The need for adaptive management of high-yielding dairy cows in low-input mountain systems

The need for adaptive management of high-yielding dairy cows in low-input mountain systems | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The need for adaptive management of high-yielding dairy cows in low-input mountain systems Dominique Pomiès, Anne Farruggia, Florence Fournier, Isabelle Veissier This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5790286/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The majority of dairy farms in mountainous European regions rely heavily on concentrates to supplement herbage-based diets for high-yielding cows. This puts their economic sustainability at risk. We need to design management systems that enable milk production from herbage with few inputs. To examine whether low input systems could be technically efficient with high-yielding breeds, we tested two experimental farming systems - a Very-Low-Input system (VLI) and a Low-Input System (LI) - with Holstein and Montbéliarde cows for five years (24 cows/system.year), with a short mating season in spring to align the milk and the grass production curves. VLI used almost no concentrates and no mineral fertilisers. LI used less concentrates and mineral fertilisers than conventional systems while safeguarding milk production and nitrogen balance of the land. Reproductive management needed to be adjusted to ensure herd renewal while keeping lactation and grass growth curves synchronised: Sexed semen was used on heifers, natural mating was applied at the end of the mating season, and the lactation of some cows was extended by 8–10 months while these cows were mated the next year. The cows with extended lactations produced around 80% as much milk as cows with standard lactations during the same time (two years). Over the five years, the VLI system produced 486,000 kg of milk and consumed 3.12 t of concentrates (used only for female calves) while the LI system produced 550,000 kg of milk and consumed 130.6 t of concentrates, resulting in 156.8 vs. 4.2 kg of milk/kg of concentrates in VLI and LI, respectively. The VLI system used twice as much grassland as the LI system (59.9 vs. 29.6 ha) and is thus less than half as efficient in land use (1630 vs. 3720 kg of milk/ha.year). We conclude that the VLI system is well-adapted to a context of a drastic reduction of inputs because it is almost self-sufficient, while LI is a good option if land availability is low. However, if high-yielding cows are to be maintained in both systems, it is necessary to adopt a flexible approach to cow reproduction, such as extending lactations. In addition, the body condition of these cows is put at risk in such systems, which can raise welfare concerns. Dairy cow Breed Fertility Extended lactation Grassland Pasture-based system Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction The majority of dairy farms in mountainous European regions currently rely heavily on concentrates to supplement grass-based diets [ 1 , 2 ]. In contrast, dairy farms in lowland areas produce milk at a lower cost due to the high agronomic potential of their land and easy access to cheaper inputs, such as concentrates and mineral nitrogen [ 3 ]. In the past, mountain dairy farms were economically viable under the European milk quotas system. However, now that milk quotas have been lifted, they can no longer compete with lowland farms unless they produce under a quality label (e.g. protected designation of origin for cheese) or for local industry [ 4 ]. To achieve economic sustainability, mountain farms need to adopt practices that minimise the use of inputs [ 5 ]. At present, in most mountain dairy farms, cows calve in autumn, which means that milk is mainly produced when cows are kept indoors and fed on stored grass such as hay, silage, or haylage. However, stored grass is usually not as nutritious as grazed grass [ 6 ]. In addition, feeding stored grass is costly, requiring supplements for the cows and involving labour and mechanisation for cutting and distribution. Prioritising grazed grass over stored grass for milk production would improve the economic viability of mountain dairy farms while ensuring high environmental and animal welfare performances [ 7 ]. To prioritize grazed grass, the calving season needs be shifted towards the end of winter to align lactation curves with the peak of grass growth. However, relying solely on grazed grass during early lactation may lead to energy deficits if the cows are not supplemented with concentrates [ 8 ] and to poor reproductive performance, particularly for cows from high-yielding breeds [ 9 ]. Most mountain dairy farms use high-yielding breeds, e.g. 46.2% Holstein ( Ho ) and 38% Montbéliarde ( Mo ) in the French Massif Central [ 10 ]. Switching a farm to a more rustic cow breed is a complex process that requires long-term planning [ 11 ], and the process may be harder if the farmers are attached to their herd and breed. Changing the breed in a cattle herd by absorption through crossbreeding typically takes about 10 years. By contrast, changes in herbage or herd management can be implemented relatively quickly and are more easily reversible. Management practices that enable pasture-based milk production with few inputs should be designed to help mountain farmers transition to low-input systems without changing the breeds they currently use. Mo cows may be more suited to low-input systems than Ho cows due to their slightly lower milk production and higher reproductive performances [ 12 ]. Therefore, transitioning to a low-input system based on grazed grass in mountain areas may pose challenges with the high-yielding dairy breeds currently in use. To examine whether systems based on grazing herbage with Mo or Ho breeds could be technically efficient, we implemented and tested two experimental farming systems: a Very-Low-Input system (VLI) and a Low-Input system (LI). The objective of VLI was to use no concentrates and mineral fertilizers. LI was intermediate between VLI and conventional systems; its objective was to use significantly less concentrates and mineral fertilizers than conventional systems while safeguarding milk production and nitrogen balance of the land. In both systems, the mating season was shifted to spring to align the milk production curve with the herbage production curve. The cows used in the study belonged to either a highly specialised dairy breed (Ho) or a moderately specialised dairy breed (Mo). This paper describes the two systems and the adjustments made to maintain milk production, provides the technical performances of the two systems, and goes on to compare the suitability of Ho and Mo cows to such systems. The aim is not to compare the two systems, which differ in several respects, but to assess their consistency and persistence over time. Material and methods We applied a ‘system experiment’ approach, whereby we tested whether the management strategies chosen for each system allow these systems to achieve the objectives they were designed for [ 13 ]. We therefore focused on the evaluation of sets of decision rules in a given context, rather than on variations in a few factors as is done in more conventional experiments [ 14 ]. Based on the learning process described by Meynard et al. (2023), we initially designed two dairy farming systems (Table 1 ). After one year of implementation, we check the technical results to identify necessary adjustments. Following these adjustments, we re-assessed the adapted systems over a four-year period. The methods section describes the two systems as originally conceived. Table 1 Management practices implemented in the very-low-input (VLI) and low-input (LI) systems VLI system LI system Herd 12 Holstein and 12 Montbéliarde cows Calving season Short spring calving season (70 days) Age at 1st calving 3-year-old calving 2-year-old calving (2 generations of heifers) (1 generation of heifers) Concentrate None for cows and heifers Adjusted to reach 200 kg BW 1 at 6 months for female calves 4 kg/day for cows (during ∼200 days) Adjusted to reach 200 kg BW 1 at 6 months and 410 kg BW 1 at 12 months for female calves Area 60 ha of diversified permanent grassland 30 ha of former temporary grassland Stocking rate Low stocking rate (0.66 LU 2 /ha) Moderate stocking rate (1.09 LU 2 /ha) Grazing system Long rotational grazing Quick rotational grazing Cutting No silage and no haylage Late mowing, natural drying Possibility of using a hay dryer 1 BW = Body Weigh; 2 LU = Livestock Unit The VLI system was an extensive dairy farming system with a low stocking rate, using diversified permanent grassland, and aiming for self-sufficiency in feed and land fertiliser. The LI system was a semi-extensive dairy farming system with a moderate stocking rate, using old temporary grasslands, and aiming for milk production with minimal use of inputs such as concentrates and mineral fertilisers. Both systems were simultaneously implemented on two separate farmlets (one for each system) for a period of five years. The botanical composition of all plots was characterised at the time of establishment by assessing the abundance of all plants in 1 m 2 quadrats: 10 quadrats for 6 ha, with a minimum of 4 quadrats for plots smaller than 6 ha. As there was no separation of excrement by system, farmyard manure and slurry were allocated to each system based on the number of livestock units (LU) per system. The experiment took place at the INRAE’s ‘Herbipôle’ experimental farm ( https://doi.org/10.15454/1.5572318050509348E12 ) located in the French Massif Central (Marcenat, 45°18'21’N, 2°50'13’E, 1100 m a.s.l.). Each farmlet was allocated a portion of Herbipôle’s land and a group of Ho and Mo cows and heifers. For both systems, we established grassland and herd management practices geared to producing most of the milk when the cows were at pasture. The protocol was approved by the regional committee on animal research and ethics (CEMEA Auvergne, approval No. CE 21 − 13). Design of the farming systems Common aspects of the VLI and LI systems Each system started with a herd that consisted of 24 adult cows (12 Ho and 12 Mo) and 9 1-year-old heifers (5 Ho and 4 Mo); in addition, the VLI herd contained 9 2-year-old heifers (4 Ho and 5 Mo) (Table 2 ). Such a herd composition allows a renewal of one third of the herd each year, as commonly applied in dairy herds. Both systems used grassland solely for grazing or hay production, with no silage or bale wrapping. Cows were housed in a tie-stall barn in the first three winters. They were untied twice a day to go to the milking parlour at 6:30 AM and 4:00 PM. During the fourth and fifth winters, the cows were housed in a new free-stall barn, with the same milking times. The heifers were housed in two straw-bedded loose-housing barns, one for 2-year-old heifers and one for 1-year-old heifers. Even though groups of animals from each system were together, they were managed independently. Cows and heifers were turned out to pasture when the sum of temperatures since 1 February was 300-degree days (around 20–25 April). Grazing was managed according to a rotational system. When at pasture, cows and heifers were outside day and night, except for milking. In autumn, they were brought back indoors when grass became scarce (around mid-November). Table 2 Herd characteristics in the very-low-input (VLI) and low-input (LI) systems at the beginning of the experiment (Year 1); average values (± standard deviation) stratified by breed VLI system LI system Breed Holstein Montbéliarde Holstein Montbéliarde Number of cows 12 12 12 12 Primiparous (%) 16.7 25.0 25.0 25.0 Lactation number 2.9 ± 1.7 2.9 ± 1.8 2.7 ± 1.4 3.0 ± 1.8 Weight of multiparous after calving (kg) 655 ± 42 660 ± 52 675 ± 70 657 ± 39 Weight of primiparous after calving (kg) 670 ± 0 647 ± 37 565 ± 32 557 ± 36 Number of 2-year-old heifers 4 5 - - Number of 1-year-old heifers 5 4 5 4 We aimed for a short calving period (70 days) with 80% of calving before the cows were turned out to pasture (end of April), so that the lactation curves coincided with peak grass growth (Fig. 1 ). To reach the calving target, the mating period had to begin on 30 May. The mating period started with 42 days of artificial insemination ( AI ) with purebred semen (Ho or Mo) followed by 28 days of natural mating in order to get a maximal conception rate [ 15 ]. At the beginning of the experiment, a Limousine bull was used for natural mating to produce calves that can gain better value by the beef sector than pure dairy calves. During the mating period, the heifers to be bred joined the cows at pasture for mating. All the purebred female calves were kept as replacement heifers to renew the herd. Each winter, we decided to cull a number of cows equal to the number of future primiparous cows, in order to maintain 24 lactating cows at pasture with the same proportion of Ho and Mo. The criteria to select cull cows were mainly non-pregnancy, high somatic cell count, chronic mastitis, and lameness. Specificities of the VLI system The VLI system was allocated 59.9 ha of diversified permanent grassland, divided into 12 plots of 5.0 ± 3.0 ha (1.6 to 11.6 ha), resulting in a stocking rate of 0.66 LU/ha (Table 1 ). On average, 17.9 plant species per m² were recorded across the plots. The plots were dominated by late- and low-productive grass species (Additional Table 1 ), according to the functional classification of Cruz et al. [ 16 ]. Four plots (32% of the total area) were never mown due to the presence of steep slopes, rocks, or wet areas. One plot (5.9 ha) was only used for grazing heifers due to its distance from the milking parlour. One plot was only mown. The remaining plots were either grazed or first mown then grazed. The plots received no mineral fertiliser, and organic fertiliser was reserved for the mown plots. The mown plots received manure (in winter) or liquid manure (in spring before the first cut or in summer before the second cut) alternated every other year, for a total of 20.9 kg N/ha per year (manure and liquid manure). The manure and liquid manure came from both the heifer and cow barns. The early and most productive plots were mown first from the grass heading stage as soon as the weather conditions allowed natural drying (fixed as five consecutive sunny days) to obtain good-quality hay for the animals with the highest needs, i.e. cows from one month before calving until turn out to pasture, and to be able to harvest two cuts. Twice a week during the grazing season, the caretakers visually assessed the amount of grass on the whole grassland dedicated to VLI. The change of plot was brought forward if there was too much grass available on all plots that could have resulted in a decrease in grass quality if not eaten quickly enough. Over the five years, the rotational grazing scheme consisted of four to six grazing cycles depending on the year, with 40 ± 13 days per cycle for the first three cycles. In the first grazing cycle, the grazing area per cow was 0.96 ha. From the second grazing cycle, the area allocated to the cows was gradually extended to include the plots harvested for hay. Heifers were grazed continuously on their more distant dedicated plot until mid-November, except for the 2-year-olds when they joined the cows during the mating period. During the winter, cows and heifers were fed first-cut (ad libitum) and second-cut hay (in quantities appropriate to their physiological needs) harvested from plots allocated to the VLI farmlet. They received no concentrate. Female VLI calves received a maximum of 1 kg/d of a commercial concentrate (Croustivo/Startivo, Centraliments, Aurillac, France) to reach the recommended live weight of 200 kg at 6 months of age [ 17 ]. Over the 5 years of the experiment, a total of 3120 kg of concentrate was used for female VLI calves, each receiving 88 ± 32 kg. One month before calving, cows and heifers received 200 g/d of a mix of minerals, vitamins and oligo-elements (Galaphos® Axion® Tarie, CCPA, 35150 Janzé, France; 6.5% P, 6.5% Ca, 10% Mg, 4% Na, 6000 UI Vit E). From calving until dry-off, the cows received 200 g/d of a mix rich in calcium (Galaphos® MiDi Repro, CCPA, 35150 Janzé, France; 4.5% P, 23% Ca, 5% Mg, 1% Na, 1600 UI Vit E). At pasture, salt blocks (NaCl) were available to all animals. In addition, cows and heifers received 100 g/d MgCl for 4 weeks prior to grazing to prevent grass tetany. And 2 days before going out to pasture, cows that had not yet calved were given a bolus of Mg to prevent milk fever. Age at first calving was set at 3 years due to the lack of concentrates, which limits calf growth, and to the large area of available land, which allowed to graze many animals at the same time. There was a 3-month dry period between the end of lactation and calving to allow the cows regain body condition. Specificities of the LI system The LI system was allocated 29.6 ha of permanent and established (> 10 years) temporary grassland, divided into seven plots of 4.2 ± 2.3 ha each (2.7 to 7.6 ha), resulting in a stocking rate of 1.09 LU/ha (Table 1 ). On average, 13.8 plant species per m² were recorded across the plots. The plots were dominated by early and productive grass species (Additional Table 1 ) according to the classification of Cruz et al. [ 16 ]. A mobile fence system allowed to split plots into two parts for pasture management. One and a half plots (19% of the total area) were never mown due to the presence of steep slopes and rocks. To ensure nitrogen balance, the plots received mineral fertilizers in addition to liquid manure and manure [ 18 ]. Over the five years, the plots received a total of 40.1 kg organic N/ha/year and 37.1 kg mineral N/ha/year. Mineral fertilisation was applied in mid-April or after the first cut for the mown plots or between two grazing cycles, resulting in a total of 15.4 t of mineral fertiliser (5487 kg N) over the five years. The mowing dates were set each year to find a compromise between quality and quantity of hay. However, we took the opportunity to use a hay dryer to obtain high-quality hay to be fed to cows from one month before calving until they were turned out to pasture. Grazing plots were rotated on the basis of daily milk yield decrease: cows were moved to a fresh plot when milk production fell below the threshold of 88% of the maximum milk production on the current plot (average of the three highest consecutive daily values) [ 19 ]. Over the five years, the rotational grazing system consisted of five to six cycles of pasture depending on the year, with 33 ± 7.0 days per cycle for the first three cycles. In the first grazing cycle, grazing area per cow was 0.40 ha. From the second cycle, the area allocated to the cows was gradually extended to include plots harvested for hay. During the winter, cows and heifers were fed first-cut (ad libitum) and second-cut hay (in quantities appropriate to their physiological needs), harvested from plots allocated to the LI farmlet. To safeguard milk production, adult cows received 4 kg/d of commercial concentrate (a mixture of 88% cereals and 12% oilseed meal; Centraliment, Aurillac, France) from calving to the end of the pasture season, which is lower than the 8–12 kg/d provided in conventional systems from the same area. Female calves and heifers were individually fed commercial concentrates totalling 331 ± 189 kg Croustivo/Startivo (Centraliment, Aurillac, France) per calf and 609 ± 338 kg GéniElevage (Centraliment, Aurillac, France) per heifer to ensure that they reached 200 kg live weight at 6 months and 410 kg live weight at mating [ 17 ]. Over the five years, a total of 97.3 t of concentrates was used for 118 adult cows and 33.3 t for 67 female calves and heifers. The mineral supplementation plan was the same as for the VLI system. Age at first calving was set at 2 years, to cope with the lower land and forage availability of the LI system compared to the VLI system. There was a 2-month dry period between the end of lactation and next calving, instead of 3 months in the VLI system, because we expected the cows to be in better body condition. Data collection Grassland performances The performance of harvested plots was evaluated on the basis of the proportion of the area mown during the first and second grass growth cycles and the yield and nutritive value of the hay. We recorded the weight of all the harvested bales. For each plot, five samples were taken from the grass collected in a swath before baling across the entire plot. Each sample consisted of about 10 handfuls of grass. The samples were weighed then dried at 60°C for 72 h to determine the dry matter weight ( DM ). The five grass samples were then combined and ground through a 0.8 mm mesh screen for chemical analysis. The performance of pastures was evaluated on the basis of the number of the LU grazing days per ha and the nutritive value of the grazed herbage. The number of LU grazing days per ha is used to evaluate grazing intensity and was calculated as (LU × number of days on pasture) per year and pasture area for each plot and each year [ 20 ]. The nutritive value of grazed grass was estimated for each time animals were entered into the plots. The grass was collected at a cutting height of 4–5 cm in 70 × 70 cm quadrats, with one quadrat per hectare with a minimum of 3 quadrats per plot. The quadrats were placed in pre-defined representative areas of grass-community facies for each plot (weighted by their area). The grass collected from each quadrat was dried at 60°C for 72 h, and a representative sample of all quadrats per plot was then prepared for analysis. The samples of grazed and mown grass were analysed for crude ash ( CA ) and nitrogen ( N ) according to AOAC [ 21 ] method and for neutral detergent fibre ( NDF ), acid detergent fibre ( ADF ) and acid detergent lignin ( ADL ) according to Van Soest et al. [ 22 ]. NDF and ADF analyses were performed on an Ankom system (Ankom® Tech. Co., Fairport, NY). These analyses were used to calculate the crude protein ( CP ) and the net energy for lactation ( NEL ) of grazed or harvested grass using the equations of Baumont et al. [ 6 ]. Milk yield and composition We recorded individual milk yield at parlour twice a day using milk flow meters (MM27BC, DeLaval, Tumba, Sweden). Milk composition was measured on individual milk samples from four consecutive milkings per week at Agrolabs (Aurillac, France). Fat and protein contents were determined by mid-infrared spectroscopy. Somatic cell count ( SCC ) was determined by epi-fluorescence. We calculated the individual milk yield and milk composition per week, per year (from 1 April 1 to 31 March), at the peak of lactation, and for the whole lactation. Energy-corrected milk ( ECM ) was calculated using the following formula: ECM (kg) = 0.3246 milk yield + 12.86 fat yield + 7.04 protein yield [ 23 ]. Cow weight and body condition Cows were weighed every two weeks from two months before calving until the end of lactation. Cow body condition was scored once a month during the same period and again just after calving by two trained evaluators. Body condition was expressed on a scale from 0 (very lean) to 5 (very fat) [ 24 ]. By interpolating the results, we calculated body weight ( BW ) and body condition score ( BCS ) at calving, on the first day of the mating period (or 28 days after calving if a cow calved after the start of the mating period), and at the nadir (lowest point of the curve) after calving. Reproductive performances and health Caretakers checked cows and heifers for oestrus three times a day during the mating period. Each cow was screened for pregnancy by a specialised technician at 43.6 ± 2.6 d after the end of the mating period, using a portable ultrasound scanner. The technician determined whether or not the cow was pregnant, and if pregnant, the age of the embryo. Based on the dates of insemination (AI or natural mating) and the outcome of the pregnancy check, we calculated the interval between the start of the mating period and the first insemination of a cow, percentage of cows inseminated (AI or mating), percentage of cows pregnant at first insemination, percentage of cows inseminated naturally out of all cows inseminated, and percentage of pregnant cows out of all cows (inseminated or not). We also calculated the percentage of cows that actually calved at the next calving season. Caretakers checked the cows for health twice a day at the time of milking. Health disorders were classified as lameness, mastitis, urogenital problems, or other disorders. Statistical analysis As the aim of the study was to test the two systems, not to compare them, data from each system was analysed independently. Data analysis used the mixed procedure of SAS software (SAS Institute Inc., 2013, Cary, NC). The statistical unit was the cow*lactation, referred to as ‘cow’ in the text. The model included the effects of cow (random factor), breed (Ho vs. Mo), calving year (Year 1 to 5), and cow parity (primiparous vs. multiparous). The breed × parity interaction initially included in the model was removed due to systematic lack of statistical significance. For each system, cow health problems and reproductive events were compared separately by breed and by parity, using chi-squared tests. The results section only reports differences that were significant (P < 0.05) or tended towards significance (0.05 < P ≤ 0.15). Over the 5 years, the zootechnical performance results of 8 VLI and 9 LI cows (out of 240 cow-years) were excluded from the statistical analyses due to serious health disorders or accidents leading to either dry-off before the end of the 5th month of lactation (78 ± 41 d) or to death. Results Management adjustments made following the first results Over the first year of implementing the two systems, reproductive performances were poor, with only 44% of adult cows with a confirmed positive pregnancy diagnosis, regardless of system and breed. To overcome these poor reproductive performances and maintain 24 cows (12 Ho and 12 Mo) milked in each system during the summer, we decided to extend the lactation of non-pregnant cows by eight to ten months and to put them back into service the following spring. Indeed, cow lactation can be extended by several months without putting future production at risk [ 25 , 26 ]. This adjustment led to two types of lactation, i.e. standard lactation ( STD) and extended lactation ( EXT) , where EXT performance was broken down into first year of extended lactation (EXT 1st year) and second year of extended lactation (EXT 2nd year). Depending on the year, 7 to 23 cows had an extended lactation. Consequently, the type of lactation (STD vs. EXT or STD, EXT 1st year, EXT 2nd year) was introduced as a fixed effect in the statistical analyses for zootechnical performance data. Over the second year, 4 Ho and 2 Mo female calves were born in VLI and 3 Ho and 2 Mo female calves were born in LI. This was still not sufficient to ensure the herd renewal with female calves from each system. We thus decided to implement two adjustment practices from the third year. First, we used pure Ho or Mo sexed semen for AI on heifers (which have better fertility than older cows). Over the last three years, the use of sexed semen on heifers resulted in 70% of the calves born from these heifers were female (compared with 44% for adult cows). Second, we replaced the two Limousine bulls with one Ho bull and one Mo bull, alternating them weekly between the VLI and LI systems. This resulted in 3.3 more dairy calves born each year (Ho, Mo or Ho×Mo crossbred), with an average percentage of purebred (Ho or Mo) female calves rising from 30–43%. Performances of the VLI system over the five years Production of pasture Over the five-year course of the experiment, 53% of the VLI area (31.5 ± 1.0 ha) was mown in first cut between 2 June and 24 July (average 27 June) and 20% of the VLI area (12.1 ± 3.1 ha) was mown in the second cut. The first cut yielded 3.2 ± 1.9 t DM hay/ha, with 86 ± 16.3 g CP and 1171 ± 111 kcal NEL per kg DM of hay. The 2nd cut yielded 1.5 ± 0.8 t DM hay/ha, with 120 ± 13.7 g CP and 1327 ± 107 kcal NEL per kg DM of hay. Over the five-year course of the experiment, the system achieved 199 ± 70.8 LU grazing days per ha of pasture and 70 ± 49.4 LU grazing days per ha of harvested plot. The grazed grass of all the pastures contained on average 144 ± 26.3 g CP and 1460 ± 143 kcal NEL per kg DM. Milk yield and composition The VLI system involved a total of 60 cows and produced a total of 486,000 kg of milk over the five years (97,200 ± 12,000 kg/y). Each day, 18.0 ± 5.6 cows were milked and produced 14.8 ± 5.8 kg of milk. Twenty-six EXT lactations were recorded, and these EXT lactations lasted nearly twice as long as STD lactations. Duration of lactations varied between years due to the varying number of EXT lactations, with no difference between breeds or parity (Table 3 ). Most of the milk (362,000 kg, i.e. 74.5%) was collected when the cows were at pasture. Table 3 Milk production, milk composition, body weight (BW) and body condition score (BCS) of cows in the very-low-input (VLI) system over 5 years (averages by type of lactation, breed and parity, and model effects) Type of lactation 1 Breed Parity P -value Item STD (59%)* EXT (41%)* Ho (50%)* Mo (50%)* PP (37%)* MP (63%)* SEM Type Breed Parity Year 1st year 2nd year Duration of lactation (d) 290 558 424 425 427 422 14.3 < 0.001 0.89 0.68 0.019 Milk yield at lactation peak (kg/d) 25.8 26.0 27.7 24.1 23.9 27.9 0.45 0.76 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.61 Milk production per lactation (kg) 4 552 7 454 6 238 5 768 5 870 6 135 177 < 0.001 0.021 0.19 0.004 Annual 2 duration of milk production (d) 295 a 331 b 216 c 278 284 277 284 5.63 < 0.001 0.49 0.44 0.23 Annual 2 milk production (kg) 4 644 a 5 047 a 2 332 b 4 191 3 824 3 799 4 216 124 < 0.001 0.046 0.016 0.021 Annual 2 energy-corrected milk 3 (kg) 4 968 a 5 371 a 2 716 b 4 495 4 209 4 111 4 592 127 < 0.001 0.16 0.013 0.002 Annual 2 milk fat content (g/kg) 40.8 a 40.4 a 45.2 b 41.6 42.7 41.7 42.6 0.44 < 0.001 0.23 0.12 < 0.001 Annual 2 milk protein content (g/kg) 31.2 a 31.5 a 37.9 b 32.8 34.3 33.5 33.5 0.35 < 0.001 0.004 0.89 0.82 Annual 2 somatic cell count (log 10 /mL) 5.22 5.27 5.39 5.37 5.21 5.20 5.38 0.042 0.28 0.071 0.051 0.18 BW at mating 4 (kg) 594 587 600 584 603 581 606 4.28 0.28 0.072 0.001 0.034 BCS at mating 4 [0–5] 1.51 1.44 1.58 1.34 1.68 1.57 1.45 0.030 0.13 < 0.001 0.026 0.051 BW at calving (kg) 746 721 736 732 723 744 5.62 0.042 0.75 0.050 0.94 BW at nadir after calving (kg) 574 565 559 580 557 582 4.76 0.34 0.053 0.008 0.26 BCS at calving [0–5] 2.75 2.70 2.69 2.76 3.03 2.42 0.062 0.69 0.55 < 0.001 < 0.001 BCS at nadir after calving [0–5] 1.26 1.21 1.11 1.37 1.25 1.22 0.023 0.32 < 0.001 0.43 0.72 * Percentage of cows in each category 1 STD (standard) or EXT (extended) for the whole lactation; STD, EXT 1st year or EXT 2nd year for annual data 2 From 1 April to 31 March 3 Energy-corrected milk = 0.3246 × milk yield + 12.86 × fat yield + 7.04 × protein yield 4 The first day of the mating period or 28 days after calving if calving occurred after the start of the mating period a−c Means within a row with different superscript letters differ at P < 0.05 In the STD and EXT 1st year cows, the peak of lactation took place after turning out to pasture (Fig. 2 ). A second peak, less high than the first one, was observed in EXT 2nd year cows after the second turn out to pasture. Milk yield at peak of lactation was the same for STD and EXT 1st year lactations (Table 3 ) and was higher for Ho than Mo cows (+ 3.6 kg/d) and higher for MP than PP cows (+ 4.0 kg/d). Milk production per lactation was 2902 kg higher in EXT than STD lactations (+ 63.8%), and Ho cows produced 470 kg more milk per lactation than Mo cows (+ 8.1%). There was no significant difference in milk produced between MP and PP cows. Annual duration of milk production (from 1 April to 31 March) was 36 days shorter for STD cows than EXT 1st year cows, with no significant difference in the amount of milk produced per year. During their second year of lactation, EXT cows produced for 7.2 months and with a lower daily milk yield than in the first year of lactation (-4.0 kg/d, P < 0.001). Consequently, the annual milk production of cows varied with the proportion of extended lactations (-262 kg for each additional 10% of EXT 2nd year cows, R² = 0.77; Fig. 4 ). During their whole lactation, EXT cows produced milk in amounts equivalent to 79.4% of two years of STD cows when expressed as raw milk and 81.4% when expressed as ECM. The annual milk from the VLI cows contained 41.9 ± 4.6 g/kg fat and 33.0 ± 3.7 g/kg protein with 325 10 3 cells/mL. Milk composition was similar between STD and EXT 1st year cows. Milk from EXT 2nd year cows contained more fat (+ 4.6 g/kg) and more protein (+ 6.6 g/kg) than milk from STD and EXT 1st year cows. Cow weight and body condition On average, the BW of VLI cows decreased from 734 kg at calving to 570 kg at nadir (48 days after) and their BCS decreased from 2.73 to 1.24 (54 days after). At calving, there was no difference in BW between Ho and Mo cows, MP cows tended to be heavier than PP cows (+ 21 kg), and STD cows were 25 kg heavier than EXT cows (Table 3 ). At nadir after calving, MP cows were heavier than PP cows (+ 25 kg) and Mo cows tended to be heavier than Ho cows (+ 21 kg). At calving, MP cows were leaner than PP cows (-0.61 points), and BCS varied among years. After calving, Ho cows had a lower BCS than Mo cows (-0.26 points at nadir). Extending the lactation period tended to result in higher BCS at mating (+ 0.14 points in EXT 2nd year cows compared to EXT 1st year cows). Health and reproductive performances Out of 112 cow-years, lameness was the most common health problem (57 cases), followed by urogenital disorders (19 cases of retained placenta, metritis, or ovarian cysts) and clinical mastitis (18 cases). EXT 2nd year cows were less often affected by urogenital disorders than EXT 1st year or STD cows. There were no between-breed differences in health problems except for mastitis that affected five times more Ho cows than Mo cows (Table 4 ). There was no effect of parity on health problems. Table 4 Health problems and reproductive performances of cows and heifers in the very-low-input (VLI) system over 5 years (averages by type of animal or lactation and breed, and model effects) Type of animal or lactation Breed P -value Item Heifers STD & EXT 1st year EXT 2nd year Ho Mo SEM Type Breed Lameness (% of cows) 53.5 42.3 46.4 55.4 0.32 0.34 Mastitis (% of cows) 18.6 7.7 26.8 5.4 0.18 0.002 Urogenital disorders (% of cows) 20.9 3.8 14.3 19.6 0.042 0.45 Cows inseminated (%) 97.4 a 67.4 b 100.0 a 79.5 82.2 < 0.001 0.67 First insemination 1 (d) 17.3 a 35.7 b 20.7 a 26.5 22.6 1.90 < 0.001 0.32 Cows pregnant/cows inseminated (%) 86.8 a 62.1 b 76.9 ab 71.0 75.0 0.025 0.62 Pregnant cows at 1st insemination 2 (%) 45.5 61.1 70.0 54.5 60.0 0.18 0.60 Cows pregnant after bull servicing 2 (%) 39.4 ab 52.8 a 15.0 b 45.5 33.3 0.021 0.24 Pregnant cows calving the next year (%) 100 a 80.6 b 85.0 b 90.9 86.7 0.032 0.53 Cows put on reproduction calving the next year (%) 84.6 a 33.7 b 65.4 a 51.3 53.4 < 0.001 0.79 1 Interval between the start of the mating period and the first insemination 2 Among cows diagnosed as pregnant Only about two-thirds of STD and EXT 1st year cows were inseminated (by AI or natural service) whereas almost all EXT 2nd year cows and heifers were inseminated and on average their first insemination was 17 days earlier (Table 4 ). Among these inseminated females, heifers were more often diagnosed as pregnant than STD and EXT 1st year cows. STD and EXT 1st year cows had 3.5-times more pregnancies by natural mating than EXT 2nd year cows that were mostly pregnant at first insemination by AI (70%, NS). Among the females diagnosed as pregnant, all the heifers calved, whereas about 17% of the adult cows had late abortions. As a result, about three quarters of heifers and EXT 2nd year cows put into reproduction calved the following year, versus only a third of STD and EXT 1st year cows. There was no breed effect on reproductive performances. At present, the causes of cow late abortions are not known: late abortions occurred at a time when cows were regaining weight and body condition and so cannot be attributed to a negative energy balance; in addition, we did not identify abortive plants in pasture plots. Performances of the LI system over the five years Production of pastures Over the five-year course of the experiment, 71% of the LI area (20.9 ± 2.65 ha) was mown at first cut between 23 May and 30 June (average 14 June) and 38% of the LI area (11.2 ± 0.38 ha) was mown at second cut (average 19 August), and 18% of first-cut hay and 15% of second-cut hay was dried indoors. The first cut yielded 2.7 ± 1.5 t DM hay/ha, with 100 ± 29.9 g CP and 1267 ± 141 kcal NEL per kg DM. The second cut yielded 2.5 ± 0.9 t DM hay/ha, with 110 ± 14.5 g CP and 1264 ± 88 kcal NEL per kg DM. Over the five-year course of the experiment, the system achieved 400 ± 74.7 LU grazing days per ha of pasture and 133 ± 104.4 LU grazing days per ha of mown plots. The grazed grass of all pastures contained 172 ± 29.6 g CP and 1560 ± 133 kcal NEL per kg DM. Milk yield and composition The LI system involved a total of 50 cows and produced 550,000 kg of milk over the five years (109,900 ± 14,300 kg/y). Each day, 18.4 ± 5.1 cows were milked and produced 16.3 ± 7.1 kg of milk. Twenty-seven EXT lactations were recorded, and these 27 EXT lactations lasted twice as long as STD lactations. Duration of lactations varied between years due to the varying number of EXT lactations, with no difference between breeds or parity (Table 5 ). Most of the milk (428000 kg, i.e. 77.9%) was collected when the cows were at pasture. Table 5 Milk production, milk composition, body weight (BW) and body condition score (BCS) of cows in the low-input (LI) system over 5 years (averages by type of lactation, breed and parity, and model effects) Type of lactation 1 Breed Parity P -value Item STD (58%)* EXT (42%)* Ho (52%)* Mo (48%)* PP (34%)* MP (66%)* SEM Type Breed Parity Year 1st year 2nd year Duration of lactation (d) 296 589 450 436 443 442 15.1 < 0.001 0.15 0.94 0.017 Milk yield at lactation peak (kg/d) 27.1 27.4 29.4 25.0 23.7 30.7 0.63 0.79 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.034 Milk production by lactation (kg) 4 939 8 647 7 320 6 266 6 201 7 385 205 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 Annual 2 duration of milk production (d) 303 a 328 b 254 c 300 290 294 296 4.81 < 0.001 0.20 0.82 0.077 Annual 2 milk production (kg) 5 175 a 5 487 a 3 208 b 5 016 4 231 4 159 5 089 147 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.005 Annual 2 energy-corrected milk 3 (kg) 5 423 a 5 711 a 3 566 b 5 245 4 555 4 395 5 405 146 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.005 Annual 2 milk fat content (g/kg) 39.0 a 38.3 a 40.9 b 38.8 40.1 39.1 39.8 0.37 < 0.001 0.16 0.15 < 0.001 Annual 2 milk protein content (g/kg) 32.3 a 31.6 a 37.0 b 33.1 34.1 33.5 33.7 0.26 < 0.001 0.047 0.56 0.58 Annual 2 somatic cell count (log 10 /mL) 5.20 5.20 5.23 5.21 5.21 5.10 5.32 0.040 0.94 0.97 0.011 0.032 BW at mating 4 (kg) 564 ab 549 a 574 b 556 568 530 594 7.12 0.015 0.52 < 0.001 0.005 BCS at mating 4 [0–5] 1.51 1.48 1.59 1.42 1.64 1.56 1.50 0.031 0.27 0.006 0.36 0.53 BW at calving (kg) 692 676 684 684 648 720 9.25 0.29 0.98 < 0.001 0.17 BW at nadir after calving (kg) 547 537 538 546 508 576 8.09 0.39 0.65 < 0.001 0.012 BCS at calving [0–5] 2.57 2.51 2.47 2.61 2.61 2.47 0.058 0.68 0.22 0.29 0.039 BCS at nadir after calving [0–5] 1.28 1.23 1.12 1.38 1.26 1.24 0.026 0.36 < 0.001 0.73 0.21 * Percentage of cows in each category 1 STD (standard) or EXT (extended) for the whole lactation; STD, EXT 1st year or EXT 2nd year for annual data 2 From 1 April to 31 March 3 Energy-corrected milk = 0.3246 × milk yield + 12.86 × fat yield + 7.04 × protein yield 4 The first day of the mating period or 28 days after calving if calving occurred after the start of the mating period a−c Means within a row with different superscript letters differ at P < 0.05 In the STD and EXT 1st year cows, the nadir of lactation took place after turning out to pasture (Fig. 3 ). A second peak, less high than the first one, was observed in EXT 2nd year cows after the second turn out to pasture. Milk yield at peak lactation was the same for STD and EXT 1st year lactations (Table 5 ) and higher for Ho cows than Mo cows (+ 4.4 kg/d) and higher for MP cows than PP cows (+ 7.0 kg/d). Milk production per lactation was 3708 kg higher in EXT than STD lactations (+ 75.1%). Ho cows produced 1054 kg more milk per lactation than Mo cows. MP cows produced 1184 kg more milk per lactation than PP cows. Annual duration of milk production (from 1 April to 31 March) was 25 days longer in EXT 1st year cows than STD cows, with no significant difference in the amount of milk produced per year. During their second lactation year, the EXT cows produced for 8.5 months with a lower daily milk yield than in their first lactation year (-4.2 kg/d, P < 0.001). Consequently, the annual production of the cows varied with the proportion of extended lactations (-305 kg for each additional 10% of EXT cows, R² = 0.65; Fig. 4 ). During their whole lactation, EXT cows produced milk in amounts equivalent to 84.0% of two years of STD cows when expressed as raw milk and 85.5% when expressed as ECM. The annual milk from the LI cows contained 39.5 ± 3.9 g/kg fat and 33.3 ± 2.7 g/kg protein with 291 10 3 cells/mL. Milk composition was similar between STD and EXT 1st year cows. Milk from EXT 2nd year cows contained more fat (+ 2.3 g/kg) and more protein (+ 5.1 g/kg) than milk from STD and EXT 1st year cows. Cow weight and body condition On average, the BW of LI cows decreased from 684 kg at calving to 542 kg at nadir (44 days after) and their BCS decreased from 2.54 to 1.25 (54 days after). At calving, there was no difference in BW between Ho and Mo cows, MP cows were heavier than PP cows (+ 72 kg), and STD and EXT cows weighed the same (Table 5 ). The weight difference between MP and PP cows persisted at nadir (+ 68 kg). BW at nadir and BCS at calving varied among years. At nadir, BCS was lower in Ho cows than Mo cows (-0.26 points). Compared with the first year, EXT cows regained weight at mating in the second year (+ 25 kg), but did not regain BCS. Health and reproductive performances Out of 111 cow-years, lameness was the most common cow health problem (39 cases), followed by clinical mastitis (20 cases) and urogenital disorders (14 cases). With no clinical mastitis or urogenital disease recorded, EXT 2nd year cows were significantly less affected than EXT 1st year or STD cows. Ho cows tended to be more affected by urogenital disorders than Mo cows (Table 6 ). There was no parity effect on incidence of health problems. Table 6 Health problems and reproductive performances of cows and heifers in the low-input (LI) system over 5 years (averages by type of animal or lactation and breed, and model effects) Type of animal or lactation Breed P -value Item Heifers STD & EXT 1st year EXT 2nd year Ho Mo SEM Type Breed Lameness (% of cows) 38.1 25.9 30.4 40.0 0.25 0.29 Mastitis (% of cows) 23.8 0.0 19.6 16.4 < 0.001 0.65 Urogenital trouble (% of cows) 16.7 0.0 17.9 7.3 < 0.001 0.093 Cows inseminated (%) 92.1 a 76.5 b 100.0 a 86.1 83.3 0.004 0.64 First insemination 1 (d) 24.8 ab 31.6 b 21.7 a 24.5 27.5 1.57 0.040 0.38 Cows pregnant/cows inseminated (%) 88.2 a 50.8 b 81.5 a 71.0 64.1 < 0.001 0.34 Pregnant cows at 1st insemination 2 (%) 43.3 48.5 45.5 47.7 43.9 0.92 0.72 Cows pregnant after bull servicing 2 (%) 50.0 45.5 22.7 43.2 39.0 0.12 0.70 Pregnant cows calving the next year (%) 93.3 90.9 95.5 93.2 92.7 0.81 0.93 Cows put on reproduction calving the next year (%) 73.7 a 35.3 b 77.8 a 56.9 48.7 < 0.001 0.28 1 Interval between the start of the mating period and the first insemination 2 Among cows diagnosed as pregnant Only about three-quarters of STD and EXT 1st year cows were inseminated (by AI or natural service) whereas almost all EXT 2nd year cows and heifers were inseminated. On average EXT 2nd year cows were first inseminated 10 days earlier than STD and EXT 1st year cows (Table 6 ). Among these inseminated females, heifers and EXT 2nd year cows were more often diagnosed as pregnant than STD and EXT 1st year cows. EXT 2nd year cows tended to have fewer pregnancies by natural mating than STD and EXT 1st year cows. Less than 7% of all females diagnosed as pregnant had late abortions. As a result, about three-quarters of heifers and EXT 2nd year cows calved the following year, compared with only a third of STD and EXT 1st year cows. There was no breed effect on reproductive performances. Discussion Here we designed an experiment to test two mountain pasture-based dairy farming systems: a very-low-input system (VLI) that uses almost no inputs and a low-input system (LI) that used minimal inputs (concentrates, fertilisers). Both systems aimed to produce milk primarily when cows are grazing at pasture. The key finding is that producing milk in such conditions is achievable with high-yielding breeds, but requires adaptations to system management. The primary challenge faced by low-input systems is cow fertility. Specific adjustments to the reproduction management are necessary to address this issue . High-yielding cows show impaired reproductive performances in pasture based-systems compared to conventional systems [reviewed by 27]. During the first year of implementing the VLI and LI systems, reproductive performances were very poor, with less than half of the cows pregnant at the end of the mating period, even though mating took place in spring when grass production was at its maximum. Both systems required cows to conceive within 10 weeks after calving in order to ensure that peak milk production coincided with maximum grass production every year. The low success of reproduction during this time-slot put production at risk for the subsequent years due to the potential presence of unproductive cows and a lack of female calves to renew the herd. We thus made several adjustments to reproductive management. First, the lactation of non-pregnant cows was extended by 8–10 months, and these cows were put back into service at the next spring. The cows subjected to extended lactations showed good reproductive performance in their second year of lactation, as proportionally twice as many extended-lactation cows calved the following year than adult cows inseminated within 10 weeks after calving. The success of mating largely depends on the nutritional status of cows [ 8 , 28 , 29 ]. In both VLI and LI systems, the cows had a low body condition, especially after calving (1.25 at nadir). Not all cows had started to regain body condition when the mating season started - before BCS nadir for most of cows -, which explains the low success of mating. Extending the lactation without pregnancy helped the cows regain core body reserves. Indeed, the extended-lactation cows had a better body condition at mating in the second year of lactation compared to the first year, especially in the VLI system. Second, heifers were inseminated with pure dairy-breed sexed semen, and dairy bulls were used for natural mating on females that had failed to conceive by AI. This change allowed to increase the proportion of pure-breed female calves (Ho or Mo) up to 43% of calvings. This proportion ensured herd renewal, even though nearly 30% of the cows failed to reproduce each year. Extending the lactation of non-pregnant cows maintains all-herd milk production . In both VLI and LI systems, cows transitioned to extended lactation produced 80.4% as much milk as cows with standard lactations during the same time (two years). For both systems, the milk from extended lactations contained more fat and protein in the second year of lactation than milk from standard lactations, as already reported in the literature [ 25 , 30 ]. When correcting milk production for energy content, cows in extended lactations produced 84.8% as much milk as cows in standard lactations. The milk production of VLI and LI cows was close to that of cows in other mountain grass-based systems using high-yielding breeds and little concentrate. Ho cows produced on average 5245 kg of ECM and consumed 825 kg concentrates per year in the LI system and 4495 kg of ECM per year with no concentrates at all in the VLI system. Milk production by the LI Ho cows was slightly lower than reported in the literature for high-yielding cows in similar high-altitude conditions (430 to 1050 m a.s.l.) and with limited reliance on concentrates, i.e. 5570 kg ECM for a specific strain of Holstein Friesian, 5530 kg for New-Zealand Holstein, and 5840 kg for Swiss Holstein, all when receiving 260 to 280 kg concentrates [ 31 , 32 ]. The difference between the results of our LI cows and those reported in the literature may come from the fact that 1) we allowed non-pregnant cows to stay in lactation for a second year whereas in the other studies these cows were culled, 2) we did not provide any supplemented forage at pasture, and/or 3) our pasture had a lower nutritive value (17.2 g crude protein/kg grass in LI pastures vs. 20 g/kg in Piccand et al. [ 31 ] and Horn et al. [ 32 ]), probably due to less fertilisation. We found no reports on dairy cows receiving no concentrates, and so we cannot compare the results of the VLI cows with the literature. Montbéliarde and Holstein cows can equally be used in low-input systems . In the VLI and LI systems, Ho cows produced more milk than Mo cows but with a lower protein content. Such differences between Ho and Mo cows have been widely reported in the literature [ 12 , 33 , 34 ] and appear to be independent of the system in which these cows are raised. The higher milk production of Ho cows is obtained at the expense of more mobilisation of body reserves, especially in early lactation [ 34 ]. Indeed, in our study, Ho cows were in poorer body condition than Mo cows after calving. Note however that reproductive performances did not differ between Ho and Mo cows. On average, in the VLI and LI systems, Mo cows had slightly healthier udders (half as many cases of mastitis, significant in VLI), as frequently reported regardless of the production system [ 12 , 35 ]. Overall, there were no substantial differences between the Ho and Mo cows, and any minor differences appear to be independent of the systems used. VLI and LI systems are both technically efficient and both have pros and cons. Over the five-year course of the experiment, the VLI system produced 486,000 kg of milk and consumed just 3.12 t of concentrates (used for female calves) while the LI system produced 550,000 kg of milk but consumed 130.6 t of concentrates. Therefore, the VLI produced 156.8 kg of milk per kg of concentrates invested whereas the LI system only produced 4.2 kg of milk per kg of concentrates. Note too that the VLI system also used no mineral fertilisers. VLI thus emerges as extremely efficient in terms of concentrate use and is almost self-sufficient on inputs. In contrast, the LI system used half as much grassland as the VLI system (29.6 ha vs. 59.9 ha) and is thus more than twice as efficient in terms of grassland use: the LI system produced 3720 kg of milk per ha per year whereas VLI only produced 1630 kg. The LI system had double the number of grazing days per ha and double the area mown twice a year compared to the VLI system. This increased intensity of land utilisation was made possible by a higher grass growth resulting from a combination of more productive grassland originating from former temporary grassland with the use of mineral nitrogen (37 kg mineral N spread/ha/year). Consequently, as the VLI system is almost self-sufficient, it is well-adapted to a context of a drastic reduction of inputs, while the LI system is a good option if land availability is low. However, both systems require adaptive management due to the need for a flexible approach to cow reproduction, which may increase the mental workload on farmers. In addition, as cows are continuously lactating (due to extended lactation for some cows), there are no real herd-wide dry periods that would enable the farmers to enjoy low-workload periods. Finally, from an animal welfare perspective, the presence of animals with very low body condition after calving may raise concerns. The technical results of low-input systems can be further improved by further adjustments. First, natural mating instead of AI from the beginning of the mating period could improve herd fertility. This decision could be guided by the need to obtain female calves to renew the herd. Second, once-a-day milking for several weeks at the beginning of lactation could limit the loss in body weight and condition, resulting in less negative energy balance, a quicker return to ovarian cyclicity, and therefore earlier pregnancy after calving [ 36 , 37 ]. In addition, if once-a-day milking is applied at the start of the breeding season (instead of beginning of lactation), it will have little effect on milk production [ 38 ]. Conclusion Our results show that mountain-area dairy farmers can turn to low-input systems while keeping high-yielding cows, provided they adopt specific animal nutrition and reproduction management practices, namely aligning the lactation curve with the grass growth curve, extending lactations, and using sexed semen or natural mating. However, in low-input systems, high-yielding cows produce milk at the expense of their body condition and this can be a concern if cows become too lean during lactation. Further studies are needed to assess the environmental impacts and economic efficiency of these low-input dairy systems. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate The protocol was approved by the regional committee on animal research and ethics (CEMEA Auvergne, approval No. CE 21-13). Consent for publication Not applicable Availability of data and materials The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available in the Recherche.data.gouv.fr repository: https://entrepot.recherche.data.gouv.fr/privateurl.xhtml?token=5ff0b530-547a-4f36-a26e-c4714f318f49 Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This study was fully funded by INRAE. Authors' contributions DP: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing, Visualization, Supervision. AF: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing, Supervision. FF: Methodology, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing - Review & Editing. IV: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review & Editing. 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In: INRA (ed) Alimentation des bovins, ovins et caprins. Besoins des animaux - Valeurs des aliments. Tables INRA 2007. Mise à jour 2010. Editions Quae, Versailles, France, pp 77–89 Farruggia A, Castillon P, Le Gall A, Cabaret MM (2000) Proposition d’une méthode de calcul permettant de raisonner la fertilisation azotée des prairies. Fourrages 164:355–372 Hoden A, Muller M, Peyraud JL, et al (1991) Pâturage pour vaches laitières. Effets du chargement et de la complémentation en pâturage tournant simplifié. INRA Prod Anim 4:229–239. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.20870/productions-animales.1991.4.3.4337 Kohnlein J (1968) Méthodes d’estimation de la production des pâtures en fonction des buts poursuivis. Fourrages 34:11–20 AOAC (1990) Official Methods of Analysis, 15th edn. 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J Dairy Sci 96:5352–5363. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2012-6444 Horn M, Steinwidder A, Pfister R, et al (2014) Do different cow types respond differently to a reduction of concentrate supplementation in an alpine low-input dairy system? Livest Sci 170:72–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2014.10.006 Dezetter C, Leclerc H, Mattalia S, et al (2015) Inbreeding and crossbreeding parameters for production and fertility traits in Holstein, Montbéliarde, and Normande cows. J Dairy Sci 98:4904–4913. https://doi.org/10.3168/JDS.2014-8386 Dillon P, Buckley F, O’Connor P, et al (2003) A comparison of different dairy cow breeds on a seasonal grass-based system of milk production 1. Milk production, live weight, body condition score and DM intake. Livest Prod Sci 83:21–33. https://doi.org/Doi 10.1016/S0301-6226(03)00041 – 1 Govignon-Gion A, Dassonneville R, Baloche G, Ducrocq V (2012) Genetic evaluation of mastitis in dairy cattle in France. Interbull Bull 46:121–126 Patton J, Kenny DA, Mee JF, et al (2006) Effect of Milking Frequency and Diet on Milk Production, Energy Balance, and Reproduction in Dairy Cows. J Dairy Sci 89:1478–1487. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(06)72215-9 Stelwagen K, Phyn CVC, Davis SR, et al (2013) Reduced milking frequency: Milk production and management implications. J Dairy Sci 96:3401–3413. https://doi.org/DOI 10.3168/jds.2012–6074 Pomiès D, Fournier F (2017) Once daily milking after calving: a practice to overcome reproduction problems in mountain low-input dairy systems. In: Sturaro E (ed) 12th International Meeting on Mountain Cheese, 20–22 June 2017, Padova, Italy. pp 77–81 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files AdditionalTable1.docx Additional Table 1 (Additional Table 1.xlsx) Plant abundance in plots of low input (LI) and very low input (VLI) systems (weighted average abundance per hectare) Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 22 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 20 Apr, 2025 Reviews received at journal 16 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 07 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 07 Apr, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 07 Apr, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 25 Mar, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 25 Mar, 2025 First submitted to journal 24 Mar, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5790286","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":433699217,"identity":"8c2cd914-7068-48a8-9ba1-9d908d1360d8","order_by":0,"name":"Dominique Pomiès","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCAyBkAOMBGfzMECY/8VokmyFMyQY8WlCBwQECWviOdyceLiiwTuxn4D346EaBjb3xcd5jH35UMEiY49AjeebshsMzDNITZzbwJRvnGKQlbjvMlzyz5wyDhAyGA6DOuJG74TCPweHEDQd4zKRzDA4nmB3mMWbgbWOok8DhMLiW/RAt/+2Nm3mMGf/+Y5AgqGUDA1jLAcYNzDzGzLwNuLWA/cJjkG484zDYL8mJM4AOY5Y5JoFTC9/x3s2fef5Yy/a39x58nPPHzp6//4wx45saG5xaoAAY48w8KCIENIC1MPAQUjQKRsEoGAUjFQAAnWtWGpxy1YgAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Université Clermont Auvergne, INRAE, VetAgro-Sup, UMR Herbivores","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dominique","middleName":"","lastName":"Pomiès","suffix":""},{"id":433699218,"identity":"4b985e80-158d-4bfe-9e2b-d387664efca3","order_by":1,"name":"Anne Farruggia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université Clermont Auvergne, INRAE, VetAgro-Sup, UMR Herbivores","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Anne","middleName":"","lastName":"Farruggia","suffix":""},{"id":433699219,"identity":"5bee6ff8-86c8-4b9e-8e08-86627368c89f","order_by":2,"name":"Florence Fournier","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"INRAE, Herbipôle","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Florence","middleName":"","lastName":"Fournier","suffix":""},{"id":433699220,"identity":"74b50c8c-60cd-4f8c-9268-c8678fefc422","order_by":3,"name":"Isabelle Veissier","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université Clermont Auvergne, INRAE, VetAgro-Sup, UMR Herbivores","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Isabelle","middleName":"","lastName":"Veissier","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-01-08 15:23:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5790286/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5790286/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":79304951,"identity":"ae832931-0489-4d6b-863e-c2c734e452b9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-26 20:57:38","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65019,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5790286/v1/c4c81d92aee542c8896ee640.png"},{"id":79304552,"identity":"2efa2d4a-32c7-483d-99fa-dc13cfc6d773","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-26 20:49:38","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":55189,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5790286/v1/60b695809e2511f99ff252fd.png"},{"id":79305144,"identity":"8fcdcfe7-a83e-4efb-8fb6-8a2a52b4cd06","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-26 21:05:38","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":57136,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5790286/v1/601deea56d13c3ed1c44ece4.png"},{"id":79304553,"identity":"28a19623-8a7a-40b3-a86f-ee42f2fe9509","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-26 20:49:38","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":40411,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5790286/v1/1a8806aaa90a2ded2f4464e4.png"},{"id":79305428,"identity":"772656de-a31c-4c84-a47a-fdd7ca3076fd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-26 21:21:39","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1846636,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5790286/v1/b086bcc5-a380-44c5-918b-22dbdaea85cf.pdf"},{"id":79305142,"identity":"f55e9dca-2bae-4124-885f-76e030691894","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-03-26 21:05:38","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":28814,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAdditional Table 1 (Additional Table 1.xlsx) Plant abundance in plots of low input (LI) and very low input (VLI) systems (weighted average abundance per hectare)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"AdditionalTable1.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5790286/v1/a820e32b28f3388418777db9.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The need for adaptive management of high-yielding dairy cows in low-input mountain systems","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe majority of dairy farms in mountainous European regions currently rely heavily on concentrates to supplement grass-based diets [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. In contrast, dairy farms in lowland areas produce milk at a lower cost due to the high agronomic potential of their land and easy access to cheaper inputs, such as concentrates and mineral nitrogen [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. In the past, mountain dairy farms were economically viable under the European milk quotas system. However, now that milk quotas have been lifted, they can no longer compete with lowland farms unless they produce under a quality label (e.g. protected designation of origin for cheese) or for local industry [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. To achieve economic sustainability, mountain farms need to adopt practices that minimise the use of inputs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt present, in most mountain dairy farms, cows calve in autumn, which means that milk is mainly produced when cows are kept indoors and fed on stored grass such as hay, silage, or haylage. However, stored grass is usually not as nutritious as grazed grass [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, feeding stored grass is costly, requiring supplements for the cows and involving labour and mechanisation for cutting and distribution. Prioritising grazed grass over stored grass for milk production would improve the economic viability of mountain dairy farms while ensuring high environmental and animal welfare performances [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. To prioritize grazed grass, the calving season needs be shifted towards the end of winter to align lactation curves with the peak of grass growth. However, relying solely on grazed grass during early lactation may lead to energy deficits if the cows are not supplemented with concentrates [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e] and to poor reproductive performance, particularly for cows from high-yielding breeds [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Most mountain dairy farms use high-yielding breeds, e.g. 46.2% Holstein (\u003cb\u003eHo\u003c/b\u003e) and 38% Montb\u0026eacute;liarde (\u003cb\u003eMo\u003c/b\u003e) in the French Massif Central [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Switching a farm to a more rustic cow breed is a complex process that requires long-term planning [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], and the process may be harder if the farmers are attached to their herd and breed. Changing the breed in a cattle herd by absorption through crossbreeding typically takes about 10 years. By contrast, changes in herbage or herd management can be implemented relatively quickly and are more easily reversible. Management practices that enable pasture-based milk production with few inputs should be designed to help mountain farmers transition to low-input systems without changing the breeds they currently use. Mo cows may be more suited to low-input systems than Ho cows due to their slightly lower milk production and higher reproductive performances [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, transitioning to a low-input system based on grazed grass in mountain areas may pose challenges with the high-yielding dairy breeds currently in use. To examine whether systems based on grazing herbage with Mo or Ho breeds could be technically efficient, we implemented and tested two experimental farming systems: a Very-Low-Input system (VLI) and a Low-Input system (LI). The objective of VLI was to use no concentrates and mineral fertilizers. LI was intermediate between VLI and conventional systems; its objective was to use significantly less concentrates and mineral fertilizers than conventional systems while safeguarding milk production and nitrogen balance of the land. In both systems, the mating season was shifted to spring to align the milk production curve with the herbage production curve. The cows used in the study belonged to either a highly specialised dairy breed (Ho) or a moderately specialised dairy breed (Mo). This paper describes the two systems and the adjustments made to maintain milk production, provides the technical performances of the two systems, and goes on to compare the suitability of Ho and Mo cows to such systems. The aim is not to compare the two systems, which differ in several respects, but to assess their consistency and persistence over time.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Material and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe applied a \u0026lsquo;system experiment\u0026rsquo; approach, whereby we tested whether the management strategies chosen for each system allow these systems to achieve the objectives they were designed for [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. We therefore focused on the evaluation of sets of decision rules in a given context, rather than on variations in a few factors as is done in more conventional experiments [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Based on the learning process described by Meynard et al. (2023), we initially designed two dairy farming systems (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). After one year of implementation, we check the technical results to identify necessary adjustments. Following these adjustments, we re-assessed the adapted systems over a four-year period. The methods section describes the two systems as originally conceived.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManagement practices implemented in the very-low-input (VLI) and low-input (LI) systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVLI system\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLI system\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 Holstein and 12 Montb\u0026eacute;liarde cows\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalving season\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShort spring calving season (70 days)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge at 1st calving\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3-year-old calving\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2-year-old calving\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2 generations of heifers)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1 generation of heifers)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentrate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone for cows and heifers\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdjusted to reach 200 kg BW\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e at 6 months for female calves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 kg/day for cows (during \u0026sim;200 days)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdjusted to reach 200 kg BW\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e at 6 months and 410 kg BW\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e at 12 months for female calves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 ha of diversified permanent grassland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 ha of former temporary grassland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStocking rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow stocking rate \u003cem\u003e(0.66 LU\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e/ha)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate stocking rate \u003cem\u003e(1.09 LU\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003cem\u003e/ha)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrazing system\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong rotational grazing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuick rotational grazing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCutting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo silage and no haylage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate mowing, natural drying\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePossibility of using a hay dryer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e BW\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Body Weigh; \u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e LU\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Livestock Unit\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe VLI system was an extensive dairy farming system with a low stocking rate, using diversified permanent grassland, and aiming for self-sufficiency in feed and land fertiliser. The LI system was a semi-extensive dairy farming system with a moderate stocking rate, using old temporary grasslands, and aiming for milk production with minimal use of inputs such as concentrates and mineral fertilisers. Both systems were simultaneously implemented on two separate farmlets (one for each system) for a period of five years. The botanical composition of all plots was characterised at the time of establishment by assessing the abundance of all plants in 1 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e quadrats: 10 quadrats for 6 ha, with a minimum of 4 quadrats for plots smaller than 6 ha. As there was no separation of excrement by system, farmyard manure and slurry were allocated to each system based on the number of livestock units (LU) per system. The experiment took place at the INRAE\u0026rsquo;s \u0026lsquo;Herbip\u0026ocirc;le\u0026rsquo; experimental farm (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.15454/1.5572318050509348E12\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.15454/1.5572318050509348E12\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) located in the French Massif Central (Marcenat, 45\u0026deg;18'21\u0026rsquo;N, 2\u0026deg;50'13\u0026rsquo;E, \u003cem\u003e1100 m a.s.l.).\u003c/em\u003e Each farmlet was allocated a portion of Herbip\u0026ocirc;le\u0026rsquo;s land and a group of Ho and Mo cows and heifers. For both systems, we established grassland and herd management practices geared to producing most of the milk when the cows were at pasture. The protocol was approved by the regional committee on animal research and ethics (CEMEA Auvergne, approval No. CE 21\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;13).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDesign of the farming systems\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCommon aspects of the VLI and LI systems\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEach system started with a herd that consisted of 24 adult cows (12 Ho and 12 Mo) and 9 1-year-old heifers (5 Ho and 4 Mo); in addition, the VLI herd contained 9 2-year-old heifers (4 Ho and 5 Mo) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Such a herd composition allows a renewal of one third of the herd each year, as commonly applied in dairy herds. Both systems used grassland solely for grazing or hay production, with no silage or bale wrapping. Cows were housed in a tie-stall barn in the first three winters. They were untied twice a day to go to the milking parlour at 6:30 AM and 4:00 PM. During the fourth and fifth winters, the cows were housed in a new free-stall barn, with the same milking times. The heifers were housed in two straw-bedded loose-housing barns, one for 2-year-old heifers and one for 1-year-old heifers. Even though groups of animals from each system were together, they were managed independently. Cows and heifers were turned out to pasture when the sum of temperatures since 1 February was 300-degree days (around 20\u0026ndash;25 April). Grazing was managed according to a rotational system. When at pasture, cows and heifers were outside day and night, except for milking. In autumn, they were brought back indoors when grass became scarce (around mid-November).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerd characteristics in the very-low-input (VLI) and low-input (LI) systems at the beginning of the experiment (Year 1); average values (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation) stratified by breed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVLI system\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLI system\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHolstein\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMontb\u0026eacute;liarde\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHolstein\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMontb\u0026eacute;liarde\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of cows\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimiparous (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLactation number\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight of multiparous after calving (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e655\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e660\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e675\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e657\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight of primiparous after calving (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e670\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e647\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e565\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e557\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of 2-year-old heifers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of 1-year-old heifers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe aimed for a short calving period (70 days) with 80% of calving before the cows were turned out to pasture (end of April), so that the lactation curves coincided with peak grass growth (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). To reach the calving target, the mating period had to begin on 30 May. The mating period started with 42 days of artificial insemination (\u003cb\u003eAI\u003c/b\u003e) with purebred semen (Ho or Mo) followed by 28 days of natural mating in order to get a maximal conception rate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. At the beginning of the experiment, a Limousine bull was used for natural mating to produce calves that can gain better value by the beef sector than pure dairy calves. During the mating period, the heifers to be bred joined the cows at pasture for mating. All the purebred female calves were kept as replacement heifers to renew the herd. Each winter, we decided to cull a number of cows equal to the number of future primiparous cows, in order to maintain 24 lactating cows at pasture with the same proportion of Ho and Mo. The criteria to select cull cows were mainly non-pregnancy, high somatic cell count, chronic mastitis, and lameness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSpecificities of the VLI system\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe VLI system was allocated 59.9 ha of diversified permanent grassland, divided into 12 plots of 5.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.0 ha (1.6 to 11.6 ha), resulting in a stocking rate of 0.66 LU/ha (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). On average, 17.9 plant species per m\u0026sup2; were recorded across the plots. The plots were dominated by late- and low-productive grass species (Additional Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), according to the functional classification of Cruz et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour plots (32% of the total area) were never mown due to the presence of steep slopes, rocks, or wet areas. One plot (5.9 ha) was only used for grazing heifers due to its distance from the milking parlour. One plot was only mown. The remaining plots were either grazed or first mown then grazed. The plots received no mineral fertiliser, and organic fertiliser was reserved for the mown plots. The mown plots received manure (in winter) or liquid manure (in spring before the first cut or in summer before the second cut) alternated every other year, for a total of 20.9 kg N/ha per year (manure and liquid manure). The manure and liquid manure came from both the heifer and cow barns. The early and most productive plots were mown first from the grass heading stage as soon as the weather conditions allowed natural drying (fixed as five consecutive sunny days) to obtain good-quality hay for the animals with the highest needs, i.e. cows from one month before calving until turn out to pasture, and to be able to harvest two cuts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwice a week during the grazing season, the caretakers visually assessed the amount of grass on the whole grassland dedicated to VLI. The change of plot was brought forward if there was too much grass available on all plots that could have resulted in a decrease in grass quality if not eaten quickly enough. Over the five years, the rotational grazing scheme consisted of four to six grazing cycles depending on the year, with 40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13 days per cycle for the first three cycles. In the first grazing cycle, the grazing area per cow was 0.96 ha. From the second grazing cycle, the area allocated to the cows was gradually extended to include the plots harvested for hay. Heifers were grazed continuously on their more distant dedicated plot until mid-November, except for the 2-year-olds when they joined the cows during the mating period.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the winter, cows and heifers were fed first-cut (ad libitum) and second-cut hay (in quantities appropriate to their physiological needs) harvested from plots allocated to the VLI farmlet. They received no concentrate. Female VLI calves received a maximum of 1 kg/d of a commercial concentrate (Croustivo/Startivo, Centraliments, Aurillac, France) to reach the recommended live weight of 200 kg at 6 months of age [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Over the 5 years of the experiment, a total of 3120 kg of concentrate was used for female VLI calves, each receiving 88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;32 kg.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne month before calving, cows and heifers received 200 g/d of a mix of minerals, vitamins and oligo-elements (Galaphos\u0026reg; Axion\u0026reg; Tarie, CCPA, 35150 Janz\u0026eacute;, France; 6.5% P, 6.5% Ca, 10% Mg, 4% Na, 6000 UI Vit E). From calving until dry-off, the cows received 200 g/d of a mix rich in calcium (Galaphos\u0026reg; MiDi Repro, CCPA, 35150 Janz\u0026eacute;, France; 4.5% P, 23% Ca, 5% Mg, 1% Na, 1600 UI Vit E). At pasture, salt blocks (NaCl) were available to all animals. In addition, cows and heifers received 100 g/d MgCl for 4 weeks prior to grazing to prevent grass tetany. And 2 days before going out to pasture, cows that had not yet calved were given a bolus of Mg to prevent milk fever.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge at first calving was set at 3 years due to the lack of concentrates, which limits calf growth, and to the large area of available land, which allowed to graze many animals at the same time. There was a 3-month dry period between the end of lactation and calving to allow the cows regain body condition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSpecificities of the LI system\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe LI system was allocated 29.6 ha of permanent and established (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10 years) temporary grassland, divided into seven plots of 4.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.3 ha each (2.7 to 7.6 ha), resulting in a stocking rate of 1.09 LU/ha (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). On average, 13.8 plant species per m\u0026sup2; were recorded across the plots. The plots were dominated by early and productive grass species (Additional Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) according to the classification of Cruz et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. A mobile fence system allowed to split plots into two parts for pasture management. One and a half plots (19% of the total area) were never mown due to the presence of steep slopes and rocks. To ensure nitrogen balance, the plots received mineral fertilizers in addition to liquid manure and manure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Over the five years, the plots received a total of 40.1 kg organic N/ha/year and 37.1 kg mineral N/ha/year. Mineral fertilisation was applied in mid-April or after the first cut for the mown plots or between two grazing cycles, resulting in a total of 15.4 t of mineral fertiliser (5487 kg N) over the five years. The mowing dates were set each year to find a compromise between quality and quantity of hay. However, we took the opportunity to use a hay dryer to obtain high-quality hay to be fed to cows from one month before calving until they were turned out to pasture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrazing plots were rotated on the basis of daily milk yield decrease: cows were moved to a fresh plot when milk production fell below the threshold of 88% of the maximum milk production on the current plot (average of the three highest consecutive daily values) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Over the five years, the rotational grazing system consisted of five to six cycles of pasture depending on the year, with 33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.0 days per cycle for the first three cycles. In the first grazing cycle, grazing area per cow was 0.40 ha. From the second cycle, the area allocated to the cows was gradually extended to include plots harvested for hay.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the winter, cows and heifers were fed first-cut (ad libitum) and second-cut hay (in quantities appropriate to their physiological needs), harvested from plots allocated to the LI farmlet. To safeguard milk production, adult cows received 4 kg/d of commercial concentrate (a mixture of 88% cereals and 12% oilseed meal; Centraliment, Aurillac, France) from calving to the end of the pasture season, which is lower than the 8\u0026ndash;12 kg/d provided in conventional systems from the same area. Female calves and heifers were individually fed commercial concentrates totalling 331\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;189 kg Croustivo/Startivo (Centraliment, Aurillac, France) per calf and 609\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;338 kg G\u0026eacute;niElevage (Centraliment, Aurillac, France) per heifer to ensure that they reached 200 kg live weight at 6 months and 410 kg live weight at mating [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Over the five years, a total of 97.3 t of concentrates was used for 118 adult cows and 33.3 t for 67 female calves and heifers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mineral supplementation plan was the same as for the VLI system.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge at first calving was set at 2 years, to cope with the lower land and forage availability of the LI system compared to the VLI system. There was a 2-month dry period between the end of lactation and next calving, instead of 3 months in the VLI system, because we expected the cows to be in better body condition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGrassland performances\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe performance of harvested plots was evaluated on the basis of the proportion of the area mown during the first and second grass growth cycles and the yield and nutritive value of the hay. We recorded the weight of all the harvested bales. For each plot, five samples were taken from the grass collected in a swath before baling across the entire plot. Each sample consisted of about 10 handfuls of grass. The samples were weighed then dried at 60\u0026deg;C for 72 h to determine the dry matter weight (\u003cb\u003eDM\u003c/b\u003e). The five grass samples were then combined and ground through a 0.8 mm mesh screen for chemical analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe performance of pastures was evaluated on the basis of the number of the LU grazing days per ha and the nutritive value of the grazed herbage. The number of LU grazing days per ha is used to evaluate grazing intensity and was calculated as (LU \u0026times; number of days on pasture) per year and pasture area for each plot and each year [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The nutritive value of grazed grass was estimated for each time animals were entered into the plots. The grass was collected at a cutting height of 4\u0026ndash;5 cm in 70 \u0026times; 70 cm quadrats, with one quadrat per hectare with a minimum of 3 quadrats per plot. The quadrats were placed in pre-defined representative areas of grass-community facies for each plot (weighted by their area). The grass collected from each quadrat was dried at 60\u0026deg;C for 72 h, and a representative sample of all quadrats per plot was then prepared for analysis. The samples of grazed and mown grass were analysed for crude ash (\u003cb\u003eCA\u003c/b\u003e) and nitrogen (\u003cb\u003eN\u003c/b\u003e) according to AOAC [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] method and for neutral detergent fibre (\u003cb\u003eNDF\u003c/b\u003e), acid detergent fibre (\u003cb\u003eADF\u003c/b\u003e) and acid detergent lignin (\u003cb\u003eADL\u003c/b\u003e) according to Van Soest et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. NDF and ADF analyses were performed on an Ankom system (Ankom\u0026reg; Tech. Co., Fairport, NY). These analyses were used to calculate the crude protein (\u003cb\u003eCP\u003c/b\u003e) and the net energy for lactation (\u003cb\u003eNEL\u003c/b\u003e) of grazed or harvested grass using the equations of Baumont et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMilk yield and composition\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe recorded individual milk yield at parlour twice a day using milk flow meters (MM27BC, DeLaval, Tumba, Sweden). Milk composition was measured on individual milk samples from four consecutive milkings per week at Agrolabs (Aurillac, France). Fat and protein contents were determined by mid-infrared spectroscopy. Somatic cell count (\u003cb\u003eSCC\u003c/b\u003e) was determined by epi-fluorescence. We calculated the individual milk yield and milk composition per week, per year (from 1 April 1 to 31 March), at the peak of lactation, and for the whole lactation. Energy-corrected milk (\u003cb\u003eECM\u003c/b\u003e) was calculated using the following formula: ECM (kg)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.3246 milk yield\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;12.86 fat yield\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;7.04 protein yield [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCow weight and body condition\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCows were weighed every two weeks from two months before calving until the end of lactation. Cow body condition was scored once a month during the same period and again just after calving by two trained evaluators. Body condition was expressed on a scale from 0 (very lean) to 5 (very fat) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. By interpolating the results, we calculated body weight (\u003cb\u003eBW\u003c/b\u003e) and body condition score (\u003cb\u003eBCS\u003c/b\u003e) at calving, on the first day of the mating period (or 28 days after calving if a cow calved after the start of the mating period), and at the nadir (lowest point of the curve) after calving.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eReproductive performances and health\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaretakers checked cows and heifers for oestrus three times a day during the mating period. Each cow was screened for pregnancy by a specialised technician at 43.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.6 d after the end of the mating period, using a portable ultrasound scanner. The technician determined whether or not the cow was pregnant, and if pregnant, the age of the embryo.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the dates of insemination (AI or natural mating) and the outcome of the pregnancy check, we calculated the interval between the start of the mating period and the first insemination of a cow, percentage of cows inseminated (AI or mating), percentage of cows pregnant at first insemination, percentage of cows inseminated naturally out of all cows inseminated, and percentage of pregnant cows out of all cows (inseminated or not). We also calculated the percentage of cows that actually calved at the next calving season.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaretakers checked the cows for health twice a day at the time of milking. Health disorders were classified as lameness, mastitis, urogenital problems, or other disorders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs the aim of the study was to test the two systems, not to compare them, data from each system was analysed independently. Data analysis used the mixed procedure of SAS software (SAS Institute Inc., 2013, Cary, NC). The statistical unit was the cow*lactation, referred to as \u0026lsquo;cow\u0026rsquo; in the text. The model included the effects of cow (random factor), breed (Ho vs. Mo), calving year (Year 1 to 5), and cow parity (primiparous vs. multiparous). The breed \u0026times; parity interaction initially included in the model was removed due to systematic lack of statistical significance. For each system, cow health problems and reproductive events were compared separately by breed and by parity, using chi-squared tests. The results section only reports differences that were significant (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) or tended towards significance (0.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;P\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.15).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver the 5 years, the zootechnical performance results of 8 VLI and 9 LI cows (out of 240 cow-years) were excluded from the statistical analyses due to serious health disorders or accidents leading to either dry-off before the end of the 5th month of lactation (78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;41 d) or to death.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eManagement adjustments made following the first results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver the first year of implementing the two systems, reproductive performances were poor, with only 44% of adult cows with a confirmed positive pregnancy diagnosis, regardless of system and breed. To overcome these poor reproductive performances and maintain 24 cows (12 Ho and 12 Mo) milked in each system during the summer, we decided to extend the lactation of non-pregnant cows by eight to ten months and to put them back into service the following spring. Indeed, cow lactation can be extended by several months without putting future production at risk [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. This adjustment led to two types of lactation, i.e. standard lactation (\u003cb\u003eSTD)\u003c/b\u003e and extended lactation (\u003cb\u003eEXT)\u003c/b\u003e, where EXT performance was broken down into first year of extended lactation (EXT 1st year) and second year of extended lactation (EXT 2nd year). Depending on the year, 7 to 23 cows had an extended lactation. Consequently, the type of lactation (STD vs. EXT or STD, EXT 1st year, EXT 2nd year) was introduced as a fixed effect in the statistical analyses for zootechnical performance data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver the second year, 4 Ho and 2 Mo female calves were born in VLI and 3 Ho and 2 Mo female calves were born in LI. This was still not sufficient to ensure the herd renewal with female calves from each system. We thus decided to implement two adjustment practices from the third year. First, we used pure Ho or Mo sexed semen for AI on heifers (which have better fertility than older cows). Over the last three years, the use of sexed semen on heifers resulted in 70% of the calves born from these heifers were female (compared with 44% for adult cows). Second, we replaced the two Limousine bulls with one Ho bull and one Mo bull, alternating them weekly between the VLI and LI systems. This resulted in 3.3 more dairy calves born each year (Ho, Mo or Ho\u0026times;Mo crossbred), with an average percentage of purebred (Ho or Mo) female calves rising from 30\u0026ndash;43%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePerformances of the VLI system over the five years\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProduction of pasture\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver the five-year course of the experiment, 53% of the VLI area (31.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0 ha) was mown in first cut between 2 June and 24 July (average 27 June) and 20% of the VLI area (12.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.1 ha) was mown in the second cut. The first cut yielded 3.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.9 t DM hay/ha, with 86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.3 g CP and 1171\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;111 kcal NEL per kg DM of hay. The 2nd cut yielded 1.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8 t DM hay/ha, with 120\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.7 g CP and 1327\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;107 kcal NEL per kg DM of hay.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver the five-year course of the experiment, the system achieved 199\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;70.8 LU grazing days per ha of pasture and 70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;49.4 LU grazing days per ha of harvested plot. The grazed grass of all the pastures contained on average 144\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;26.3 g CP and 1460\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;143 kcal NEL per kg DM.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMilk yield and composition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe VLI system involved a total of 60 cows and produced a total of 486,000 kg of milk over the five years (97,200\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12,000 kg/y). Each day, 18.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.6 cows were milked and produced 14.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.8 kg of milk. Twenty-six EXT lactations were recorded, and these EXT lactations lasted nearly twice as long as STD lactations. Duration of lactations varied between years due to the varying number of EXT lactations, with no difference between breeds or parity (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Most of the milk (362,000 kg, i.e. 74.5%) was collected when the cows were at pasture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMilk production, milk composition, body weight (BW) and body condition score (BCS) of cows in the very-low-input (VLI) system over 5 years (averages by type of lactation, breed and parity, and model effects)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"15\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of lactation\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTD\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(59%)*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEXT \u003cem\u003e(41%)*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHo\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(50%)*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMo\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(50%)*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(37%)*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(63%)*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1st year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2nd year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuration of lactation (d)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e290\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e558\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e424\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e425\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e427\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e422\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMilk yield at lactation peak (kg/d)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMilk production per lactation (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 552\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 454\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 238\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 768\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 870\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 135\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e177\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e duration of milk production (d)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e295\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e331\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e216\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e278\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e284\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e284\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e milk production (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 644\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 047\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 332\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 191\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 824\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 799\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 216\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e124\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e energy-corrected milk\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 968\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 371\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 716\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 495\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 209\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 111\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 592\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e127\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e milk fat content (g/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.8\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.2\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e milk protein content (g/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.2\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.5\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.9\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e somatic cell count (log\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e /mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.071\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW at mating\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e594\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e587\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e584\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e603\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e581\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e606\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.072\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBCS at mating\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e [0\u0026ndash;5]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.030\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW at calving (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e746\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e721\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e736\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e732\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e723\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e744\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW at nadir after calving (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e574\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e565\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e559\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e580\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e557\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e582\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBCS at calving [0\u0026ndash;5]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBCS at nadir after calving [0\u0026ndash;5]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003e* Percentage of cows in each category\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e STD (standard) or EXT (extended) for the whole lactation; STD, EXT 1st year or EXT 2nd year for annual data\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e From 1 April to 31 March\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e Energy-corrected milk\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.3246 \u0026times; milk yield\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;12.86 \u0026times; fat yield\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;7.04 \u0026times; protein yield\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e The first day of the mating period or 28 days after calving if calving occurred after the start of the mating period\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u0026minus;c\u003c/sup\u003e Means within a row with different superscript letters differ at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the STD and EXT 1st year cows, the peak of lactation took place after turning out to pasture (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). A second peak, less high than the first one, was observed in EXT 2nd year cows after the second turn out to pasture. Milk yield at peak of lactation was the same for STD and EXT 1st year lactations (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) and was higher for Ho than Mo cows (+\u0026thinsp;3.6 kg/d) and higher for MP than PP cows (+\u0026thinsp;4.0 kg/d). Milk production per lactation was 2902 kg higher in EXT than STD lactations (+\u0026thinsp;63.8%), and Ho cows produced 470 kg more milk per lactation than Mo cows (+\u0026thinsp;8.1%). There was no significant difference in milk produced between MP and PP cows. Annual duration of milk production (from 1 April to 31 March) was 36 days shorter for STD cows than EXT 1st year cows, with no significant difference in the amount of milk produced per year. During their second year of lactation, EXT cows produced for 7.2 months and with a lower daily milk yield than in the first year of lactation (-4.0 kg/d, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Consequently, the annual milk production of cows varied with the proportion of extended lactations (-262 kg for each additional 10% of EXT 2nd year cows, R\u0026sup2; = 0.77; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). During their whole lactation, EXT cows produced milk in amounts equivalent to 79.4% of two years of STD cows when expressed as raw milk and 81.4% when expressed as ECM.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe annual milk from the VLI cows contained 41.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.6 g/kg fat and 33.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.7 g/kg protein with 325 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e cells/mL. Milk composition was similar between STD and EXT 1st year cows. Milk from EXT 2nd year cows contained more fat (+\u0026thinsp;4.6 g/kg) and more protein (+\u0026thinsp;6.6 g/kg) than milk from STD and EXT 1st year cows.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCow weight and body condition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn average, the BW of VLI cows decreased from 734 kg at calving to 570 kg at nadir (48 days after) and their BCS decreased from 2.73 to 1.24 (54 days after). At calving, there was no difference in BW between Ho and Mo cows, MP cows tended to be heavier than PP cows (+\u0026thinsp;21 kg), and STD cows were 25 kg heavier than EXT cows (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). At nadir after calving, MP cows were heavier than PP cows (+\u0026thinsp;25 kg) and Mo cows tended to be heavier than Ho cows (+\u0026thinsp;21 kg). At calving, MP cows were leaner than PP cows (-0.61 points), and BCS varied among years. After calving, Ho cows had a lower BCS than Mo cows (-0.26 points at nadir). Extending the lactation period tended to result in higher BCS at mating (+\u0026thinsp;0.14 points in EXT 2nd year cows compared to EXT 1st year cows).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHealth and reproductive performances\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOut of 112 cow-years, lameness was the most common health problem (57 cases), followed by urogenital disorders (19 cases of retained placenta, metritis, or ovarian cysts) and clinical mastitis (18 cases). EXT 2nd year cows were less often affected by urogenital disorders than EXT 1st year or STD cows. There were no between-breed differences in health problems except for mastitis that affected five times more Ho cows than Mo cows (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). There was no effect of parity on health problems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth problems and reproductive performances of cows and heifers in the very-low-input (VLI) system over 5 years (averages by type of animal or lactation and breed, and model effects)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of animal or lactation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeifers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTD \u0026amp;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEXT 1st year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEXT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2nd year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLameness (% of cows)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMastitis (% of cows)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrogenital disorders (% of cows)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCows inseminated (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.4\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst insemination\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e (d)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.7\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCows pregnant/cows inseminated (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.8\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.1\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.9\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePregnant cows at 1st insemination\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCows pregnant after bull servicing\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.4\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.8\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePregnant cows calving the next year (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.6\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85.0\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCows put on reproduction calving the next year (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.6\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.7\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e Interval between the start of the mating period and the first insemination\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e Among cows diagnosed as pregnant\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly about two-thirds of STD and EXT 1st year cows were inseminated (by AI or natural service) whereas almost all EXT 2nd year cows and heifers were inseminated and on average their first insemination was 17 days earlier (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Among these inseminated females, heifers were more often diagnosed as pregnant than STD and EXT 1st year cows. STD and EXT 1st year cows had 3.5-times more pregnancies by natural mating than EXT 2nd year cows that were mostly pregnant at first insemination by AI (70%, NS). Among the females diagnosed as pregnant, all the heifers calved, whereas about 17% of the adult cows had late abortions. As a result, about three quarters of heifers and EXT 2nd year cows put into reproduction calved the following year, versus only a third of STD and EXT 1st year cows. There was no breed effect on reproductive performances. At present, the causes of cow late abortions are not known: late abortions occurred at a time when cows were regaining weight and body condition and so cannot be attributed to a negative energy balance; in addition, we did not identify abortive plants in pasture plots.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePerformances of the LI system over the five years\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProduction of pastures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver the five-year course of the experiment, 71% of the LI area (20.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.65 ha) was mown at first cut between 23 May and 30 June (average 14 June) and 38% of the LI area (11.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.38 ha) was mown at second cut (average 19 August), and 18% of first-cut hay and 15% of second-cut hay was dried indoors. The first cut yielded 2.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5 t DM hay/ha, with 100\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;29.9 g CP and 1267\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;141 kcal NEL per kg DM. The second cut yielded 2.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9 t DM hay/ha, with 110\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.5 g CP and 1264\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;88 kcal NEL per kg DM.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOver the five-year course of the experiment, the system achieved 400\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;74.7 LU grazing days per ha of pasture and 133\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;104.4 LU grazing days per ha of mown plots. The grazed grass of all pastures contained 172\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;29.6 g CP and 1560\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;133 kcal NEL per kg DM.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMilk yield and composition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe LI system involved a total of 50 cows and produced 550,000 kg of milk over the five years (109,900\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14,300 kg/y). Each day, 18.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.1 cows were milked and produced 16.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.1 kg of milk. Twenty-seven EXT lactations were recorded, and these 27 EXT lactations lasted twice as long as STD lactations. Duration of lactations varied between years due to the varying number of EXT lactations, with no difference between breeds or parity (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Most of the milk (428000 kg, i.e. 77.9%) was collected when the cows were at pasture.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMilk production, milk composition, body weight (BW) and body condition score (BCS) of cows in the low-input (LI) system over 5 years (averages by type of lactation, breed and parity, and model effects)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"15\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of lactation\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTD\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(58%)*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEXT \u003cem\u003e(42%)*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHo\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(52%)*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMo\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(48%)*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(34%)*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMP\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(66%)*\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e1st year\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2nd year\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuration of lactation (d)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e296\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e589\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e450\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e436\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e443\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e442\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMilk yield at lactation peak (kg/d)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMilk production by lactation (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 939\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 647\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 320\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 266\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 201\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 385\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e205\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e duration of milk production (d)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e303\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e328\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e254\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e290\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e294\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e296\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e milk production (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 175\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 487\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 208\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 231\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 159\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 089\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e147\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e energy-corrected milk\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 423\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 711\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 566\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 245\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 555\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 395\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 405\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e146\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e milk fat content (g/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.9\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e milk protein content (g/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.6\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.0\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnnual\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e somatic cell count (log\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e /mL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.032\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW at mating\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e564\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e549\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e574\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e556\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e568\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e530\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e594\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBCS at mating\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e [0\u0026ndash;5]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.031\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW at calving (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e692\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e676\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e684\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e684\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e648\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e720\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBW at nadir after calving (kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e547\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e537\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e538\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e546\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e508\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e576\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBCS at calving [0\u0026ndash;5]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.058\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.039\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBCS at nadir after calving [0\u0026ndash;5]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003e* Percentage of cows in each category\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e STD (standard) or EXT (extended) for the whole lactation; STD, EXT 1st year or EXT 2nd year for annual data\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e From 1 April to 31 March\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e Energy-corrected milk\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.3246 \u0026times; milk yield\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;12.86 \u0026times; fat yield\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;7.04 \u0026times; protein yield\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e The first day of the mating period or 28 days after calving if calving occurred after the start of the mating period\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u0026minus;c\u003c/sup\u003e Means within a row with different superscript letters differ at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the STD and EXT 1st year cows, the nadir of lactation took place after turning out to pasture (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). A second peak, less high than the first one, was observed in EXT 2nd year cows after the second turn out to pasture. Milk yield at peak lactation was the same for STD and EXT 1st year lactations (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) and higher for Ho cows than Mo cows (+\u0026thinsp;4.4 kg/d) and higher for MP cows than PP cows (+\u0026thinsp;7.0 kg/d). Milk production per lactation was 3708 kg higher in EXT than STD lactations (+\u0026thinsp;75.1%). Ho cows produced 1054 kg more milk per lactation than Mo cows. MP cows produced 1184 kg more milk per lactation than PP cows. Annual duration of milk production (from 1 April to 31 March) was 25 days longer in EXT 1st year cows than STD cows, with no significant difference in the amount of milk produced per year. During their second lactation year, the EXT cows produced for 8.5 months with a lower daily milk yield than in their first lactation year (-4.2 kg/d, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Consequently, the annual production of the cows varied with the proportion of extended lactations (-305 kg for each additional 10% of EXT cows, R\u0026sup2; = 0.65; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). During their whole lactation, EXT cows produced milk in amounts equivalent to 84.0% of two years of STD cows when expressed as raw milk and 85.5% when expressed as ECM.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe annual milk from the LI cows contained 39.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.9 g/kg fat and 33.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.7 g/kg protein with 291 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e cells/mL. Milk composition was similar between STD and EXT 1st year cows. Milk from EXT 2nd year cows contained more fat (+\u0026thinsp;2.3 g/kg) and more protein (+\u0026thinsp;5.1 g/kg) than milk from STD and EXT 1st year cows.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCow weight and body condition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn average, the BW of LI cows decreased from 684 kg at calving to 542 kg at nadir (44 days after) and their BCS decreased from 2.54 to 1.25 (54 days after). At calving, there was no difference in BW between Ho and Mo cows, MP cows were heavier than PP cows (+\u0026thinsp;72 kg), and STD and EXT cows weighed the same (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The weight difference between MP and PP cows persisted at nadir (+\u0026thinsp;68 kg). BW at nadir and BCS at calving varied among years. At nadir, BCS was lower in Ho cows than Mo cows (-0.26 points). Compared with the first year, EXT cows regained weight at mating in the second year (+\u0026thinsp;25 kg), but did not regain BCS.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHealth and reproductive performances\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Out of 111 cow-years, lameness was the most common cow health problem (39 cases), followed by clinical mastitis (20 cases) and urogenital disorders (14 cases). With no clinical mastitis or urogenital disease recorded, EXT 2nd year cows were significantly less affected than EXT 1st year or STD cows. Ho cows tended to be more affected by urogenital disorders than Mo cows (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). There was no parity effect on incidence of health problems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth problems and reproductive performances of cows and heifers in the low-input (LI) system over 5 years (averages by type of animal or lactation and breed, and model effects)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of animal or lactation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeifers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSTD \u0026amp;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEXT 1st year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEXT\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2nd year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBreed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLameness (% of cows)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMastitis (% of cows)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrogenital trouble (% of cows)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.093\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCows inseminated (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.1\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.5\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst insemination\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e (d)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.8\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.6\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCows pregnant/cows inseminated (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.2\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.8\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81.5\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePregnant cows at 1st insemination\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCows pregnant after bull servicing\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePregnant cows calving the next year (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCows put on reproduction calving the next year (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.3\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.8\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e Interval between the start of the mating period and the first insemination\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e Among cows diagnosed as pregnant\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly about three-quarters of STD and EXT 1st year cows were inseminated (by AI or natural service) whereas almost all EXT 2nd year cows and heifers were inseminated. On average EXT 2nd year cows were first inseminated 10 days earlier than STD and EXT 1st year cows (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Among these inseminated females, heifers and EXT 2nd year cows were more often diagnosed as pregnant than STD and EXT 1st year cows. EXT 2nd year cows tended to have fewer pregnancies by natural mating than STD and EXT 1st year cows. Less than 7% of all females diagnosed as pregnant had late abortions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a result, about three-quarters of heifers and EXT 2nd year cows calved the following year, compared with only a third of STD and EXT 1st year cows. There was no breed effect on reproductive performances.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHere we designed an experiment to test two mountain pasture-based dairy farming systems: a very-low-input system (VLI) that uses almost no inputs and a low-input system (LI) that used minimal inputs (concentrates, fertilisers). Both systems aimed to produce milk primarily when cows are grazing at pasture. The key finding is that producing milk in such conditions is achievable with high-yielding breeds, but requires adaptations to system management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eThe primary challenge faced by low-input systems is cow fertility. Specific adjustments to the reproduction management are necessary to address this issue\u003c/b\u003e. High-yielding cows show impaired reproductive performances in pasture based-systems compared to conventional systems [reviewed by 27]. During the first year of implementing the VLI and LI systems, reproductive performances were very poor, with less than half of the cows pregnant at the end of the mating period, even though mating took place in spring when grass production was at its maximum. Both systems required cows to conceive within 10 weeks after calving in order to ensure that peak milk production coincided with maximum grass production every year. The low success of reproduction during this time-slot put production at risk for the subsequent years due to the potential presence of unproductive cows and a lack of female calves to renew the herd. We thus made several adjustments to reproductive management. First, the lactation of non-pregnant cows was extended by 8\u0026ndash;10 months, and these cows were put back into service at the next spring. The cows subjected to extended lactations showed good reproductive performance in their second year of lactation, as proportionally twice as many extended-lactation cows calved the following year than adult cows inseminated within 10 weeks after calving. The success of mating largely depends on the nutritional status of cows [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. In both VLI and LI systems, the cows had a low body condition, especially after calving (1.25 at nadir). Not all cows had started to regain body condition when the mating season started - before BCS nadir for most of cows -, which explains the low success of mating. Extending the lactation without pregnancy helped the cows regain core body reserves. Indeed, the extended-lactation cows had a better body condition at mating in the second year of lactation compared to the first year, especially in the VLI system. Second, heifers were inseminated with pure dairy-breed sexed semen, and dairy bulls were used for natural mating on females that had failed to conceive by AI. This change allowed to increase the proportion of pure-breed female calves (Ho or Mo) up to 43% of calvings. This proportion ensured herd renewal, even though nearly 30% of the cows failed to reproduce each year.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eExtending the lactation of non-pregnant cows maintains all-herd milk production\u003c/b\u003e. In both VLI and LI systems, cows transitioned to extended lactation produced 80.4% as much milk as cows with standard lactations during the same time (two years). For both systems, the milk from extended lactations contained more fat and protein in the second year of lactation than milk from standard lactations, as already reported in the literature [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. When correcting milk production for energy content, cows in extended lactations produced 84.8% as much milk as cows in standard lactations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eThe milk production of VLI and LI cows was close to that of cows in other mountain grass-based systems using high-yielding breeds and little concentrate.\u003c/b\u003e Ho cows produced on average 5245 kg of ECM and consumed 825 kg concentrates per year in the LI system and 4495 kg of ECM per year with no concentrates at all in the VLI system. Milk production by the LI Ho cows was slightly lower than reported in the literature for high-yielding cows in similar high-altitude conditions (430 to 1050 m a.s.l.) and with limited reliance on concentrates, i.e. 5570 kg ECM for a specific strain of Holstein Friesian, 5530 kg for New-Zealand Holstein, and 5840 kg for Swiss Holstein, all when receiving 260 to 280 kg concentrates [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. The difference between the results of our LI cows and those reported in the literature may come from the fact that 1) we allowed non-pregnant cows to stay in lactation for a second year whereas in the other studies these cows were culled, 2) we did not provide any supplemented forage at pasture, and/or 3) our pasture had a lower nutritive value (17.2 g crude protein/kg grass in LI pastures vs. 20 g/kg in Piccand et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] and Horn et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]), probably due to less fertilisation. We found no reports on dairy cows receiving no concentrates, and so we cannot compare the results of the VLI cows with the literature.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMontb\u0026eacute;liarde and Holstein cows can equally be used in low-input systems\u003c/b\u003e. In the VLI and LI systems, Ho cows produced more milk than Mo cows but with a lower protein content. Such differences between Ho and Mo cows have been widely reported in the literature [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e] and appear to be independent of the system in which these cows are raised. The higher milk production of Ho cows is obtained at the expense of more mobilisation of body reserves, especially in early lactation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Indeed, in our study, Ho cows were in poorer body condition than Mo cows after calving. Note however that reproductive performances did not differ between Ho and Mo cows. On average, in the VLI and LI systems, Mo cows had slightly healthier udders (half as many cases of mastitis, significant in VLI), as frequently reported regardless of the production system [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Overall, there were no substantial differences between the Ho and Mo cows, and any minor differences appear to be independent of the systems used.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eVLI and LI systems are both technically efficient and both have pros and cons.\u003c/b\u003e Over the five-year course of the experiment, the VLI system produced 486,000 kg of milk and consumed just 3.12 t of concentrates (used for female calves) while the LI system produced 550,000 kg of milk but consumed 130.6 t of concentrates. Therefore, the VLI produced 156.8 kg of milk per kg of concentrates invested whereas the LI system only produced 4.2 kg of milk per kg of concentrates. Note too that the VLI system also used no mineral fertilisers. VLI thus emerges as extremely efficient in terms of concentrate use and is almost self-sufficient on inputs. In contrast, the LI system used half as much grassland as the VLI system (29.6 ha vs. 59.9 ha) and is thus more than twice as efficient in terms of grassland use: the LI system produced 3720 kg of milk per ha per year whereas VLI only produced 1630 kg. The LI system had double the number of grazing days per ha and double the area mown twice a year compared to the VLI system. This increased intensity of land utilisation was made possible by a higher grass growth resulting from a combination of more productive grassland originating from former temporary grassland with the use of mineral nitrogen (37 kg mineral N spread/ha/year). Consequently, as the VLI system is almost self-sufficient, it is well-adapted to a context of a drastic reduction of inputs, while the LI system is a good option if land availability is low. However, both systems require adaptive management due to the need for a flexible approach to cow reproduction, which may increase the mental workload on farmers. In addition, as cows are continuously lactating (due to extended lactation for some cows), there are no real herd-wide dry periods that would enable the farmers to enjoy low-workload periods. Finally, from an animal welfare perspective, the presence of animals with very low body condition after calving may raise concerns.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eThe technical results of low-input systems can be further improved by further adjustments.\u003c/b\u003e First, natural mating instead of AI from the beginning of the mating period could improve herd fertility. This decision could be guided by the need to obtain female calves to renew the herd. Second, once-a-day milking for several weeks at the beginning of lactation could limit the loss in body weight and condition, resulting in less negative energy balance, a quicker return to ovarian cyclicity, and therefore earlier pregnancy after calving [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, if once-a-day milking is applied at the start of the breeding season (instead of beginning of lactation), it will have little effect on milk production [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur results show that mountain-area dairy farmers can turn to low-input systems while keeping high-yielding cows, provided they adopt specific animal nutrition and reproduction management practices, namely aligning the lactation curve with the grass growth curve, extending lactations, and using sexed semen or natural mating. However, in low-input systems, high-yielding cows produce milk at the expense of their body condition and this can be a concern if cows become too lean during lactation. Further studies are needed to assess the environmental impacts and economic efficiency of these low-input dairy systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe protocol was approved by the regional committee on animal research and ethics (CEMEA Auvergne, approval No.\u0026nbsp;CE 21-13).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/h3\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are available in the Recherche.data.gouv.fr\u0026nbsp;repository:\u0026nbsp;https://entrepot.recherche.data.gouv.fr/privateurl.xhtml?token=5ff0b530-547a-4f36-a26e-c4714f318f49\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eFunding\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was fully funded by INRAE.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDP: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing, Visualization, Supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAF: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing, Supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFF: Methodology, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIV: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing - Original Draft, Writing - Review \u0026amp; Editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors thank the staff of the INRAE Herbip\u0026ocirc;le experimental farm in Marcenat for animal care and data collection, and Metaform Langues for English language editing. The work presented here falls within the thematic area of the French government IDEX-ISITE initiative 16-IDEX-0001 (CAP 20-25), and specifically the IRC-SAE (international research centre on sustainable agroecosystems).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBattaglini L, Bovolenta S, Gusmeroli F, et al (2014) Environmental Sustainability of Alpine Livestock Farms. Ital J Anim Sci 13:3155. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2014.3155\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4081/ijas.2014.3155\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBerton M, Bittante G, Zendri F, et al (2020) Environmental impact and efficiency of use of resources of different mountain dairy farming systems. 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J Dairy Sci 96:3401\u0026ndash;3413. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/DOI 10.3168/jds.2012\u0026ndash;6074\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"DOI 10.3168/jds.2012\u0026ndash;6074\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePomi\u0026egrave;s D, Fournier F (2017) Once daily milking after calving: a practice to overcome reproduction problems in mountain low-input dairy systems. In: Sturaro E (ed) 12th International Meeting on Mountain Cheese, 20\u0026ndash;22 June 2017, Padova, Italy. pp 77\u0026ndash;81\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"dairy-science-and-management","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Dairy Science and Management](https:/dairysciencemanagement.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"44363","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44363/3","title":"Dairy Science and Management","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Dairy cow, Breed, Fertility, Extended lactation, Grassland, Pasture-based system","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5790286/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5790286/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe majority of dairy farms in mountainous European regions rely heavily on concentrates to supplement herbage-based diets for high-yielding cows. This puts their economic sustainability at risk. We need to design management systems that enable milk production from herbage with few inputs. To examine whether low input systems could be technically efficient with high-yielding breeds, we tested two experimental farming systems - a Very-Low-Input system (VLI) and a Low-Input System (LI) - with Holstein and Montb\u0026eacute;liarde cows for five years (24 cows/system.year), with a short mating season in spring to align the milk and the grass production curves. VLI used almost no concentrates and no mineral fertilisers. LI used less concentrates and mineral fertilisers than conventional systems while safeguarding milk production and nitrogen balance of the land. Reproductive management needed to be adjusted to ensure herd renewal while keeping lactation and grass growth curves synchronised: Sexed semen was used on heifers, natural mating was applied at the end of the mating season, and the lactation of some cows was extended by 8\u0026ndash;10 months while these cows were mated the next year. The cows with extended lactations produced around 80% as much milk as cows with standard lactations during the same time (two years). Over the five years, the VLI system produced 486,000 kg of milk and consumed 3.12 t of concentrates (used only for female calves) while the LI system produced 550,000 kg of milk and consumed 130.6 t of concentrates, resulting in 156.8 vs. 4.2 kg of milk/kg of concentrates in VLI and LI, respectively. The VLI system used twice as much grassland as the LI system (59.9 vs. 29.6 ha) and is thus less than half as efficient in land use (1630 vs. 3720 kg of milk/ha.year). We conclude that the VLI system is well-adapted to a context of a drastic reduction of inputs because it is almost self-sufficient, while LI is a good option if land availability is low. However, if high-yielding cows are to be maintained in both systems, it is necessary to adopt a flexible approach to cow reproduction, such as extending lactations. In addition, the body condition of these cows is put at risk in such systems, which can raise welfare concerns.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The need for adaptive management of high-yielding dairy cows in low-input mountain systems","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-03-26 20:49:33","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5790286/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-04-22T12:00:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-20T20:56:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-04-17T02:38:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"145837605254253796385569038015723773695","date":"2025-04-07T23:20:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"250865363798016923572899690673482652229","date":"2025-04-07T09:54:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"72850838204261955750326016954652999996","date":"2025-04-07T08:06:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-03-25T09:22:47+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-03-25T06:02:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Dairy Science and Management","date":"2025-03-24T15:45:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"dairy-science-and-management","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Dairy Science and Management](https:/dairysciencemanagement.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"44363","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44363/3","title":"Dairy Science and Management","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"18107cfb-ffd2-4404-bc92-9ffeec79bc11","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 26th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-06T10:38:49+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-03-26 20:49:33","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5790286","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5790286","identity":"rs-5790286","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}