement of their cognitive appraisals of parenting stress. For parents of children with ADHD, this mechanism has particular practical significance. Because they are chronically exposed to high-intensity parenting stress, simple “present-moment awareness” may not be sufficient to guard against burnout. Instead, such awareness may need to be transformed into tangible psychological capital and ultimately translated into changes in stress experience. Theoretical Contributions and Practical Implications This study extends research on mindfulness and parental burnout to parents of children with ADHD, a high-risk population, and confirms the applicability of the protective role of mindfulness in this group, thereby broadening the scope of mindfulness research. In addition, by simultaneously examining the two pathways of psychological capital and parenting stress within the framework of COR theory, this study provides a new theoretical perspective for understanding the internal linkage between “resource gain” and “stress buffering” and offers new empirical evidence for the application of COR theory in family contexts. The findings also suggest that mindfulness-based interventions may have clinical value for this population. Intervention programs may draw on the principles of mindful parenting to help parents cultivate nonjudgmental awareness of ongoing parenting situations and reduce automatic negative reactions [ 55 ]. The mediating role of psychological capital further suggests that interventions should not be limited to mindfulness training alone, but should also incorporate strategies aimed at enhancing parents’ psychological capital, such as strengthening self-efficacy, cultivating optimism, fostering hope, and building resilience. The mediating role of parenting stress, together with the chain pathway identified in this study, indicates that reducing subjective parenting stress is a key target in the prevention of parental burnout. Intervention programs may therefore incorporate stress management techniques such as time management, relaxation training, and problem-solving strategies. Overall, future interventions could adopt an integrated model combining mindfulness training, psychological capital enhancement, and stress management. These components could be systematically embedded into traditional parent training frameworks to achieve stronger and more durable intervention effects. Moreover, the application of such interventions need not be limited to clinical settings; they may also be extended to schools and communities through parent workshops, mindfulness group programs, and psychological capital training camps, thereby providing parents of children with ADHD with support that is practical and sustainable. Limitations and Future Directions Several limitations of this study should be acknowledged. First, the study used a cross-sectional design and therefore cannot establish causal relationships among mindfulness, psychological capital, parenting stress, and parental burnout. These variables may be linked in more complex and potentially bidirectional ways. Future research should use longitudinal designs or multi-wave follow-up studies to verify the causal direction and dynamic changes among these variables. Second, the sample was limited to parents of children with ADHD in mainland China. Future studies could conduct cross-cultural comparisons across different sociocultural contexts to examine the generalizability of the proposed model. Third, this study focused only on psychological capital and parenting stress, whereas the mechanisms through which mindfulness alleviates parental burnout may be more complex. Future research could explore additional factors in order to build a more comprehensive theoretical model. Conclusion Psychological capital and parenting stress fully mediated the association between mindfulness and parental burnout. This full mediation included the independent mediating effect of psychological capital, the independent mediating effect of parenting stress, and the serial mediating effect of the two variables. In other words, mindfulness reduced parental burnout by increasing psychological capital, which in turn lowered parenting stress. These findings reveal a continuous mechanism through which mindfulness alleviates parental burnout via “resource gain → stress buffering,” provide empirical support for Conservation of Resources theory, and identify actionable targets for psychological interventions for parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study involving human participants was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Psychology, Northwest Normal University . Electronic informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to participation. All procedures performed in this study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and materials The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This study was supported by the Brain Science and Brain-like Intelligence Technology – National Science and Technology Major Project (2021ZD0203804) to Dandan Tong, the General Project of the 2025 Annual Plan of the 14th Five-Year Educational Science Program of Gansu Province (GS[2025]GHB1512), the Soft Science Special Project of Gansu Basic Research Plan (26JRZA067), and the Gansu Provincial University Innovation Fund Project (2026A-011) to Saisai Hu, and the Graduate Student Research Fund of Northwest Normal University, 2025 (KYZZ2025-LXS035) to Ruirui Li. Authors ’ contributions Saisai Hu and Ruirui Li contributed equally to this work. Saisai Hu contributed to the conception and design of the study, technical revision of the manuscript, and funding acquisition. Ruirui Li contributed to data analysis and interpretation, manuscript drafting, and funding acquisition. Tingting Yang contributed to the provision of study materials and statistical consultation. Qiangyan Hou contributed to data collection and technical or administrative support. Dandan Tong contributed to the conception and design of the study and funding acquisition. Haiqing Wang contributed to data analysis and interpretation, manuscript drafting, and final approval of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank all parents who participated in this study. References Mikolajczak M, Gross JJ, Roskam I. Beyond job burnout: parental burnout! Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2021;25(5):333–6. 10.1016/j.tics.2021.01.012 Mikolajczak M, Gross JJ, Roskam I. 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The relationship between mindful parenting and distress in parents of children with an autism spectrum disorder. Mindfulness. 2013;4(2):102–12. 10.1007/s12671-012-0192-4 . Desimpelaere EN, Soenens B, Prinzie P, Waterschoot J, Vansteenkiste M, Morbée S, et al. Parents' stress, parental burnout, and parenting behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic: comparing parents of children with and without complex care needs. J Child Fam stud. 2023;32(12):3681–96. 10.1007/s10826-023-02702-0 . Liu S, Zhang L, Yi J, Liu S, Li D, Wu D, et al. The relationship between parenting stress and parental burnout among Chinese parents of children with ASD: a moderated mediation model. J Autism Dev Disord. 2024;54(4):1527–37. 10.1007/s10803-022-05854-y . Ren X, Cai Y, Wang J, Chen O. A systematic review of parental burnout and related factors among parents. BMC Public Health. 2024;24(1):376. 10.1186/s12889-024-17829-y . Zhu X, Shen L, Du P, Guan J. The mediating role of psychological capital between Dayadi stress and job burnout in female nurses with two children. Translational Pediatr. 2021;10(10):2449–58. 10.21037/tp-21-375 . Yue Y, Yuan H, Tan B, Wu D. The mediating role of maternal psychological capital on the relationship between social support and parenting competence: evidence from Chinese mothers. Early Educ Dev. 2023;34(5):1274–88. 10.1080/10409289.2022.2098761 . Zoromba MA, Atta MHR, Ali AS, El-Gazar HE, Amin SM. The mediating role of psychological capital in the relationship between family sense of coherence and caregiver stress among parents of children with autism spectrum disorder. Int J Ment Health Nurs. 2024;33(6):2157–69. 10.1111/inm.13383 . Turliuc MN, Candel OS. The relationship between psychological capital and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: a longitudinal mediation model. J Health Psychol. 2022;27(8):1913–25. 10.1177/13591053211012771 . Sun F, Wang A, Xue J, Su J, Hu C, Lu Q. The mediating effect of psychological capital on the relationship between psychological stress and distress among Chinese nursing students: a cross-sectional study. BMC Nurs. 2022;21(1):128. 10.1186/s12912-022-00915-0 . American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013. Chen SY, Cui H, Zhou RL, Jia YY. Revision of Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS). Chin J Clin Psychol. 2012;20(2):148–51. 10.16128/j.cnki.1005-3611.2012.02.024 . Zhang K, Zhang S, Dong Y. Positive psychological capital: measurement and relationship with mental health. Stud Psychol Behav. 2010;8(1):58–64. Luo J, Wang MC, Gao Y, Zeng H, Yang W, Chen W, et al. Refining the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) in Chinese parents. Assessment. 2021;28(2):551–66. 10.1177/1073191119847757 . Wang W, Wang S, Cheng H, Wang Y, Li Y. Validation of the Chinese short version of the parental burnout assessment. Chin Mental Health J. 2021;35(11):941–6. 10.3969/j.issn.1000-6729.2021.11.010 . Little TD, Cunningham WA, Shahar G, Widaman KF. To parcel or not to parcel: exploring the question, weighing the merits. Struct Equ Model. 2002;9(2):151–73. 10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1 . Wen Z, Hau KT, Marsh HW. Structural equation model testing: cutoff criteria for goodness of fit indices and chi-square test. Acta Physiol Sinica. 2004;36(2):186–94. Zhou H, Long L. Statistical remedies for common method biases. Adv Psychol Sci. 2004;12(6):942–50. Duncan LG, Coatsworth JD, Greenberg MT. A model of mindful parenting: implications for parent-child relationships and prevention research. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2009;12(3):255–70. 10.1007/s10567-009-0046-3 . Keng SL, Smoski MJ, Robins CJ. Effects of mindfulness on psychological health: a review of empirical studies. Clin Psychol Rev. 2011;31(6):1041–56. 10.1016/j.cpr.2011.04.006 . Bögels SM, Hellemans J, van Deursen S, Römer M, van der Meulen R. Mindful parenting in mental health care: effects on parental and child psychopathology, parental stress, parenting, coparenting, and marital functioning. Mindfulness. 2014;5(5):536–51. 10.1007/s12671-013-0209-7 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers invited by journal 06 Apr, 2026 Editor invited by journal 01 Apr, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 31 Mar, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 31 Mar, 2026 First submitted to journal 30 Mar, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9264815","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":620051012,"identity":"dde4a2fa-845e-4ec8-9fde-3e11aa3b54e5","order_by":0,"name":"Saisai Hu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Northwest Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Saisai","middleName":"","lastName":"Hu","suffix":""},{"id":620051013,"identity":"b95ac622-3d24-4d96-97be-51100b2c8ba6","order_by":1,"name":"Ruirui Li","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Northwest Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ruirui","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""},{"id":620051014,"identity":"23f194da-58be-4982-9196-5589e1e817e4","order_by":2,"name":"Tingting Yang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Northwest Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tingting","middleName":"","lastName":"Yang","suffix":""},{"id":620051015,"identity":"0afead81-06a3-44c2-8fe2-39a38baf995c","order_by":3,"name":"Qiangyan Hou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Northwest Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Qiangyan","middleName":"","lastName":"Hou","suffix":""},{"id":620051016,"identity":"b22de9d8-cbf1-4457-8618-f54be123502b","order_by":4,"name":"Dandan Tong","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Northwest Normal University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dandan","middleName":"","lastName":"Tong","suffix":""},{"id":620051017,"identity":"856bb2c2-8210-44ac-961e-c2a9ec2c811d","order_by":5,"name":"Haiqing Wang","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA1UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACNvb+Dwc+VNgw88s/PkCcFj6eA4YHZ5xJY5dsSEsgToucRILxYd62w/wGB3IMiHQYz4GEAzxsh6UNDpz5eOMNg52cbgMhLewNBw5I8KQbSx7s3Ww5hyHZ2OwAQVsONhwwkLBO5jvMu02ah+FA4jaCWiSSGQ4kGDDXNxzjeUasljSGAwcSnJkFzvCwEamF5wwD0GlpzJIz2Iwt5xgQ4Rf59h7mz3//AaNSgvnhjTcVdnIEtaAACR4iowZZC6k6RsEoGAWjYEQAABfKRACRrzIeAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Northwest Normal University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Haiqing","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-30 09:23:46","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9264815/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9264815/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106702799,"identity":"12d7ca7b-3cf2-4279-8e0d-52a320710ed6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-12 07:36:14","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":55346,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSerial mediation model of psychological capital and parenting stress in the association between mindfulness and parental burnout.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: MAAS1-MAAS3 represent the three item parcels created from the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale using the item-to-construct balance approach. PBA1-PBA3 represent the three item parcels created from the parental burnout scale using the item-to-construct balance approach. PCDI denotes parent-child dysfunctional interaction. a1, a2, b1, b2, c, c′, and d are structural path coefficients, where c represents the total effect and c′ represents the direct effect. Values shown in the figure are standardized coefficients. \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05, \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep \u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.001.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9264815/v1/6116cf33d2eb2de35b5f8a59.png"},{"id":106702811,"identity":"8f880b01-da8a-464c-aed3-dfd9815427e8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-12 07:36:19","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":870854,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9264815/v1/b68c94e3-e553-4de8-8420-cbf83094d398.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Resource Gain or Stress Buffer? The Chain Mediation Path of Mindfulness in Relieving Parenting Burnout of Parents of Children with ADHD","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eParenting is a journey filled with both joy and challenge. When parenting demands chronically exceed the resources available to parents, they may enter a state of physical and psychological exhaustion known as parental burnout. Parental burnout refers to a syndrome jointly triggered by stress associated with the parental role and chronic parenting strain, typically characterized by overwhelming exhaustion, emotional distancing from one’s children, and a loss of efficacy in the parenting role\u0026nbsp;[1]. In recent years, parental burnout has attracted increasing attention because of its severe adverse consequences for parents themselves, marital relationships, and child development.\u0026nbsp;Parents experiencing burnout face serious personal risks, including suicidal ideation and escape fantasies, and its prevalence may even exceed that of job burnout or depression\u0026nbsp;[2,3]. In addition, parental burnout may be associated with dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis\u0026nbsp;[4,5]. More alarmingly, parental burnout significantly increases the likelihood of parental violence and neglect, thereby threatening children’s development\u0026nbsp;[2,5].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough all parents may be vulnerable to parental burnout, this risk is particularly pronounced in certain high-risk groups, including parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood. According to a nationwide survey conducted in China in 2025, approximately 6.4% of school-aged children and adolescents aged 6-16 years were diagnosed with ADHD\u0026nbsp;[6]. This suggests that a substantial number of parents must cope over the long term with challenges associated with their child’s ADHD diagnosis in daily life.\u0026nbsp;Core symptoms of ADHD, such as inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, place persistent and intense parenting demands on parents. In addition to managing daily parenting tasks (e.g., supervising homework and transporting children), parents must also deal with acute stressors (e.g., emotional outbursts and sibling conflict) and chronic stressors (e.g., behavioral and health-related problems)\u0026nbsp;[7,8,2]. When such demands accumulate over time while available resources (e.g., time, emotional energy, and social support) are continuously depleted, parents become more vulnerable to resource exhaustion, thereby increasing the risk of parental burnout\u0026nbsp;[2]. Prior research has shown that, compared with parents of typically developing children, parents of children with neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., ADHD, autism spectrum disorder [ASD], and intellectual disability) report higher levels of anxiety and parental burnout, with anxiety and burnout being especially pronounced among parents of children with ADHD\u0026nbsp;[9,10]. Therefore, paying attention to parental burnout among parents of children with ADHD and clarifying its underlying mechanisms is of considerable practical significance for promoting the mental health of these parents and their families.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExisting research indicates that positive psychological characteristics such as self-compassion, emotional intelligence, resilience, optimism, and humor can effectively buffer against parental burnout\u0026nbsp;[11]. Among these positive characteristics, mindfulness has received increasing scholarly attention in recent years\u0026nbsp;[12-14]. Mindfulness refers to purposeful, nonjudgmental awareness of present-moment experience\u0026nbsp;[15]. A large body of research has shown that mindfulness is significantly negatively associated with negative affect, stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms\u0026nbsp;[16,14,17,18]. Within parenting contexts, previous studies have also documented a negative association between mindfulness and parental burnout\u0026nbsp;[19,20]. Mindfulness thus appears to play an important role in preventing and alleviating parental burnout, and this protective effect may also exist—and may even be especially important among parents of children with ADHD, a high-risk population. However, the question of how mindfulness influences parental burnout, that is, through what mechanisms and why, remains unclear. Insufficient understanding of these internal mechanisms limits the development of precise and effective interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHow, then, does mindfulness alleviate parental burnout among parents of children with ADHD? Conservation of Resources (COR) theory\u0026nbsp;[21]\u0026nbsp;provides an integrative framework for understanding this issue. COR theory posits that individuals are motivated to acquire, protect, and maintain resources. When resources are adequate, individuals are better able to cope with stress, whereas persistent resource loss may culminate in burnout. For parents of children with ADHD, who are exposed to sustained and intense parenting stress arising from their child’s core symptoms, the processes of resource accumulation and depletion are especially salient. From the perspective of COR theory, the effect of mindfulness on parental burnout may operate through two interrelated pathways: one involving the accumulation of positive psychological resources and the other involving the attenuation of stress-related depletion. These two pathways correspond to two key variables: psychological capital and parenting stress.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to COR theory, the accumulation of resources facilitates the acquisition of additional resources. As a foundational personal resource, mindfulness may help parents disengage from negative thinking and view parenting challenges more objectively, thereby fostering positive psychological states such as optimism, hope, and self-efficacy. The integrated manifestation of these positive states constitutes the core meaning of psychological capital\u0026nbsp;[22]. Empirical studies support this reasoning by showing that mindfulness promotes the accumulation of positive psychological resources\u0026nbsp;[23]and, in turn, enhances psychological capital\u0026nbsp;[24-27]. At the same time, psychological capital serves as an important internal resource that helps parents cope with parenting difficulties. A substantial body of research has consistently demonstrated a significant negative association between psychological capital and burnout\u0026nbsp;[28,29], and within family contexts, parents with higher levels of psychological capital report lower parental burnout\u0026nbsp;[30]. Accordingly, psychological capital may constitute an important mediating pathway linking mindfulness to parental burnout.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCOR theory also emphasizes that continuous environmental stress depletes psychological resources over time, and when cumulative resource loss reaches a critical level, burnout may occur. For parents of children with ADHD, parenting stress, which is the distress or discomfort caused by fulfilling the parenting role\u0026nbsp;[31], is a core source of stress. Mindfulness may reduce such stress because it fundamentally alters how individuals appraise and respond to stressful events. Individuals with higher levels of mindfulness tend to demonstrate greater coping flexibility when facing stressors\u0026nbsp;[32]\u0026nbsp;and are more likely to adopt adaptive coping strategies such as acceptance rather than maladaptive strategies such as rumination\u0026nbsp;[33,34,14]. Consistent with this view, empirical studies have generally found a significant negative association between mindfulness and parenting stress\u0026nbsp;[35,36]. Parenting stress, in turn, is a key antecedent of parental burnout and has been repeatedly shown to positively predict parental burnout\u0026nbsp;[37-39]. Importantly, because the core symptoms of ADHD expose parents to levels of parenting stress that exceed those experienced by many other groups, this mediating pathway may be especially explanatory in this population. Thus, parenting stress may represent another important mediating pathway through which mindfulness affects parental burnout.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese two pathways are not independent. Resources are not only tools for coping with stress but also crucial determinants of how individuals cognitively appraise stress. Individuals with abundant resources are more likely to interpret environmental demands as challenges rather than threats, thereby experiencing lower levels of perceived stress\u0026nbsp;[21]. This theoretical proposition suggests that psychological capital may not only directly alleviate parental burnout but may also exert an indirect effect by shaping parents’ cognitive appraisals of parenting stress. Parents with higher psychological capital may be more likely to perceive parenting challenges as controllable and manageable and thus experience lower subjective parenting stress. Empirical findings support this inference, showing that psychological capital is significantly negatively associated with parenting stress\u0026nbsp;[40,41]\u0026nbsp;and may function as a mechanism of “resource transmission” in the processes through which various antecedents influence parenting stress\u0026nbsp;[42-44].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the present study proposes that mindfulness promotes the accumulation of psychological capital, which in turn changes parents’ cognitive appraisals of parenting situations and reduces their subjective perception of parenting stress. Lower levels of parenting stress then reduce the risk of sustained resource depletion, thereby decreasing parental burnout.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study used online convenience sampling to recruit parents of children diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) from mainland China. All children had been formally diagnosed according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e] criteria by licensed medical institutions, and written proof of diagnosis was provided. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) the participant\u0026rsquo;s child had a confirmed diagnosis of ADHD; (2) the participant was the child\u0026rsquo;s primary caregiver (father or mother); and (3) the participant was able to read and complete Chinese-language questionnaires online. The exclusion criteria were as follows: (1) the child had a major chronic physical illness or another psychiatric disorder (e.g., schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, substance use disorder, anxiety, or depression); and (2) the parent had a psychiatric disorder, was receiving psychotropic medication, or was undergoing psychotherapy. Before participation, all respondents read an online informed consent form and voluntarily selected the \u0026ldquo;agree\u0026rdquo; option. The questionnaires were distributed and collected via the WeChat platform. A total of 420 valid questionnaires were obtained, yielding an effective response rate of 97.674%. Among the participating parents of children with ADHD, most were women (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;371, 88.333%), whereas 49 were men (11.667%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMindful Attention Awareness Scale\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMindfulness was assessed using the Chinese version of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) revised by Chen et al [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. This instrument measures individuals\u0026rsquo; mindfulness in daily life. It has a single-factor structure and consists of 15 items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I break or spill things because of carelessness, not paying attention, or thinking of something else\u0026rdquo;; \u0026ldquo;I find myself doing things without paying attention\u0026rdquo;). Responses are rated on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost always) to 6 (almost never). The mean score across all items was computed, with higher scores indicating higher levels of mindfulness. In the present study, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α for the scale was 0.881, indicating good reliability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePositive Psychological Capital Scale\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePsychological capital was assessed using the Positive Psychological Capital Scale (PPCS) revised by Zhang et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. The scale contains 26 items across four subscales: self-efficacy (7 items), optimism (6 items), resilience (7 items), and hope (6 items). Responses are rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Items 8, 10, 12, 14, and 25 are reverse scored. Higher scores indicate higher levels of psychological capital. In the present study, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α for the scale was 0.933, indicating good reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParenting Stress Scale\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParenting stress was measured using the short form of the Parenting Stress Index revised by Luo et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e] (PSI-SF-15), which assesses parents\u0026rsquo; perceived stress during everyday parenting. The scale contains 15 items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I feel trapped by my responsibilities as a parent\u0026rdquo;; \u0026ldquo;My child rarely does things for me that make me feel good\u0026rdquo;) and includes three dimensions: parental distress, parent-child dysfunctional interaction, and difficult child. Responses are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher scores indicate higher levels of parenting stress. In the present study, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α for the scale was 0.901, indicating good reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParental Burnout Assessment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParental burnout was assessed using the short form of the Parental Burnout Assessment (S-PBA) revised by Wang Wei et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. This instrument has a single-factor structure and consists of 7 items rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A sample item is, \u0026ldquo;When I get up in the morning and have to face another day with my children, I feel exhausted before I\u0026rsquo;ve even started.\u0026rdquo; The mean score across all items was used to reflect the level of parental burnout, with higher scores indicating more severe burnout. In the present study, Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α for the scale was 0.953, indicating good reliability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics and Pearson correlation analyses were first conducted using SPSS 26.0. Subsequently, structural equation modeling was performed in Mplus 8.3 to test the serial mediation model. To reduce the inflation of measurement error that may arise from an excessive number of observed indicators for latent variables, item parceling was applied [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. Specifically, unidimensional scales were parceled using the item-to-construct balance approach to create several observed indicators, whereas multidimensional scales were entered into the model using their subdimensions as observed indicators. The significance level was set at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. Mediation effects were estimated using the bootstrapping method with 5,000 resamples and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). An effect was considered significant if the confidence interval did not include 0. Model fit was evaluated comprehensively based on the chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (χ\u0026sup2;/df), comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]). Because χ\u0026sup2; is sensitive to sample size, multiple indices were considered jointly. A χ\u0026sup2;/df value below 5 indicates acceptable fit, with values between 1 and 3 considered ideal. CFI and TLI values above 0.95 indicate good fit, and values above 0.90 indicate acceptable fit. RMSEA values below 0.05 indicate good fit, whereas values between 0.05 and 0.08 indicate reasonable fit.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCommon Method Bias Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHarman\u0026rsquo;s single-factor test was used to assess common method bias and examine whether the self-report method might have introduced systematic error. The results showed that, without rotation, the first factor accounted for 25.747% of the total variance, which was below the critical threshold of 40% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, no serious common method bias was detected in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDescriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrelations Among the Study Variables (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;420)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp; \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Mindfulness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.018\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.787\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Psychological Capital\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.178\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.624\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.323\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Parenting Stress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.945\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.697\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.236\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.492\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Parental Burnout\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.057\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.333\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.194\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.474\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.589\u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePearson correlation analyses showed that all variables were significantly correlated (\u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Specifically, mindfulness was significantly positively correlated with psychological capital and significantly negatively correlated with both parenting stress and parental burnout. Psychological capital was also significantly negatively correlated with parenting stress and parental burnout. Parenting stress, in contrast, was significantly positively correlated with parental burnout.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTest of the serial mediation Model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSerial Mediation Effects of Psychological Capital and Parenting Stress on the Association Between Mindfulness and Parental Burnout (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;420)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePathway\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBootLLCI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBootULCI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.205\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.311\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.099\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect effect: MF \u0026rarr; PB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.085\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.112\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMF \u0026rarr; PC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.058\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.396\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMF \u0026rarr; PS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;0.124\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.236\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC \u0026rarr; PS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.554\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.056\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.655\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.438\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePC \u0026rarr; PB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.161\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.066\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.291\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS \u0026rarr; PB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.605\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.484\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.726\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal indirect effect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.218\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.316\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.126\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect effect 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.099\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.010\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect effect 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.075\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndirect effect 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.097\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.153\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;0.054\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eNote: MF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;mindfulness; PC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;psychological capital; PS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;parenting stress; PB\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;parental burnout. Indirect effect 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;MF \u0026rarr; PC \u0026rarr; PB; Indirect effect 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;MF \u0026rarr; PS \u0026rarr; PB; Indirect effect 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;MF \u0026rarr; PC \u0026rarr; PS \u0026rarr; PB.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA structural equation model was constructed in Mplus 8.3 to test the serial mediation model. The results indicated that the model fit the data reasonably well (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e): χ\u0026sup2;/df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.58, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.953, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.935, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.078, 90% CI [0.067, 0.090], SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.048. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, all factor loadings of the observed indicators on their corresponding latent variables were significant (\u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), suggesting adequate measurement quality. At the structural level, the total effect (c) of mindfulness on parental burnout was significant (\u003cem\u003eEffect\u003c/em\u003e = -0.205, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.054, \u003cem\u003e95% CI\u003c/em\u003e [-0.311, -0.099]), whereas the direct effect (c\u0026prime;) was not significant (\u003cem\u003eEffect\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.013, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.051, \u003cem\u003e95% CI\u003c/em\u003e [-0.085, 0.112]). The total indirect effect was significant (\u003cem\u003eEffect\u003c/em\u003e = -0.218, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.048, \u003cem\u003e95% CI\u003c/em\u003e [-0.316, -0.126]), and the confidence intervals for all indirect pathways excluded 0, indicating statistical significance. Psychological capital significantly mediated the association between mindfulness and parental burnout (\u003cem\u003eEffect\u003c/em\u003e = -0.046, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.022, \u003cem\u003e95% CI\u003c/em\u003e [-0.099, -0.010]). Parenting stress also significantly mediated this association (\u003cem\u003eEffect\u003c/em\u003e = -0.075, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.036, \u003cem\u003e95% CI\u003c/em\u003e [-0.150, -0.009]). In addition, psychological capital and parenting stress formed a significant serial mediation pathway between mindfulness and parental burnout (\u003cem\u003eEffect\u003c/em\u003e = -0.097, \u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.025, \u003cem\u003e95% CI\u003c/em\u003e [-0.153, -0.054]).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eNote\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eMAAS1-MAAS3 represent the three item parcels created from the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale using the item-to-construct balance approach. PBA1-PBA3 represent the three item parcels created from the parental burnout scale using the item-to-construct balance approach. PCDI denotes parent-child dysfunctional interaction. a1, a2, b1, b2, c, c\u0026prime;, and d are structural path coefficients, where c represents the total effect and c\u0026prime; represents the direct effect. Values shown in the figure are standardized coefficients. \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, \u003csup\u003e***\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eGrounded in Conservation of Resources theory, this study examined the association between mindfulness and parental burnout among parents of children with ADHD, as well as the serial mediating roles of psychological capital and parenting stress. The findings supported the proposed hypotheses. The major findings are discussed below.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe Relationship Between Mindfulness and Parental Burnout\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study found that mindfulness was significantly negatively associated with parental burnout among parents of children with ADHD, supporting Hypothesis 1. This finding is consistent with previous evidence from general parent populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] and extends the protective role of mindfulness to parents of children with ADHD, a high-risk group. Children with ADHD impose persistent and intense parenting demands on parents [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e], placing them under chronic risk of resource depletion. Mindfulness may enable parents to observe ongoing parenting situations in a nonreactive and nonjudgmental manner, thereby reducing rumination and catastrophic interpretations of negative events and interrupting the vicious cycle of stress, maladaptive reaction, and burnout [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe Mediating Role of Psychological Capital\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study found that psychological capital significantly mediated the association between mindfulness and parental burnout, supporting Hypothesis 2. This finding shed light on an internal mechanism through which mindfulness alleviates parental burnout by increasing available resources. Mindfulness may help parents disengage from negative rumination and adopt a more balanced perspective on parenting challenges, thereby promoting the development of psychological capital [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. In the present study, the significant positive association between mindfulness and psychological capital was consistent with prior findings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], supporting the resource-enhancing function of mindfulness. More importantly, as a composite of positive psychological resources, psychological capital provides parents with an important reservoir of internal resources for coping with parenting difficulties. The present study found that psychological capital was significantly negatively associated with parental burnout, which is in line with previous research [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. For parents of children with ADHD, whose children\u0026rsquo;s core symptoms often lead to rapid and repeated depletion of psychological resources, the accumulation of psychological capital may be particularly crucial. Parents with higher psychological capital may be more likely to view parenting challenges as manageable, thereby reducing feelings of helplessness and exhaustion. From the perspective of COR theory, mindfulness may indirectly reduce the risk of parental burnout by facilitating the accumulation of psychological capital.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe Mediating Role of Parenting Stress\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also found that parenting stress significantly mediated the association between mindfulness and parental burnout, supporting Hypothesis 3. This result reveals another mechanism through which mindfulness alleviates parental burnout, namely by reducing stress. The long-term parenting stress experienced by parents of children with ADHD continually consumes their psychological resources and increases their vulnerability to parental burnout, whereas mindfulness may reduce such stress and thereby mitigate this risk. In the present study, mindfulness was significantly negatively associated with parenting stress, consistent with previous research [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Individuals with higher levels of mindfulness tend to show greater coping flexibility in response to stressful events and are more likely to adopt adaptive strategies such as acceptance. Alternatively, mindfulness may change parents\u0026rsquo; cognitive appraisals of stressful events rather than the events themselves [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. At the same time, parenting stress is a key antecedent of parental burnout, and its positive association with parental burnout was confirmed both in the present study and in a substantial body of prior research [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. For parents of children with ADHD, the child\u0026rsquo;s core symptoms create a level of parenting stress substantially higher than that seen in many other parent groups, which makes this mediating pathway especially important in explaining parental burnout in this population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe serial mediating Roles of Psychological Capital and Parenting Stress\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe central finding of this study is that psychological capital and parenting stress together constitute a significant serial mediation pathway linking mindfulness to parental burnout, supporting Hypothesis 4. This finding suggests that mindfulness not only affects parental burnout independently through psychological capital and parenting stress, but also that these two pathways are linked in a progressive sequence: mindfulness first promotes psychological capital, and the accumulated psychological resources then help parents alleviate parenting stress, ultimately reducing the risk of parental burnout.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of effect size, the indirect effect of the chain pathway was larger than that of either the pathway through psychological capital alone or the pathway through parenting stress alone. This suggests that the protective effect of mindfulness on parental burnout operates primarily through a continuous process of \u0026ldquo;resource accumulation followed by stress reduction.\u0026rdquo; In other words, the beneficial role of mindfulness may depend largely on whether it can be successfully translated into parents\u0026rsquo; psychological capital and, in turn, alter their subjective experience of parenting stress. This finding provides new empirical support for COR theory. According to COR theory, individuals with abundant resources are more likely to appraise environmental demands as challenges rather than threats and therefore experience lower levels of stress [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. The chain pathway identified in the present study aligns well with this theoretical logic: mindfulness first promotes the accumulation of psychological capital through resource gain, which then reshapes parents\u0026rsquo; cognitive appraisals of parenting situations, making them more likely to regard parenting challenges as manageable and thereby reducing their subjective perception of parenting stress. Lower parenting stress subsequently reduces the risk of ongoing resource depletion, which in turn lowers the likelihood of parental burnout. This complete pathway helps explain why and how mindfulness ultimately influences parental burnout by altering both parents\u0026rsquo; resource status and their stress-related appraisals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotably, after the two mediators were included, the direct effect of mindfulness on parental burnout became nonsignificant, suggesting that psychological capital and parenting stress fully mediate this association. This finding further strengthens the theoretical model proposed in this study: the effect of mindfulness on parental burnout is not a direct protective effect per se, but rather one that operates through the activation of parents\u0026rsquo; internal psychological resources and the improvement of their cognitive appraisals of parenting stress. For parents of children with ADHD, this mechanism has particular practical significance. Because they are chronically exposed to high-intensity parenting stress, simple \u0026ldquo;present-moment awareness\u0026rdquo; may not be sufficient to guard against burnout. Instead, such awareness may need to be transformed into tangible psychological capital and ultimately translated into changes in stress experience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTheoretical Contributions and Practical Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study extends research on mindfulness and parental burnout to parents of children with ADHD, a high-risk population, and confirms the applicability of the protective role of mindfulness in this group, thereby broadening the scope of mindfulness research. In addition, by simultaneously examining the two pathways of psychological capital and parenting stress within the framework of COR theory, this study provides a new theoretical perspective for understanding the internal linkage between \u0026ldquo;resource gain\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;stress buffering\u0026rdquo; and offers new empirical evidence for the application of COR theory in family contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings also suggest that mindfulness-based interventions may have clinical value for this population. Intervention programs may draw on the principles of mindful parenting to help parents cultivate nonjudgmental awareness of ongoing parenting situations and reduce automatic negative reactions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. The mediating role of psychological capital further suggests that interventions should not be limited to mindfulness training alone, but should also incorporate strategies aimed at enhancing parents\u0026rsquo; psychological capital, such as strengthening self-efficacy, cultivating optimism, fostering hope, and building resilience. The mediating role of parenting stress, together with the chain pathway identified in this study, indicates that reducing subjective parenting stress is a key target in the prevention of parental burnout. Intervention programs may therefore incorporate stress management techniques such as time management, relaxation training, and problem-solving strategies. Overall, future interventions could adopt an integrated model combining mindfulness training, psychological capital enhancement, and stress management. These components could be systematically embedded into traditional parent training frameworks to achieve stronger and more durable intervention effects. Moreover, the application of such interventions need not be limited to clinical settings; they may also be extended to schools and communities through parent workshops, mindfulness group programs, and psychological capital training camps, thereby providing parents of children with ADHD with support that is practical and sustainable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations and Future Directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations of this study should be acknowledged. First, the study used a cross-sectional design and therefore cannot establish causal relationships among mindfulness, psychological capital, parenting stress, and parental burnout. These variables may be linked in more complex and potentially bidirectional ways. Future research should use longitudinal designs or multi-wave follow-up studies to verify the causal direction and dynamic changes among these variables.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, the sample was limited to parents of children with ADHD in mainland China. Future studies could conduct cross-cultural comparisons across different sociocultural contexts to examine the generalizability of the proposed model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, this study focused only on psychological capital and parenting stress, whereas the mechanisms through which mindfulness alleviates parental burnout may be more complex. Future research could explore additional factors in order to build a more comprehensive theoretical model.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003ePsychological capital and parenting stress fully mediated the association between mindfulness and parental burnout. This full mediation included the independent mediating effect of psychological capital, the independent mediating effect of parenting stress, and the serial mediating effect of the two variables. In other words, mindfulness reduced parental burnout by increasing psychological capital, which in turn lowered parenting stress. These findings reveal a continuous mechanism through which mindfulness alleviates parental burnout via \u0026ldquo;resource gain \u0026rarr; stress buffering,\u0026rdquo; provide empirical support for Conservation of Resources theory, and identify actionable targets for psychological interventions for parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study involving human participants was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Psychology, Northwest Normal University . Electronic informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to participation. All procedures performed in this study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by the Brain Science and Brain-like Intelligence Technology\u0026nbsp;–\u0026nbsp;National Science and Technology Major Project (2021ZD0203804) to Dandan Tong, the General Project of the 2025 Annual Plan of the 14th Five-Year Educational Science Program of Gansu Province (GS[2025]GHB1512), the Soft Science Special Project of Gansu Basic Research Plan (26JRZA067), and the Gansu Provincial University Innovation Fund Project (2026A-011) to Saisai Hu, and the Graduate Student Research Fund of Northwest Normal University, 2025 (KYZZ2025-LXS035) to Ruirui Li.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e’\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSaisai Hu and Ruirui Li contributed equally to this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSaisai Hu contributed to the conception and design of the study, technical revision of the manuscript, and funding acquisition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRuirui Li contributed to data analysis and interpretation, manuscript drafting, and funding acquisition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTingting Yang contributed to the provision of study materials and statistical consultation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eQiangyan Hou contributed to data collection and technical or administrative support.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDandan Tong contributed to the conception and design of the study and funding acquisition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHaiqing Wang contributed to data analysis and interpretation, manuscript drafting, and final approval of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank all parents who participated in this study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMikolajczak M, Gross JJ, Roskam I. 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Mindful parenting in mental health care: effects on parental and child psychopathology, parental stress, parenting, coparenting, and marital functioning. Mindfulness. 2014;5(5):536\u0026ndash;51. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s12671-013-0209-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12671-013-0209-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Mindfulness, Psychological Capital, Parenting Stress, Parental Burnout","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9264815/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9264815/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Parents of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often face persistent and intensive caregiving demands, which may increase their vulnerability to parental burnout. Based on Conservation of Resources theory, this study examined the association between mindfulness and parental burnout among parents of children with ADHD and investigated the serial mediating roles of psychological capital and parenting stress.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing a cross-sectional design, this study tested a hypothesized serial mediation model with structural equation modeling (SEM). Mindfulness was specified as the independent variable, parental burnout as the outcome variable, and psychological capital and parenting stress as sequential mediators.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results showed that mindfulness was indirectly associated with parental burnout through three significant pathways: the independent mediating effect of psychological capital, the independent mediating effect of parenting stress, and the serial mediating effect of psychological capital and parenting stress. After the inclusion of the mediators, the direct association between mindfulness and parental burnout was no longer significant, indicating full mediation. Overall, mindfulness was associated with lower parental burnout primarily through higher psychological capital and lower parenting stress.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychological capital and parenting stress play important mediating roles in the association between mindfulness and parental burnout among parents of children with ADHD. These findings highlight a dual pathway of resource gain and stress buffering and provide empirical support for interventions targeting parental burnout through mindfulness-based approaches combined with psychological capital enhancement and parenting stress reduction.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Resource Gain or Stress Buffer? The Chain Mediation Path of Mindfulness in Relieving Parenting Burnout of Parents of Children with ADHD","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-12 07:36:08","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9264815/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-06T05:07:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-01T12:39:37+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-03-31T22:22:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-31T22:21:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Psychology","date":"2026-03-30T09:13:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"02643c92-89b8-4911-82a9-ed417fbaa18f","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 12th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-12T07:36:08+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-12 07:36:08","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9264815","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9264815","identity":"rs-9264815","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}