Biodegradable Products from renewable sources: Impact on Replacing Single Use Plastic for Protecting the Environment

Biodegradable Products from renewable sources: Impact on Replacing Single Use Plastic for Protecting the Environment | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Biodegradable Products from renewable sources: Impact on Replacing Single Use Plastic for Protecting the Environment Anjineyulu kothakota, Rakesh Raghunathan, Puja Nelluri, Dileepmon Rajendran, and 5 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1864716/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Plastics are ubiquitous in many sectors including, but not limited to, construction, textiles, electronics and transportation. The immoderate use of single-use plastics has wreaked havoc on society. The intensifying environmental pollution and waste accumulation have driven the scientific communities and industries to shift their focus on biodegradable materials. An ecofriendly and sustainable economic system demands proper usage of raw materials and substitution of fossil fuel-based resources with renewable materials. Of late, bio-based constituents have attracted considerable attention from the public in view of ecological safety and economic interests. Bio-based sources are cost-effective, reusable, sustainable, clean and reduce the ecological footprint. Biopolymers can be derived from biomass (polysaccharides, proteins, lipids), bio-derived substances (polylactate) or from microorganisms (PHB, PHA, Xanthum gum). The commonly used polysaccharides include starch, cellulose, gums and chitosan. However, the hydrophilic nature of most of the polysaccharides affects the physical and mechanical properties and is not on par with the synthetic plastics that are generally used. In order to expand the applications of biodegradable polymers in various sectors, it is imperative to address the challenges associated with gas permeability, processing method, thermal stability etc. Various physical and chemical modification methods are employed to overcome these limitations. Creating awareness among the public and encouraging them to use renewable sources is important. There is a strong need to develop innovative biodegradable products and promote them by fostering collaboration among entrepreneurs, researchers and the government. This paper provides an overview of the biodegradable materials that can be produced from different sources such as vegetable and fruit waste, cereals and pulses waste, seaweeds, animal waste, wood waste, traditional sources and aims to address the current limitations and indicate the future directions. single-use plastics biodegradable polysaccharide modification methods renewable sources Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1. Introduction The annual global consumption of plastics is around 359 million tonnes with an average global per capita consumption of plastics about 28 kg per year in the year 2018. Japan has the highest per capita consumption of plastics of 114 kg followed by USA with 109 kg as per capita consumption ( https://www.statista.com/chart/17564/annual-per-capita-production-of-plastic-by-region/ ). India consumes as much as 15 million tonnes of plastics annually with per capita consumption of 11 kg. Out of all plastics that are being produced, only 9 % is being recycled, while the rest is partly incinerated and partly thrown as landfills and posing a serious threat to the environment (Rashid, 2019). Due to the ease in use of plastics and economic benefits, there has been a great rise in production and utilization of plastics. However, they act as a menace to the marine life and cause serious ecological issues. Moreover, plastics are largely produced from non-renewable resources which are very limited and question their future availability. Hence there is a need for finding an alternative to plastics which are abundant and eco-friendly. Biodegradable materials are the materials that have the ability to degrade without leaving toxic residues in the environment (Patel et al., 2011). They can also be considered as green polymers because they are derived from renewable materials such as agro wastes, animal hides, organic wastes from processing industries etc. Biodegradable materials can be used to make packaging films, cutleries, fiber boards, composite films, plates, bags, bowls, paper, leather, insulating materials, coating and waxing materials and edible films. Most of these things are made from fruits, vegetables, wood, animal skins, sea weeds, cereals, pulses, millets, leaves, plant fibers, rejected processing industrial wastes etc. To fabricate any biodegradable material, the primary requisites are raw materials, additives, binders, colorants, stabilizers and processing aids. Various methods can be employed for making biodegradable plastics. A few of the widely used methods are injection molding, compression molding, solution casting, extrusion, surface modification techniques, bio coatings, solution intercalation, cast tape drying, solvent intercalation and ionic cross linking etc., Depending upon the raw materials and end product requirement, the desired method can be chosen for manufacturing. Binders are important in the manufacture of biodegradable materials because they are known to influence the extent of biodegradability. Binders may be synthetic or natural, they help in binding the particles together. Natural binders are obtained from plant and animal sources which include alginate, chitosan, starch, cellulose, protein, lignin, resins and similar other products. Binders can also be produced by microbial methods. A few of the binders produced through microbial route are poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and polyhydroxybutyrate cohydroxyvalerate (PHBv) (Vieira et al., 2011). Synthetic binders are obtained by polymerization process with agriculture sources are polylactic acid, polyvinyl acetate, ecoflex, bionolle etc. are subjecting natural polymers to chemical processes. Our objective of this paper is to develop biodegradable products from renewable sources and this step would lead us to the origination of “green” products and processing technologies. Even binders used for this production from agriculture waste. The chosen material must be a source of food for the bacteria, animals, fishes to feed on in the disposal area. Also, the process of biodegradation must happen in shorter time duration (within six months) A schematic representation of the model shown in Table 1 depicts various biodegradable product charcestistics from various renewable resource. <> 2. Additives 2.1 Plasticizers: Plasticizers are the non-volatile compounds that enhance the flexibility and workability of the substances (Sejidov et al., 2005). They are mainly divided into two types: water soluble and insoluble. Synthetic plasticizers are generally not preferred due to its toxicity. Traditionally, biodegradable products are produced from natural sources like areca leaves, sal leaves, coconut shells, bamboo and banana fibres. They are widely used to manufacture plates, bowls, cutleries, bags, spoons, wraps, cardboard paper etc., However, due to the absence of binders and other suitable processing methods, they possess less tensile strength and restricted usage. In such cases, there is a need for the development of biodegradable materials from other sources such as agricultural produce and wastes, animal sources and other processing waste. A wide range of raw materials such as fruit peels, rice husk, rice bran and straws, wheat bran and husk, cereal and pulses waste etc., serve as useful starting materials for potential biodegradable derivatives. Vegan leather can also be produced from certain plant sources like mango, barks of trees, sugarcane bagasse, leaf fibers, cactus plants etc. applications of the developed products in various sectors and the impact on environment. 2.2 Binders Binders are the compounds that bind the particles together by means of cohesion. They are also used to improve the functional properties of the materials. Binders are of different types and can be classified in many ways. Depending upon the nature of their source, they may be natural or synthetic. Carrageenan, a sulphated polysaccharide is derived from red algae and can be extracted in different forms like kappa, nu, mu, iota, ksi, lambda, and theta. They are useful as gelation, thickening, stabilizing and binding agents. They can also be used in cosmetics, pharmaceutical formulations and other industrial applications. Alginate is another polysaccharide which can be derived from brown algae and bacterial sources and is mostly available in the forms of sodium alginate, potassium alginate and calcium alginate. This can be used as a gelling agent, stabilizer, texture improver and emulsifier in the food sector, biomaterials in pharmaceutical industries and in cosmetics for retention of color properties (Wahab & Abd Razak, 2016). Chitosan is an amino polysaccharide derived from chitin which is prominent in the exoskeleton of insects, crustaceans, and fungi and is obtained by subjecting chitin to partial alkaline deacetylation. It is a natural polymer and can be used in wide range of sectors like food, agriculture, and pharmaceuticals. Starch is an another important highly branched polysaccharide containing amylose and amylopectin and is present in many parts of the plant. Native starch does not possess any thermoplastic property. However, with the introduction of plasticizers and thermal shearing, it can be converted into thermoplastic starch. Though water is generally used as a plasticizer, some resulting product turns brittle with time because of the escaping tendency of water. Therefore, other plasticizers like sugars, glycerol, sorbitol etc. are used to form a rubber-like product (Mohanty et al., 2005). Cellulose, widely known natural polymer, is an essential and versatile polysaccharide composed of a linear chain with ringed glucose molecules and is present in cell walls of plant cells (Wahab & Abd Razak, 2016). Different protein sources like whey protein, casein, zein, gluten and soy protein can also be used as natural polymers to produce different biodegradable packaging materials (Rydz et al., 2018). Plant based gums like gum Arabica, cassia gum, guar gum and other seed gums are other widely used natural polysaccharides which have applications like thickening, binding, edible coatings, drug delivery systems, pharmaceutical applications and emulsifier etc (Saha et al., 2017). Other types of natural binders include gelatin which is widely obtained from the skin and bones of animals and polyesters obtained from microorganisms (Hanani et al ., 2012). It can be used as a thickening, gelling, emulsifying and binding agent. Polyesters like polyhydroxyalkanoates are obtained from microorganisms and they can be decomposed by their enzymatic actions. These are linear and thermoplastic polyesters and are classified into two types namely polyhydroxybutyrate and polyhydroxyoctanoate (Gross & Kalra, 2002). Synthetic binders, which are also biodegradable in nature, are made from low molecular weight compounds by subjecting them to polymerization processes (Rendón‐Villalobos et al., 2016). Some of the synthetic binders are polylactic acid (PLA) and polycaprolactone. PLA is a synthetic binder obtained by condensation of lactides. It has two isomers and can be used in producing commercial packaging films and in medical applications. Polycaprolactone, which has a low melting point and widely used in orthopedic casts and pigment dispersants, is obtained by open ring polymerization of ε-caprolactone. Other types of binders include semi synthetic binders which are obtained by introducing natural polymers into the synthetic polymers. For example, natural starch can be incorporated into synthetic polymers to improve their biodegradability (Rendón‐Villalobos et al., 2016). The various biodegradable binders from various renewable resources is observed in Table 2. <> 3. Methods To Prepare Biodegradable Materials The development and preparation of biodegradable materials is an interesting and challenging task due to the incompatibility between the raw materials, complexity and innovation involved, difficulty in testing the developed materials and others. The success of the method depends on the mechanical and physical aspects of the manufactured biodegradable products and their compatibility with nature. There are different methods available for manufacturing the biodegradable materials. Some of them are cooking method, wet method, dry method and casting methods Cooking method involves different steps. The first step is the extraction of pulp from raw materials either by chemical or mechanical processing of the plant fibers. This is continued by the mixing of pulp with suitable binders and cooking. The final step is the preparation of sheets from the cooked pulp followed by compression for making the end product with desired shape and size. Then the obtained products are tested for their quality characteristics like strength, water resistance, biodegradability etc. Wet method is the method in which desired raw materials and binders are mixed and grinded properly. Then the grinded mixture is kneaded to form a dough of required consistency and flexibility. Kneading modifies the structures of the components present in the mixture to give them the required characteristics. Then the prepared dough is molded into different shapes either by compression molding or injection molding. Compression molding is a type of molding where the raw materials are compressed into the molds to obtain different shapes. It can be done in two ways namely; heat pressing in a compression oven (100 - 180°C for 10-15 min) and cold pressing (60 - 80°C) by means of a hydraulic press. Development of biodegradable products like potato leather, cups of different sizes can be made from compression molding (Baranova 2019). Injection molding can be defined as a method of manufacturing polymers by injecting the molten raw material into the predesigned molds under high pressures. It is most commonly used for manufacturing thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers and to mold complex shapes during plasticization, injection and cooling temperatures are 100 ° C, 110 ° C and 140 ° C. They found that the method requires higher temperatures, wastage of raw materials for initial trials and increased the density of matrix and amorphous to crystalline ratio of the implants. This method is suitable for producing larger volumes of products at a time. After moulding, they are cooled to suitable working temperature and are cut down. Then the obtained products are evaluated based on their characteristic quality parameters which depends on their purpose of make. The dry method involves an initial preparation of mixture of raw materials and binders and subjecting the mixture to a roasting unit operation. Roasting is a method of cooking where the products are subjected to dry heat that evenly cooks the products from all the sides. Generally, the temperatures in roasting are greater than 150 ° C. Then the roasted mixture is subjected to steam compression. Then products with different shapes and sizes are obtained by cooling the molds and cutting them. Then the obtained products are tested for their quality parameters to check if they are meeting the required standards. Solution casting is one of the methods of developing biodegradable materials. In this method, the prepared solutions of raw materials are poured into the molds and are dried. The molds can also be dipped into the prepared solution so that they form a film around the mold. Kamnet et al. (2005) reported the manufacture of stearic acid-modified gelatin-based films by solution casting. From the results, it was concluded that the biodegradable modified gelatin films can be formed by casting their aqueous solutions and it resulted in the alteration of their properties. Extrusion is another type of manufacturing process to produce biodegradable materials, which involves cooking of the raw material in a barrel where simultaneous heating and mixing can be done and the products can be extruded like threads in a suitable preheated mold followed by drying. Baranova (2019) manufactured biodegradable cutlery like forks by extrusion and found that the nozzle and barrel temperatures were around 100 ° C and 30 ° C-50 ° C respectively. He also found that preheating the moulds gives smooth finish to developed products. 4. Sources For Biodegradable Material Production 4.1 Fruit and vegetables based biodegradable materials: These are the biodegradable materials generated from fruits and vegetable peels, seeds, leaves and other disused parts. FAO reports indicate that one-third of the food is discarded as waste in dumping areas. However, fruit and vegetable wastes are employed as substrates in organic acid production and to develop value-added products (Wadhwa et al., 2015). Apart from cutleries, biodegradable packaging films can also be made from such wastes which can be promoted as antimicrobial and antioxidant agents for protection of food. Food industries have traditionally been utilizing polymer films like polypropylene, polyethylene etc. as packaging materials for fruits and vegetables and this is attributed to the relative abundance of the material at low price in addition to possessing excellent mechanical properties (Galgano, 2015). However, the negative impacts of petrochemical-based materials have led to a renewed interest in incorporating ecofriendly biodegradable materials. The substitution of synthetic materials by bio-derived substances is preferred because the raw materials are predominantly derived from agricultural sources, they are renewable, nontoxic and are capable of recycling and results in lesser cost. For instance, papaya leaves are active substances used in packaging (Sukoco et al., 2019). Yusof et al. , 2012 have attempted the production of pineapple fiber-based papers was optimized by experimenting various ratios of leaf fiber and recycled newspaper pulp and it was found that the developed material has improved the tensile force tear force can be used as a medium of packaging. Hariprasad et al., 2013 made another attempt biodegradable plates from banana-coir epoxy hybrid composites prepared with resin, coir, and banana using hand lay-up method, indicated that the alkali treated composites possess better tensile strength, impact strength and low flexural strength than untreated composites. The various uses of potato peels in developing bioplastics via compression, and extrusion with heatable molds were reported by MacArthur (2017). Being rich in starch, potato peel can act as binder and becomes highly viscous upon heating. Highly viscous nature is one of the desirable properties for facilitating easy extrusion. The use of orange and wheat peels can also be used for producing bioplastics by different ingredients and methods. Bakatovich et al. (2018) have developed thermal insulating plates from agricultural plant wastes with liquid glass, emulsion of PVA and latex as binders. The prepared mixtures were consolidated in a mold at a pressure of 0.2 to 0.4 MPa and then dried at a temperature of 50°C. They found that the plates which were made from the composites of rice straw and flax boon fibers was best in terms of formation of optimal composite structure, and lower absorption of moisture, which are environmentally friendly and also reduce the carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. An edible plate from sorghum and rice flour was developed by using spinach juice instead of water in the preparation of the dough (Sood et al., 2018). The prepared dough was molded by using a plate mold and was baked at 80 ° C for 5 min. Chemical parameters like moisture, protein, ash and fat content were found to be 2.57, 4.81, 1.60 and 1.72 per cent respectively. It was found that the energy and starch content of the plate were 343.4 kcal and 4.25% respectively. The consumers’ acceptability score was found to be 7.20 out of 10.0 hedonic scale. An edible coating is a thin film that envelopes the surface of the food and serves two important purposes. Firstly, it provides an improvement in shelf-life by mitigating the reduction in water content. Secondly, the semipermeable barrier restricts the movement of solutes, gas exchange, oxygen and moisture thus aiding in preservation. The edible coatings have an edge over synthetic films because they can be consumed with the provided package and limits the disposal problem. Also, their biodegradation time is faster in comparison with plastic products (Jankar et al., 2018). Edible films from grape juice and corn starches subjected to modification by chemical means were produced (Yıldırım-Yalçın et al., 2019) and it was found that the starch modified with sodium trimetaphosphate significantly decreased the oxygen permeability, water vapor permeability, solubility, percent elongation and the resulting films exhibited transparent and flexible properties. The developed starch-based films have its application in dried/instant water-soluble food products. Pająk et al. (2019) developed edible films from starches extracted from pumpkin, quinoa, lentils and compared their properties with potato-based starch (PS) films and it was evident that the lentil starch-based films exhibited lowest solubility and swelling and starch-based films from pumpkin exhibited highest swelling. All the films revealed solid like behavior based on melting of the films but melted faster than PS film. Muthu et al. (2019) have investigated biodegradable plates from mango seed shell using corn starch as a binder with different compositions and found that the plates formed from 30% weight mango seed shell powder were proved to be best based on oil and water absorption studies. Due to the high fiber content, molding was found to be difficult above 40 % weight mango seed shell powder sample. Biodegradable products that include plates and cutleries from pineapple leaf pulp were generated with various binders and bio coatings (eg. beeswax, shellac, alginate/gellan gum etc.) to improve water resistance properties and it was found that the bio coatings improved the physical and mechanical properties like grammage, tensile strength, thickness, tear resistance and water absorption (Iewkittayakorn et al., 2020). The optimal cooking time and pulp dosage were found to be 180 minutes and 300 g of pulp per frame, by moist weight. The papers coated after hot pressing were found to degrade faster than papers coated prior to it. Based on all the properties, it was found that the beeswax–chitosan solution was suited best as bio coatings for the pineapple leaf pulp plates. the processing of the waste material (stalks, peels, seeds, pulp and residues) is not adequately performed and are either accumulated in the landfills or served as animal feed. The fruit waste can be used in production of biodegradable plates, cutlery and edible films as best alternative for single use plastic and reduce impact of issues on environment. Another advantage, the presence of water molecules in fruits, vegetables and their relatively lesser molecular weight enable the use of these materials as plasticizers and 100% degradable. An illustration of the fruits and vegetable waste based biodegradable products developed by Council of Scientific and Industrial Research - National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology ( NIIST )is provided in Fig 1. <> 4.2 Cereals, millets, pulses and other plant sources based biodegradable materials These are the biodegradable materials produced from different types of cereals, millets, pulses and other plant sources. The main sources include rice straw, wheat straw, rice husk, wheat bran, sugarcane bagasse, hemp, flax fibres, millets like foxtail millet, finger millet, sorghum and some plant leaves like palm leaves. These products are used for producing versatile products such as thermal insulation materials, fiber boards, packaging films, edible and biodegradable cutleries and composites. They have advantages like high amount of starch, renewable in nature, low cost compared to non-renewable materials, easily available and serves as a better alternative to the plastics. Starch is one of the abundantly present renewable polysaccharides in cereals and is stored in the plants as semicrystalline granules. Starch has been extensively used in foods as a thickener, filler to improve textural properties etc. In addition to that, they are also utilized for a variety of non-food applications Eg. in film formation and edible product preparation. The strength of film relies on the amylose content and the resulting starch-based films are soluble in water, oil repellent, impermeable to oxygen and flexible. Similarly, the cereal-based edible and biodegradable products exhibit high mechanical and barrier properties due to high concentrated starch acts as a plasticizer (Katiyar, 2017). The rice industry will continue to flourish to meet the requirements and so does the agricultural wastes from it. The two main resulting residual products are rice straw and rice husk. Both of these are rich in carbon and silica. Other products are rice bran and ash. Harvesting one kilogram of paddy rice will result in the formation of 0.4–4 kg of rice straw. Rice husk varies between 20 and 33% of the weight of the paddy. The composition of rice kernel is approximately 20% rice husk/hull, 11% of the surrounding bran and 69% of endosperm. For every 1000 kg of rice, 200 kg of husk and 80-110 kg of bran is formed after milling (Pode, 2016). Rice husk remains either underused or are discarded because of its properties such as rough surface, limited nutritional content, more silica levels, lesser bulk density and also is hard to decompose. Rice husk has been utilized for preparation of various biodegradable products alternative single use products. Yang et al. (2004) have prepared rice husk flour with polypropylene composites and studied their properties. Four different levels of the sample were introduced as filler in the polypropylene matrix and it was observed that tensile strength decreased whereas tensile modulus increased with increase in filler percentage, composite becomes more brittle and shows plastic deformation. Furthermore, Thin medium and high-density fiberboards prepared from rice straw using methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) as a resin (Halvarsson et al., 2010) showed that the defibration at a 0.5 MPa pressure and 1 min retention time generated fibers of required quality for the development of fiberboards. The properties like modulus of rupture and elasticity, and water absorption capacity increased with increase in fiber board density. It was found that the produced fiberboards were acceptable for grades 120 and 130 according to MDF (Medium density fiberboard) standards. Moreover, A research group has developed laminate grade colored base paper from pulverized coal fly ash and rice straw (Sinha et al., 2011). The sample containing filler with 22 % coal ash and remaining 78 % rice straw pulp exhibited an 99.6 % opacity, tear strength of 3.82 mN.m 2 /g and burst strength of 1.4 KPa.m 2 /g. It was concluded that the paper filled with fly ash has higher tear factor and better tensile index than paper filled with kaolin clay at higher level of filler percentages. Another study reported the use of rice straw (RS) and corn starch based biodegradable composites (Liu et al., 2012). Two treatments were given to RS, one with sodium hydroxide and another with hot-water to notice their effect on the removal of silica. It was found that the composites made from RS treated with hot water and corn starch had good interface and larger flexural strength than other samples. At 10% starch content and a composite density of 0.7 g/cm 3 , flexural strength reached its peak. Composites made from the control sample (non-treated RS and corn starch) had lower moisture absorption capacity and it was concluded that the manufactured composites are suitable for use in ceiling panels and bulletein boards. Wheat grain consists of the following components: the germ layer, endosperm, pericarp and the aleurone layer. It serves as a rich source of bioactive components. During grain processing, significant amounts of bran and straw are formed. Wheat straw comprises cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and has a few applications (paper processing, fodder for animals) but a large chunk of it is discarded as waste. Wheat bran has in majority the carbohydrate fraction that includes cellulose, hemicellulose and starch and less quantity of lignin and protein. However, because of the widespread availability of the material and lack of nutritional content, it is sold for a cheaper price. The polymeric composition of straw and bran can be exploited for the production of biodegradable materials (Souza Filho et al., 2020). The presence of gluten in wheat contributes to the film-forming ability and this involves the inclusion of plasticizers (Eg. glycerol). The films formed from wheat gluten provide good barrier properties and are semipermeable to gases (Mastromatteo et al., 2008). Biotrem is a Polish based company which has been producing a variety of biodegradable articles such as plates, bowls and cutlery from wheat bran and lactic acid generally by compression molding technique. They produce an average of 15 million biodegradable articles in a year. Snijder et al. (2003) have reported production of biodegradable plates, trays and bowls from wheat bran in Biotrem. Wheat bran and water are subjected to different temperatures and pressures to develop various products depending on the end user needs. To increase the toughness of the products, biodegradable binders like bionolle, ecoflex, gelatin and biopar etc. are used. Another firm Bakey’s is an Indian based company which produces edible cutlery like spoons, forks and chopsticks from a mixture of dried jowar or sorghum, rice and wheat. The company produces spoons and forks with delayed slogging capacity which is edible and biodegradable in 5-7 days. The produced cutlery has a shelf life of 2 years without losing their crispiness as the moisture content is less than 2 % and is available in various flavors. In addition, strong and thin pulp molded packaging material from wheat straw was developed by Curling et al ., (2017). The treated wheat straw has higher tensile modulus than expanded polystyrene. Wet addition of chemicals is preferable for increasing the water resistance capacity. It was observed that the pulp molded material is biodegradable which exhibits 20 % loss in mass only in 4 weeks when covered by soil. Besides composite materials prepared from pretreated wheat husks were evaluated and the effect of pretreatments on the composite material was observed. It was found that composite boards made from 2% sodium hydroxide solution treated husk decreased the internal bonding and also the bending strength. This is attributed to the decrease in surface energy, increased lignin content and the equilibrium moisture content of husks. It was observed that all the developed composite boards had low thermal conductivity (Hysek et al., 2018). In corresponding to the pulses, the biodegradable composite was developed from straw fiber using hydrolyzed soybean protein isolate/urea/formaldehyde (HSPI/U/F) adhesive. It was found that the bio composite flowerpots (BFP) are biodegradable and its degradability increased by addition of HSPI, which was nearly 50% at 24 months. It is also found that upon subjecting to composting for 30 days, the accumulated CO 2 release reached 24g and the bacteria, fungi present on the BFP surface indicates that the degradation process can be accelerated (Sun et al., 2019). Furthermore, Edible cutlery from sorghum was prepared via doughing by addition of rice and wheat in various proportions, followed by molding and baking at 360 ° C for 10 minutes. The product is finally cooled in room temperature and was found to be a best and sustainable alternative for plastics cutleries (Rashid, 2019). The schematic diagrams of cereal-based biodegradables products and its structural images developed by CSIR NIIST observed fig.2a and 2b. <> 4.3 Seaweed based biodegradable materials Seaweeds are the marine microalgae and underutilized renewable marine resources occurring in shallow coastal waters. Seaweeds are a storehouse of bioactive compounds like polyphenols, terpenoids, carotenoids and tocopherols. They are a good source of proteins, peptides, polysaccharides, amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants, vitamins and minerals and known to have several health benefits. They are a rich source of lectins which have the ability to bind the carbohydrates and agglutinate the cells. They are mainly used as food, animal feeds, fertilizer, phycocolloid industries and as sources of traditional medicine but can be used as a potential source to produce bioplastics (Abirami et al., 2016). Polysacharrides such as carrageenan, agar and alginate are produced from seaweeds only (Gade et al., 2013). Several materials like edible films and glasses, biodegradable packaging films, biodegradable cups, sachets, wrappers etc. can be manufactured from seaweeds. The following write up describes the various methods of production of biodegradable materials from seaweed. Evoware is a company based in Indonesia which produces different products (sachets and edible wrappings) from the unaltered seaweeds that can be dissolved in water and eaten. These sachets, in turn can be used for packaging dry stuff like seasonings, coffee, salt, sugar etc. and dammar coated sachets for liquid and semisolid stuffs like sauces and seasoning oils etc. Their other applications include packaging of soaps, shampoos, straws, toothpicks etc. (Mulyono, 2017). Their products are completely biodegradable and can be used as fertilizers to plants also. They also produce edible glasses which tastes like jelly and comes in flavors from peppermint to green tea. The packaging materials are printable, heat sealable and can be produced in different colors also. Nevertheless, their products serve as a good alternative for single-use plastic packaging. Another research agar derived from the red seaweed was identified as a raw material to prepare bioplastic films (Hii et al., 2016). It was found that the yield of agar was about 9 to 11 % by both alkali and photo bleaching extraction methods. Alkali extracted agar (AEA) and photo bleached agar (PBA) were used along with sago starch and glycerol and it was found that the tensile strength and percent elongation of PBA film was higher than AEA film but AEA film showed better thermal stability than PBA film. It was observed that AEA film decomposed totally after 30 days when the soil burial test was performed. In addition, polylactic acid (PLA) and seaweed-based films were fabricated at a temperature of 5, 20 and 40 ᵒ C (Rodríguez-Martínez et al., 2016). The films were developed by extrusion process and with two compositions and hence the developed films can be used for protecting the packed foods. In addition, Khalil et al. (2018) have developed microbial-induced calcium carbonate filled seaweed-based film for the application in green plasticulture. The red seaweed ( Kappaphycus alvarezii ) was used as a base matrix and microbial induced calcium carbonate (MB-CaCO 3 ) and commercial CaCO 3 (C-CaCO 3 ) as two different fillers and prepared two separate films. Films incorporated with MB-CaCO 3 exhibited bright color, improved water barrier properties, hydrophobicity and biodegradability than that of C-CaCO 3 . Additionally, the biodegradable cup developed from agar and hemp coated with candelilla wax was found to serve as an alternative to single use cups (Hanley et al., 2019). To improve the water proofing, candelilla wax coating was preferred. The appearance can be improved by spray coating of wax instead of coating it normally. The developed cup is biodegradable in nature, does not affect smell, can be stored up to six months, formed into a cup shape and can remain waterproof. Furthermore, Tran et al. (2020) have developed biodegradable films from seaweed-based polysaccharides such as sodium alginate, kappa-carrageenan and Gac pulp by a casting process using glycerol as a plasticizer. They found that sodium alginate, kappa-carrageenan altered the physical and mechanical properties of the film. On the other hand, Gac pulp effected the colour parameters alone. Glycerol was the main factor responsible for the effect on all the film properties excluding opacity and color values. The optimum composition was found to be sodium alginate 1.03%, kappa-carrageenan 0.65% w/v, Gac pulp 0.4% w/v and glycerol 0.85% w/v. It was concluded that the developed edible films are suitable as coating materials for foods. Since the polymers derived from seaweeds and also an excellent source of renewable material because of their increased carbohydrate content, larger yield and easy availability. They are considered to be better alternatives for single use plastic in comparison with biomass derived from terrestrial sources (Lakshmi et al., 2017). The schematic presentation of sea weed based biodegradables products prepared by CSIR NIIST depicts in fig.3. <> 4.4 Wood based biodegradable products Versatile products such as biodegradable composites, paper, packaging films, plates, cups, spoons, bags etc., can be prepared from wide range of wood-based sources such as bamboo, coconut, jute fibers, pineapple leaf-based fiber, rubber wood and other fibers. Many other interesting products like multilayered straws from coconut leaf fibers, face masks from hemp, bottles from bamboo, clutch facings from coconut coir fiber, bags from jute fibers for purposes like packaging, handbags, school bags, fabrics from jute fibers, bamboo straw ash utilized in the construction of roads, to enhance the index properties of lateritic soil can also be prepared. These plant-based fibers have higher cellulose and protein content, therefore, good structural features and utilization in composite materials (Kumar & Allamraju, 2019). Most of these sources are renewable in nature and are either biodegradable or compostable in nature. In the upcoming session, some of the biodegradable products produced from wood sources are discussed in detail. Biodegradable composites were developed from china jute fiber and polylactic acid (PLA) by Hu et al. (2007) and composite plates were prepared with three different fractions of jute fibers (30, 40 and 50% in volume) by film stacking hot press method. They determined that the tensile, flexural strength and notched impact slightly improved with increase in fiber content. It is also identified that silane treatment decreases the water absorption rates, but does not have any significant impact on the mechanical characteristics. Besides jute fiber reinforced paper laminates and fiber free paper laminates were prepared by Verma (2009) and he investigated that there is a significant improvement in the tensile strength, load carrying capacity and fracture energy than the fiber free laminates. He concluded that thin kraft paper and old newspaper laminates and composites exhibited better properties than the thick kraft paper. Coir is the fibrous material obtained from the outer husk of coconut. The higher content contributes to the high durability but the large quantities of waste generated from coconut husk after extracting the edible components are not properly utilized. The chemical modification methods performed with coir fiber has been successfully used in packaging industries, furniture manufacture etc (Verma et al., 2013).With this respect Ramirez et al., (2010) have developed biodegradable composites from green coconut fibers, corn starch and Brazilian cassava starch by compression molding and found that the coir fibers showed greater tensile strength and higher Young’s modulus constant , it is reported that there is a rise in the tensile strength with increasing fiber content in both the starches. It is also observed that the cassava starch composites showed higher water absorption than corn starch composites. Furthermore, the hybrid fiber reinforced nanocomposites were developed from wider range of organic as well as synthetic materials like kenaf fiber, polypropylene, coir fiber and montmorillonite nanoclay by using hot compression (Islam et al., 2015) and investigations established that the young’s modulus and tensile strength were better due to the hybridization and addition of montmorillonite. For good measure, adding montmorillonite improved the adhesion and compatibility of the fiber, which indicates the formation of new bonds between hybrid fibers and polymer matrix. It is concluded that the hybridization enhanced the water absorptivity and biodegradability properties of the hybrid fiber. Again, cellulose nanofibrils (CCNF) were developed from coconut coir fibers by Wu et al., (2019) which can be incorporated in biodegradable composite PVA films. The extraction of cellulose from coir fiber is done by multiple treatments like ultrasonic-assisted solvent immersion, alkaline treatment and bleaching, accompanied by addition of CCNF in different weight percentages to the PVA by solution casting method. It is revealed that the CCNF were characterized by thermal stability, crystallinity and morphology and also addition of CCNF enhanced the tensile strength, biodegradability, thermal stability of the films and elongation at break especially at 3 % level. The fibers extracted from bamboo possess excellent mechanical properties. However, they are brittle and this is due to the additional lignin content in comparison with other natural fibers. The use of bamboo remained underutilized but is now widely accepted for its application in composite industry. It has a cellulose content of 60% and higher lignin percentage (Khalil et al., 2012). Regards the use polypropylene (PP) composites were produced by compression molding reinforced with jute and bamboo fibers and the mechanical aspects like tensile strength (TS), tensile modulus (TM), bending strength (BS), and bending modulus (BM) were compared with jute fiber-based polypropylene composites (Nahar et al., 2012). It has emerged that the bamboo-based fiber reinforced polypropylene composites have mechanical properties that are better in comparison with the jute fiber-based polypropylene composites. It is concluded that the jute-based composites have lesser interfacial shear strength and poor fiber matrix compared to bamboo-based PP composites. Another investigation laminated boards were prepared from bamboo (Li et al., 2015) by treating with soyabean oil at a temperature of 180°C and a period of 2 h. The oil treatment increased the hydrophobicity of the bamboo. The SEM/FTIR results indicate that surplus oil is present on the surface of the modified bamboo, thus altering its chemical composition. Therefore, the bamboo’s bonding strength was improved by ethanol extraction after oil heat treatment and have better interfacial properties. Further study biobased hybrid composites from kenaf, coir and bamboo fibers were prepared as a reinforcement to polylactic acid (PLA) polymer matrix (Yusoff et al., 2016). Three different configurations like bamboo-coir/PLA, kenaf-coir/PLA and kenaf-bamboo-coir/PLA composites were developed and has been clarified that the kenaf-bamboo-coir/PLA composites have better tensile and flexural strengths, higher flexural modulus and high strain energy per unit volume at break than the others. They concluded that the high strength and stiffness of bamboo, kenaf fibers with the better ductility of coir fibers enhanced the mechanical properties of hybrid composites when compared to single fibers. Recently syamsu et al., (2019) had been communicated manufacturing of liner paper from bamboo, sago pith waste and water hyacinth by adopting various ratios of mixing. Out of all the combinations, it is found out that the water hyacinth and sago pith waste have short fibers whereas bamboo has long fibers. It also concluded that bamboo has a high holocellulose content and α-cellulose content and less extractive substance level which is helpful for making pulp and paper. The developed biodegradable products from bamboo, coir, jute fiber and coconut wood have 100% biodegradable in nature and cost effective completely alternative to single use products. Schematic illustration of traditional based biodegradable products (Fig.4) compared with wood based biodegradable products developed by CSIR NIIST shown in Fig.5. <> <> 4.5 Biodegradable leather Leather is an ancient, flexible and durable material produced by tanning of animal hides and skins. Leather production mainly consists of four steps namely pre-tanning, tanning, post-tanning and finishing. It is extensively used for making a variety of products like garments, bags, footwear, automobile seats, upholstery, fashionable accessories and other products. But the production of leather has many impacts on environment like carbon footprint, water and air pollution due to chemical wastes, disposal and others. In addition to that, billions of animals are slaughtered every year for their hides which is a very cruel, evil and merciless act. Although leather is produced from animal sources, due to the presence of harmful chemicals used in the processing, the products take up to 50-100 years for degradation. Hence, there is a need for the development of a sustainable, non-animal based and ecofriendly leather (Sathis et al.,2016). Vegan or biodegradable or pleather leather is a leather developed from plant sources, which is biodegradable in nature. Nowadays many types of vegan leathers like pineapple leaf-based leather, cactus-based leather, mushroom mycelium leather, potato leather, sugarcane bagasse leather etc., are widely researched and being developed. Mycoworks is a startup company which produces leather from the composite of mushroom mycelium and cotton cellulose. Ecovative design is a company which also produces leather from mushroom that can be used to make footwears, bags etc. Desserto is a company which produces organic, soft, high quality, durable and partially biodegradable leather from cactus plants that have required mechanical specifications and can meet the standards of a leather. Pinatex is a natural, sustainable and innovative non-woven textile fabric developed by The Ananas Anam company which can be used as an alternative to leather. It is produced from pineapple leaf fibers which is a waste product of pineapple cultivation. They generally use an environment friendly and sustainable production process which reduces the pollution and generation of wastes. Another Indian based company malai used to develop vegan leather from agrowaste (pineapple leaf, banana stem and coconut water) alternative to animal leather, the developed leather be used manufacture of handy crafts, bags and packaging materials moreover developed product has resembles the aesthetics and workability of leather. It can be cut, stitched, glued, embossed, printed and painted. One more multinational brand VEJA French footwear produced vegan leather from corn waste utilized for manufacture of footwear as brand name “Campo” is made from a canvas waxed with 50 percent corn waste, which is alternative to tanned leather and 100% biodegradable. Kuria et al. (2016) used vegetable tanning materials to produce leather from Acacia xanthophloea , Hagenia abyssinica and Acacia nilotica plants and standard mimosa and compared their physical properties and found that all the leathers showed more than the minimum set standards of physical properties and with quality comparable to that of commercial mimosa tanned leather. It was concluded that the vegetable tanning materials can replace commercial mimosa. Ariram et al. (2020) developed a bioacceptable leather using sugarcane bagasse, by using a tanning agent to convert the cellulose and hemi-cellulose content of hydrolyzed bagasse into dialdehyde polysaccharides by oxidation process. The developed tanning agent has mechanical strength comparable to the chrome tanned leather. They observed that the developed leather shows better biodegradation than the chrome tanned leather. The conclusion about vegan leather, people preferring to produce leather from vegeform, now vegan leather has huge demand and is widely used in many applications, such as handy crafts, bags and packaging materials, developing bio composite substitutes to leather from renewable source and further advantage. it poses no harm to the soil, nor emits any harmful fuel. It is completely biodegradable. 5. Biodegradable Plastics 5.1 Types of biodegradable plastics: The main issues that can be overcome by using biodegradable plastics are as follows: (i) The bulky plastic products discarded in landfills can be significantly reduced, (ii) The littering nondegradable plastic products contribute to environmental pollution and recycling is not a cost-effective option, (iii) Adopting biodegradable plastics that are derived from renewable sources will lead to a more sustainable environment by saving nonrenewable sources (Ren, 2003). Biodegradable plastics developed from nonrenewable sources are referred to as synthetic polymers. Some examples include polybutyrate (PBAT), polybutylene succinate (PBS) and polycaprolactone (PCL) (Luyt & Malik, 2019). Polylactic acid (PLA) is one example of biodegradable plastic that is derived from lactic acid by the fermentation of renewable crop sources (E.g. Corn, Sugarbeets). This polyester has found its significance because of easy availability and less cost (Zhong, Godwin, Jin, & Xiao, 2020). Lactide is a chiral compound and can exist in two forms: L-lactide and D-lactide. In the case of packaging materials, poly (D,L-lactide) containing 90% of L-lactide is used. An increase in the concentration of D-lactide results in the formation of PLA polymers having a better crystalline structure. The PLA films thus produced will have higher thermal stability and exhibit good mechanical and barrier properties (Byun & Kim, 2014). Poly (butylene succinate) is another example of a biodegradable plastic belonging to the poly (alkene dicarboxylate) family. They are produced by polycondensation reactions that involve glycols (ethylene glycol, 1,4-butanediol) and aliphatic dicarboxylic acids (adipic acid, succinic acid) (Vroman & Tighzert, 2009). The high melting point, less production cost, better processability and excellent mechanical properties are attributes that make PBS a better alternative material to plastic products (Zhao et al., 2005). Poly (butylene adipate-co-terphthalate), referred to as PBAT is formed by the polycondensation reaction of 1,4-butanediol with a mixture of adipic and terephthalic acids. This polymer preparation consumes longer time and requires high vacuum and high temperature. However, the product is completely biodegradable and possesses good tensile strength and high elongation at break values in comparison to the commonly used biodegradable polyesters like PLA, PBS etc. (Ferreira, Cividanes, Gouveia, & Lona, 2019). 5.2 Global production of bioplastics : Bioplastics constitute approximately one percent of the total amount of 368 million tonnes of plastics generated every year. With the increase in demand and new products coming out, the production of bioplastics will continue to burgeon. The global production capacity is bound to rise from 2.11 million tonnes in 2020 to 2.87 million tonnes in the next five years (https://www.european-bioplastics.org/). 6 Degradation Mechanism Of Biodegradable Products The non-biodegradable nature of plastics poses major threats to environment such as global warming, ozone depletion, eutrophication, toxicity etc. Therefore, there is a need for adopting biodegradable products. Biodegradability process of these products involve the following steps: abiotic degradation, biodeterioration and depolymerization, assimilation and mineralization (Thakur et al., 2018). 6.1 Abiotic degradation: The process of degradation can be influenced by abiotic factors such as weather, sunshine, water, ageing, soil burial etc. Temperature exerts a significant influence on the macromolecular structure. A few thermoplastic polymers have their melting temperatures close to ambient conditions or composting temperatures (eg. PCL). Although not predominant, the mechanical damage (shear, compression) can increase the process of degradation. Photodegradation, a process that occurs by the exposure of light is an important factor that contributes to biodegradation (Siracusa, 2019). 6.2 Biodeterioration and depolymerization: The next stage of abiotic degradation is biodeterioration. Upon fragmentation, the microbial activity begins both on the surface as well as inside the material. During this process, the microorganisms cleave the biodegradable products into small pieces. This is followed by depolymerization, in which the catalytic agents secreted by the microorganisms (enzymes, free radicals) disintegrate the polymeric molecules into lower molecular weight polymers. The resulting monomers, dimers and oligomers are capable of crossing the semipermeable bacterial membrane (Popescu et al., 2017). 6.3 Assimilation and mineralization: The monomers, after disintegration passing into the membrane is oxidized to ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and this is used in maintaining the cell structure and action. The transported molecules are bio-assimilated by microorganisms producing energy and biomass. The last stage is mineralization wherein simple molecules (CO 2 , CH 4 , N 2 , H 2 O etc.) are oxidized fully and then released into the environment (Nasrollahzadeh, 2021). 7. Waste Management And Recycling In order to preserve our natural resources and focus on achieving circular economy, plastic recycling is the need of the hour. The accumulation and spread of plastic waste due to land-based (emission of waste water, industrial activities, littering in beaches and other tourist destinations) and sea-based (aquaculture, maritime-associated activities, fishing) sources is a matter of concern (Dahlbo et al ., 2018). Among the various plastic using sectors such as electronics, construction, transportation etc., packaging industry tops the list because the plastic products (cups, bags, bottle caps, wrappings, containers, films etc.) are used for a relatively shorter period and then trashed into bins. The plastic packaging is preferred in many areas because of many advantages: low price, affordable, less weight, resistant to corrosives and simple to use. Some of the commonly used plastic resins are polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polypropylene (PP) (Jang et al., 2020). The waste management strategies should be practiced to rid our earth of single-use plastics. They can be physical, chemical or biological treatment methods. The physical methods (photooxidation) help in the reduction of plastic waste by pulverization, squeezing or incineration. Chemical methods (gasification, pyrolysis) utilize the chemicals that can split the polymeric linkage and convert the plastics into non-hazardous products. Biological methods (fermentation, composting) can degrade plastic without the generation of byproducts. For instance, biomethanation converts the polymers into methane and manure using microbes. Plastic products are widespread and it is necessary to find an ideal alternative to overcome the problems related to its usage. Reduction in plastic usage would decrease carbon dioxide emissions. The development of biodegradable materials will benefit the environment because of its inherent properties. Biodegradable products are those that can be decomposed by bacteria, fungi, algae etc. Therefore, adopting biosynthetic materials (starch, cellulose etc.) are advantageous because they are completely converted to water, methane, carbon dioxide and biomass within a short span of time (Viera et al ., 2020). The schematic diagram of waste managemt utilization and life cycle assessment of powder (Rice bran and rice) based biodegradables products (fig6.a) and fiber (pineapple fiber) based biodegradables products (Fig.6b). <> 8. Current Limitations And Future Directions The requirement of petroleum, our primary resource of energy generation is on the rise and the price rates of petroleum are bound to rise in years to come. The dearth of this fossil fuel resource combined with the soaring prices will not only plague the chemical companies and other industries but will have a detrimental effect on the society as well. In order to meet the demands of future energy supply, there is a pressing need to look out for alternative renewable resources that will never cease to exist. Examples of this kind are hydraulic, tidal, wind, solar energies etc. and energy derived from renewable sources like biomass (organic material from plant and animal matter). Natural fibers are excellent substitutes to be incorporated in various applications such as construction, aerospace, furniture etc. These include rice husk, wheat bran, banana stem, jute, bagasse, hemp, pineapple leaf, coir, oil palm etc. The advantages of natural fiber composites are its abundant supply, renewable nature, less cost, low density, environmentally benign and absence of hazardous substances. However, the main drawback with natural fibers is that its inherent nature to absorb moisture, inferior wetting properties, poor interfacial bonding between the fibers and polymers etc. This can be overcome by subjecting the fibers to alkali treatment or compatibilizers etc (Salit, Jawaid, Yusoff, & Hoque, 2015). The source of biodegradable polymers can be of either natural or synthetic origin. Also, they can be either from renewable or non-renewable sources. The physical and chemical aspects of biopolymers depend on the processing conditions in addition to their structure and molecular weights. The most important parameters that require careful attention for developing a good biodegradable product are as follows: Physical properties: The permeability of the biopolymer material to molecules like gases, water vapor etc. is subject to variation and this is dependent upon the barrier properties. Several physical characteristics (density, pressure, area, thickness, addition of plasticizers etc.) influence their properties. Testing these features at identical conditions is important to ensure the consistency and suitability of the material for various applications. Firstly, the oxygen transmission rate must be kept in check because the presence of oxygen in foods would bring about lipid oxidation, thereby influencing the nutritional quality. Higher the number of hydrogen bonds in the sample, greater is the hydrophilicity and oxygen permeability. Therefore, maintaining the proper relative humidity levels are important. Secondly, monitoring the water vapor transmission rate is necessary for the long shelf-life period of foods. The hydrophilic property of the biopolymers can be masked by coating the external surface with hydrophobic substances. Addition of lipids can also influence the hydrorepellent properties. Thirdly, the control of carbon dioxide transmission rate is vital and proteins in general have low rates in comparison to polysaccharides. Mechanical properties : An important aspect of consideration for preserving foods and resisting physical damages is to oversee the mechanical properties. These include the determination of tensile strength, elongation at break, young’s modulus etc. Films derived from biopolymers must possess mechanical properties close to non-biodegradable ones and this comparison is achieved by testing the aforementioned properties. Tensile strength refers to the maximum extent to which a material can be stretched without breaking apart and is dependent on the surface area, bond strength, length etc. Elongation at break determines the ductility of the material and is evaluated by measuring the ratio of initial length and final length before rupture. Young’s modulus corresponds to the elastic properties of the material and is calculated using the ratio of longitudinal stress to strain. Biodegradation: Synthetic polymers have been in use for a long time and this preference is attributed to its flexible properties, less cost and mechanical resistance. However, the prolonged usage has led to harmful effects on the environment, humans and wild life too. Plastics are nonbiodegradable. Once deposited, it remains in the soil for a much longer time. They are broken down by either wind abrasion or solar radiation into smaller chunks and this in turn becomes the feed for birds and other species. Therefore, replacement of plastic products and Styrofoam with biodegradable materials must be of topmost priority for the development of a sustainable environment. A biodegradable polymer decomposes completely into carbon dioxide, gases, biomass and water. It does not result in the accumulation of harmful residues in the environment. Therefore, renewable sources from agrowastes would enable to achieve a cleaner and a safe environment. Table 3 gives the various biodegradables manufacturing companies with different renewable raw materials for in all over the world. <> 9. Conclusion This review attempts to emphasize the recent developments in bio-based materials with improved functionality and properties. The use of plastics in various sectors such as food, textiles etc. has affected the ecosystem. The 3Rs – reduce, reuse and recycle do not alone eliminate the negative impacts on the environment. The chemical additives form the plastics such as phthalates and bisphenol-A affect the health of humans and the plastic processing generates carbon dioxide in addition to heat. The rising concern of the people for environment and climatic changes has driven the researchers to develop biodegradable materials which can decompose fast and reduce the problems created by the use of plastics. A biodegradable material is generally of renewable resource origin and is well known for its versatile properties that are comparable to regular plastics. These can be produced from different sources like fruits, vegetables, cereals, pulses, animals and their wastes, seaweeds and other traditional leaves etc. Several methods are available for manufacturing the biodegradable materials. The biodegradability of the product depends on the type of binders and other raw materials used. Although several methods and raw materials are available for their development, their industrial application is less due to oxygen/ water vapor barriers, thermal resistance and other mechanical properties of the products. These types of properties can be improved by altering the raw materials and method of production. Consumer acceptance of the biodegradable materials can be improved by commercializing the manufacturing techniques used. The agro-industrial wastes are a repository of nutrients and discarding them amounts to the loss of useful material. Currently, the wastes are underutilized or remains unutilized as a result of incineration or landfilling procedures. The interest in bio-based polymers, composites and biodegradable products is expanding and also the use of natural fibers (jute, wheat straw, hemp, flax etc.) in food packaging applications is gaining importance. Coupling plant-derived fibers with biopolymers yields ecofriendly biocomposites with good flexibility and mechanical properties that match the petroleum-based polymers. The use of bio-based materials improves the utilization of renewable and recycled products, thus resulting in the conservation of raw materials and preservation of natural resources. They also help in significantly reducing the exposure to hazardous chemicals, limiting the toxicity and effective in combining the needs of present with the future. There is a strong need of collaboration of industries, researchers and government agencies for the successful development and use of biodegradable materials for creating a better living environment. Declarations Consent to Participate The authors declare their Consent to participate in this article Consent for publication The authors declare their Consent for publication in this article. Ethical Approval There is no need of any ethical approval and this filed is not reverent Competing Interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose Conflicts of Interest Authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest Funding This work was supported by Ministry of Food Processing Industries Grant number GAP:128339 Availability of data and materials Not applicable Authors Contributions All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and preparing the tables were performed by [Anjineyulu Kothakota] [ Rakesh Raghunathan], [Puja Nelluri],[Dileepmon Raendran ], [Ravi Pandiselvam], [Venkatesh Thulasiraman] The first draft of the manuscript was written by [Sushanta Kumar Sahoo], [Saju Pillai], [Rifna Elnjikkal Jerome], all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript Acknowledgment This work was supported by the Agro-Processing & Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST) Trivandrum- 695 019, Kerala, India. References Abhijith, R., Ashok, A., & Rejeesh, C. R (2018) Sustainable packaging applications from mycelium to substitute polystyrene: a review. Mater. Today: Proc., 5(1): 2139-2145. Abirami, M., & Sivaswamy, N (2016) Profiling of Omega 3 fatty acids from marine green algae Ulva reticulata and Caulerpa racemosa. Int J Phytoph 6(2):46-50. 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No machinery required. Fast decomposing rate. Adhikary et al., 2009 Coconut shells NA Hard natural bowls Nuts were de-husked and cracked into two hemispheres, hot pressing Great hard bowls for holding water, reusable. Gautam et al., 2017 Banana Fibres NaOH Cardboard, paper Fibers extracted are chopped and treated with NaOH and boiled, blended and dried to form sheets. Fully natural cardboard with strength and durability. Bamboo NA Hard cutleries Harvested bamboo is treated with high temp steam, extract sugar content and then cut and polished They are reusable and extremely durable. Chen et al., 2011 Palm leaves Biodegradable plates Compression method: operating temperature 130 to 150 0 C Areca palm leaves is used. This is water resistant and stable. Aura Exim, Ernakulum, Kerala, India. Cereal, millet and pulse based biodegradable products Rice straw UF resin (urea–formaldehyde) (binder) Rice straw based medium density fibreboard (RSMDF). Hot compression (Temp:140 0 C, Time: 4min). The RSMDF panels properties were met standards of MDF. AM El-Kassas et al., 2013 MDI resin–acetone mixture (methylene diphenol diisocyanate ) (RSTIB) Rice straw thermal insulation material high frequency hot-pressing Low thermal conductivity, low density, used as insulation material for walls or ceilings. Wei et al., 2015 Food grade gums Fresh food and beverage packaging Hot compression method Nontoxic products, water resistant, faster degradation. Fang Thai factory, Thailand. Corn starch Biodegradable Composites Hot compression moulding process. Higher flexural strength. Used for ceiling panels and bulletin boards Liu et al., 2012 Wheat husk UF resin (9%) Husk based composite materials(board) Compression methods :120-160 0 C, Time:5min Hydrothermal and plasma treatment offered higher mechanical attributes. Alkali treatment had higher moisture and lower mechanical attributes. Hýsek et al., 2018 Wheat starch PVA (poly vinyl alcohol) Packaging films Casting method Flexible and homogeneous films. Jayasekara et al. 2004 Sugarcane Bagasse PLA, PHA, Food grade gums Cups, plates, cutleries Compression method and Injection method Water resistant, heat resistant, Degraded within 3 to 6 months. 1. Ecoware solutions Pvt.ltd. New Delhi, India 2. Ecosave biodegradable product, Bangalore, India. Coir fibres and Kenaf PLA Green nano composites for food packaging Hot pressing Good tensile, flexural and water absorption characteristics, higher young’s moduli. Saiful Islam et al., 2015 Jute PLA Jute fiber for packaging materials Film stacking hot pressed method. The tensile strength decreases when exposed to longer time of coating. It is suitable for packaging low moisture-based materials Hu et al., 2010 Jute, hemp, flax resin Plates and composite channels Hand layup technique: Fabrics were wetted with resin by using paint brush and roller with curing time 15hr at room temperature. Good mechanical properties and an alternative for traditional and commercial packaging, building application. Bambach et al. (2017). Millets (Finger millet, Sorghum, foxtail millet) Food grade gums Cutleries, plates Compression method Materials used flours, water and sorghum (One type of grain). It can be decomposed less than a week. They can easily decompose due to their brittle structure. 1. Bakeys, hyderabad, Telangana, India. 2. Edible Pro, Banglure, Karnataka, India Fruit based bio degradable products Aloe Vera, Papaya leaves extract Gelatine and Glycerol Antimicrobial Packaging films Aloe Vera and papaya extract mixed in 3:1 ratio in gelatine Casting methods Effective inhibition against E. coli, S. typhi, S. aureus, C. albicans and F. xylarioides Yehuala et al., 2013 Grape pomace Sodium tri -metaphosphate (STMP) or Citric Acid (CA), Corn starch Edible films Juice, STMP/CA and starch and glycerol are heated in water bath for at 80 ℃ for 30 minutes with constant stirring at 500 rpm. STMP and CA increased water vapour permeability. Most suitable for dried/instant water-soluble food products. Yıldırım-Yalçın et al., 2019 Pineapple leaf fibre (PALF) Used newspaper, NaOH. Non timber paper Pineapple leaf fibre is subjected to soda pulping for 1 day and blended with used newspaper and dried inside frame. Mechanical electrical and chemical properties of paper improved. Yusof et al., 2012 Banana fibres Epoxy Resin, coir Composite plate Banana woven fibres are extracted by Hand –lay method. Banana-coir –epoxy (5%,5%, 90%) is done by fibre-reinforced plastic processes for 24 hrs. Alkali treated composite has better tensile strength and impact strength and decreased flexural strength Hariprasad et al., 2013. Mango seed shell Corn starch, wheat and rice husk, bagasse powder. Biodegradable plate Solution with all contents is mixed for 25 min at 900rpm. Plate cooking temp is 250 o C for 3- 5 min. Better alternative for plastic tableware and control the landfills. Production is very cheap and reliable. Muthu et al., 2019 Lemon waste Sweet potato starch, Nano-titanic inclusions Edible films and food packaging materials. Casting of films through film forming solution of starch and lemon waster by integrating with TiO 2 nanoparticles. Transmittance was lowered and thermal stability increased by conc. of TiO 2 NP. Film can be used as UV screening biodegradable packaging material. Dash et al., 2019. Orange peel, potato peel, wheat bran Corn starch, glycerol, vegetable oil as lubricant Take away container, bowls, cups, glass Compression method and extrusion method Final product resistant to shrinkage, stickiness and deformation, water resistant, Good textural and flexible Baranova et al., 2019 Pineapple leaf plates Beeswax, chitosan, shellac, alginate/ gellan gum and beeswax–chitosan Coating/Waxing materials Beeswax-chitosan emulsion is prepared by adding glycerol, emulsion coating, moulding plates. Plates enhanced with higher water absorbency, tear resistance, tensile strength. Iewkittayakorn et al., 2020 Vegetable based biodegradable products Vegetable wastes Liquid glass, emulsion of PVA latex Thermal insulating plates Molding pressure 0.2–0.4 MPa For 6hrs. and later drying at 50 0 C Rye straw and flax boon in liquid glass binder has best mechanical, physical, thermal characteristics. They can be used for thermal insulation in ventilation. Bakatovich et al., 2018 Potato waste Starch Edible films Compression method: Operating temperature of 249-281°C Pressure: 8.98-13.85MPa The starches from pumpkin fruits, lentil and quinoa seeds presented to be a good material to develop edible films. Pajak et al., 2019 Spinach juice waste Gluten, guar gum, Sorbic acid Edible plates Baking temperature 80 0 C for 50 min oven. The final product has good amount of protein, texture and good colour due to addition of spinach Sood et al., (2018) Potato peels Biodegradable binder Rigid boards, fashion accessories Compression method and injection method Easily biodegradable, good tensile, flexural and strengthen boards. Chipsboard, Uk London Pomelo peel flour Tea polyphenol (TP) Biodegradable/ edible film Casting technique. TP incorporation improved antioxidant and antimicrobial activity; Films can be useful for application of oil products storage. Wu et al., 2019 Vegetable waste pectin Nano titanium inclusions Food packaging materials Casting technique and Incorporation of (TiO 2 - NPs) to film genic solution of sweet potato starch and lemon waste pectin. Conc of TiO 2 – NPs regulate the properties of films; low conc shows improved mechanical and moisture barrier properties, at high concentration thermal stability is increased. Dash et al 2019. Potato Peels waste Glycerol (plasticizer) and 2% egg yolk (emulsifier) Biopolymer film Ultrasound treatment to films to breakdown to form smaller particles to form gel matrixes. Thermal decomposition up to 200 o C. Film reduces hardness and prevents the formation of microbes on bread sample. Borah et al., 2017 Tomato pomace (LFTP) Sodium caseinate (NaCas) composite biodegradable films Casting methods LFTP content enhances antimicrobial activity of films and high thermal stability and increases flexibility Aloui, et al., 2019 Seaweed based biodegradable products Red algae Nano clay Agar based Nano composite film Casting methods Nano composite films can be manipulated to use as hydrogels or food packaging material. Rhim , 2011 Silver nanoparticles Biodegradable films Solvent casting method Improved water vapour barrier properties, surface hydrophobicity, effective against Gram positive and negative bacteria. Rhim et al , 2013 Nano Crystalline cellulose (NCC) Biodegradable Nano-composite film Solution casting NCC improved thermal stability, water vapour permeability, tensile strength Huq, et al., 2012 Natural Cellulose (NFC, DCC, MFC) Composite films Ionic cross linking (Ca 2+ ) Improved features: Tensile strength, grease barrier, reduced water permeability Sirviö et al., 2014 Red sea weed / Irish Moss Cinnamon oil, sorbitol Oil composite edible film Carrageenan sorbitol is mixed at 60 o C for 10min and cooled at 55 0 C Sorbitol concentration enhances thickness and elongation break Praseptiangga et al., 2016 k-carrageenan, i-carrageenan alginate Edible films Mixed with glycerol in proportions and homogenised at 15000 rpm for 15min. k-carrageenan and alginate combination improved moisture barrier, tensile properties, elongation and transparency. Paula et al., 2015 Green algae Corn starch Edible glass Vacuums pressing The glass is edible, water resistant, heat resistant, Evoware, Japanese company 2018 Abbreviations used: microfibrillated cellulose (MFC), nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) and birch pulp derivate, nanofibrillated anionic dicarboxylic acid cellulose (DCC). Wood based biodegradable products Jute fibre PLA Biodegradable composites Hot press method Poor durability Not suitable for humid environment Hu et al. (2007) Coconut fibres Corn starch (CS) and cassava starch (CAS) Biodegradable composites Compression moulding CAS composites had higher water absorption capacity Ramirez et al. (2010) PP composites reinforced with jute and bamboo fibres N/A Composites Compression moulding Bamboo based PP composites exhibited better properties than others Nahar et al. (2012) Bamboo Sago pith waste and water hyacinth Liner paper Mixing all the raw materials in different ratios Bamboo and bamboo water hyacinth-based liner paper met the required standards compared to others Syamsu et al. (2019) Coconut coir Corn starch and glycerol as plasticizer Composites Incorporating coir fibres into corn starch bioplastic Composites can be used for making spoons, cups, plates Sen et al. (2015) Kenaf fiber, coir fiber Montmorillonite nanoclay nanocomposites hot compression method Enhanced biodegradability and water absorption properties due to hybridization Islam et al. (2015) Jute fabric Epoxy resin Natural fibre composite panels Vacuum infusion and hydraulic pressing Increased ability to bear loads Used in construction/automotives industry Pinto et al. (2016) Jute, flax and hemp fibres Resin Composite plates hand layup technique Suitable for residential and light commercial markets Bambach (2017) Biodegradable Vegetables leather as an alternative to plastic and animal leather Sugarcane bagasse Goatskin leather, NH 4 OH Bio acceptable leather Dialdehyde polysaccharides (DAPB) are formed from sugarcane bagasse by oxidation. Leathers were tanned by DAPB DAPB tanned leather had resistance to cellulose degradation. Also, good mechanical properties. Better degradation than untanned one. Ariram et al., 2020 Barks of Acacia nilotica , Acacia xanthophloea , and Hagenia abyssinica, Formic acid Vegetable tanning for leather Tanning was done with water and vegetable tanning material added. New tanning products were way cheaper and can replace costly mimosa tanning. Kuria et al., 2016 Pineapple leaf fibres NaOH Pinatex Soda pulping, Fermentation, Drying followed by Mesh thinning Textile industry uses PALF fibres as new innovative textile. Ananas Anam Company, Philippines. 2013 Cactus plants N/A Biodegradable leather Fermentation, Drying followed by Mesh thinning Produces a high quality, organic and soft leather that meets the standards of a regular leather Desserto company Coconut water and pineapple leaf N/A Biodegradable leather Cellulase based fermentation, drying and polishing Produced can be cut, stitched, glued, embossed, printed and painted Malai, cochin , India Table 2 Various biodegradable binders used for biodegradable products S. No Name of binder Origin/derived Properties Degradable nature Uses Starch 1 Cassava starch Polysaccharide derived tapioca Starch used as binder to improve mechanical, barrier properties, thermal properties of product, Tensile strength Mpa 30.40), Elongation at break (% 613.40), E (Mpa 6629) Naturally degraded Production of plates, cutlery, polyethene covers, packaging films 2 Corn starch Polysaccharide derived maize Corn starch enhanced the thermal, mechanical and chemical properties significantly, Tensile strength (Mpa 70.08,), Elongation at break (0.15%), Melting temperature (297 0 C) Degraded in 30days Production of plates, cutlery, polyethene covers, packaging films 3 Chitosan Polysaccharide of N-deacetylation of chitin derived from shells of marine crustaceans The polymer ability to form films and resistant heat. Youngs modulus (Mpa-130), Tensile strength (Mpa-10), Elongation at break (% 9), Degraded in 30days Production of plates, cutlery 4 Cellulose β-(1→4)-linked glucose residues derived from plans Excellent mechanical properties, such as a tensile strength of 47.0 MPa and modulus of 9.6 GPa, WVP (0.48g mm/ m 2 d kPa) Degraded in 30days Production of plates, cutlery, mulching mats, wooden products. 5 Gelatine Animal collagen Protein produces high transparency bioplastics with acceptable mechanical properties, Tensile strength (5.6-7.1MPa), Tensile modulus (127-188MPa), Elongation (14.5-20.1%) Naturally degraded 6 Wheat gluten Wheat Better mechanical and barrier properties, melting point (Tm 0 C 100 -120), Tensile strength (N mm -2 28-78), Elongation at break (% 450-790) Natural degraded Production of plates and cutlery 7 Zein Endosperm of corn Good gas barrier, biodegradation, and biocompatibility properties, tensile stress (1.758 Mpa), strain at break (1088.8%), Elongation (14.5%), It degrades naturally Food packaging Renewable synthetic binders 8 Ecoflex Terephthalic acid, adipic acid and 1,4-butanediol Melting point (110-115 0 C), Melt flow index (3g/10min), Resistant to water, heat and tear Compostable polymer (degraded by microorganisms and enzymes) Used for production of bags for organic waste 9 Eastar Bio Derived from diacids and glycols Melting point (105 0 C), Melt flow index (3g/10min), Tensile stress 22Mpa, Elongation at break 700Mpa, Density (g/cm 2 )1.22, high water vapour transmission rate, low oxygen permeability. Compostable polymer (degraded by microorganisms and enzymes) 10 Bio Par starch and poly-ester Melting point (77-125 0 C), Melt flow index (2.5-3.5g/10min), Tensile stress 31Mpa, Elongation at break 900Mpa, Density (g/cm 2 )1.35. High tear resistance and stretchable, high oxygen permeability Compostable polymer (degraded by microorganisms and enzymes) 11 PLA (Polylactic acid) Renewable material (cellulose) Melting point (160-200 0 C), Melt flow index (3-3.5g/10min), Tensile stress 45Mpa, Elongation at break 3Mpa, Density (g/cm 2 )1.21,its good water and humidity properties Compostable polymer (degraded by microorganisms and enzymes) Production of cutlery and bags for organic waste 12 PHA (Poly hydroxyalkanoate) Renewable material (cellulose) Melting point (180°C and 210°C), softening point of 55 °C, excellent balance between high rigidity and good elasticity 13 PHB (The poly-3-hydroxybutyrate) Starch/glucose as primary materials produced by microorganisms Melting point (Tm 0 C177), Tensile strength (MPa-40), Elongation at break (%6), water insoluble, resistant hydrolytic reaction Packaging materials 14 Bionolle polycondensation of polyols with aliphatic dicarboxylic acids Good resistance to water, insensitive for hydrolysis, Melting point (100 0 C), Melt flow index (2.16g/10min), Tensile stress 40Mpa, Elongation at break 600Mpa, Density (g/cm 2 )1.3 Compostable polymer (degraded by microorganisms and enzymes) Production of cutlery and Packaging materials Gums 15 Gur gum Galactomannan derived from seeds of plant Its acts have binder, improves mechanical properties Tensile strength (7.7 Mpa), Elongation at break (9.06%), density (g/cm 2 )1.31 It degrades naturally Used for cutlery and food packaging 16 Locust bean gum Galactomannan derived from seeds of plant Ceratonia siliqua L. Its acts have binder, it improves mechanical and water barrier properties, Tensile strength (11.6 Mpa), Elongation at break (1.12%), density (g/cm 2 )1.04 It degrades naturally Used for cutlery and food packaging 17 Arabic gum galactopyranosyl derived from plant Acacia senegal Its acts binder, it reduces mechanical and barrier properties, tensile strength (5.82 Mpa), elongation at break (30.54%), density (g/cm 2 )1.04 It degrades naturally Used for cutlery and food packaging 18 Gum ghatti Non-starch polysaccharides from Anogeissus latifolia Its acts binder, its improve the mechanical properties, tensile strength (7.55 Mpa), elongation at break (24.73%), Tg (53.5 0 C), Elongation modulus (1800Mpa). It degrades naturally Used for cutlery and food packaging 19 Xanthan gum Poly saccharide derived from bacteria ( Xanthomonas campestris ) Its acts binder, it enhances the mechanical, water vapour permeability of product, tensile strength (7.84 Mpa), elongation at break (91.35%), Puncture force (3.22 N), WVP (g mm/ m 2 d kPa) It degrades naturally Used for cutlery and food packaging 20 Alginate Poly saccharide derived from cell walls of brown algae Its acts binder, its increase the mechanical, barrier, radiometric properties, tensile strength (40 Mpa), elongation at break (3%), WVP (4.107g mm/ m 2 d kPa) It degrades naturally Used for cutlery , mulching mats food packaging 21 Caragana Sulfated polysaccharide extracted from red edible seaweeds Its works as binder and improves the physical, mechanical, thermal and barrier properties, tensile strength (19.23 Mpa), elongation at break (4.36%), WVP (3.82g mm/ m 2 d kPa) It degrades naturally Used for cutlery and food packaging Table 3 Various biodegradable manufactu Company Materials used Areas of application Sulapac, Finland Wood and natural binders Biodegradable straws, cosmetics, supplements Eggplant, Italy Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) plastics Biomed, agriculture, packaging, electronics Pond, Denmark Natural fibres (flax, pineapple, palm leaves) Bioresins Ecoshell, Mexico Plant-based renewable biomass Bags, trays, containers, cutlery 100Bio, USA Polylactic acid (PLA) composts Biodegradable styrofoam for food packaging Worldcentric, USA Plant fibers with long roots Biodegradable bags, dishware, cutleries Papelyco (LifePack), Colombia, SA Corn husk and seeds Plantable plates Be Green packaging, USA Natural fibres Consumer packaged goods Ecoware, New Zealand PLA bioplastic, birchwood, bamboo, PBAT Paper cups, bowls, noodle boxes, straws, tableware TIPA Corp Ltd, Israel Fully compostable polymers (Bioplastics) Flow-wrap packaging, lidding, transparent films Nature Works, USA Corn starch Single-use flatware, cups, packaging Ecovative design, USA Mycelium Plant-based meats, leather-like textiles, packaging Green Dot bioplastics, USA Natural fibers, wood, starch Biocomposites, elastomers, starch composites Genecis Bioindustries Inc, Canada PHBV - Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) Compostable coffee pods, 3D printing filaments Ecolife, Canada Polylactic acid (PLA), GMO-free renewable resources Compostable shopping bags, garbage bags, binliners Envigreen, India Natural starch, vegetable oil derivatives Packaging films, trash bags, aprons, wrapping covers Aura Exim, India Wheat bran, areca palm, coconut palm leaf Plates, spoons, straw and other cutleries Biotrem, Poland Wheat bran Disposable tableware, cutlery Ecosave, India Sugarcane bagasse, Rice husk, Areca nut Tableware, cotton bags, cutleries Aggarwal Biotech Pvt Ltd, India Corn starch with biodegradable polymers Biopolymer granules, carry bags Chuk,Yesh compostable lmt.India Sugarcane bagasse compostable table ware Compostable plates, cups , dinnerware’s Supplementary Files Graphicalabstract.docx Highlights.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-1864716","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":127500659,"identity":"1cb458d3-800a-49aa-9dd8-26cc195bda4a","order_by":0,"name":"Anjineyulu kothakota","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5972-3356","institution":"NIIST-CSIR: National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology CSIR","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Anjineyulu","middleName":"","lastName":"kothakota","suffix":""},{"id":127500660,"identity":"de622ab2-766a-479b-af45-ae6dc67a3bad","order_by":1,"name":"Rakesh Raghunathan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"NIIST-CSIR: National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology CSIR","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rakesh","middleName":"","lastName":"Raghunathan","suffix":""},{"id":127500661,"identity":"64276898-24b6-46b8-8cb9-d43e99271ac4","order_by":2,"name":"Puja Nelluri","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"IIT Kharagpur: Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Puja","middleName":"","lastName":"Nelluri","suffix":""},{"id":127500662,"identity":"d6018535-fc3b-4e73-9d14-faf7d970f7ef","order_by":3,"name":"Dileepmon Rajendran","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"NIIST-CSIR: National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology CSIR","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dileepmon","middleName":"","lastName":"Rajendran","suffix":""},{"id":127500663,"identity":"7c65fe93-be90-47e7-ad87-9b6dc6eeebc5","order_by":4,"name":"Ravi Pandiselvam","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"CPCRI: Central Plantation Crops Research Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ravi","middleName":"","lastName":"Pandiselvam","suffix":""},{"id":127500664,"identity":"ab621a1b-a732-4069-86ca-e372d523b56e","order_by":5,"name":"Venkatesh Thulasiraman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"NIIST-CSIR: National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology CSIR","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Venkatesh","middleName":"","lastName":"Thulasiraman","suffix":""},{"id":127500665,"identity":"42e4b3f8-32bc-4440-a19a-7751c47d1701","order_by":6,"name":"Sushanta Kumar Sahoo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"NIIST-CSIR: National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology CSIR","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sushanta","middleName":"Kumar","lastName":"Sahoo","suffix":""},{"id":127500666,"identity":"3c18d28b-15fd-4a38-9465-2423ffe60d78","order_by":7,"name":"Saju Pillai","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"NIIST-CSIR: National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology CSIR","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Saju","middleName":"","lastName":"Pillai","suffix":""},{"id":127500667,"identity":"38778259-82c4-45a5-9c22-a9b1c80db666","order_by":8,"name":"Rifna Elnjikkal Jerome","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"NIT Rourkela: National Institute of Technology Rourkela","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rifna","middleName":"Elnjikkal","lastName":"Jerome","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2022-07-16 13:57:26","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1864716/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1864716/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":25094846,"identity":"97f535e0-dfd3-47ad-b8d3-02222d14824d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-08-11 16:03:05","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":352888,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a,b,c) Fruit waste based biodegrable products Developed by CSIR-NIIST,\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;(d) pinepple leaf based bioedgrable products (Iewkittayakorn et al.,2020). (\u003cem\u003eCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research -\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNational Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;(\u003cem\u003eNIIST\u003c/em\u003e),Trivandrum India.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1864716/v1/98a6fcb611c2757a23146bdf.png"},{"id":25094168,"identity":"ba7eee3e-0cb4-4007-a318-808115868f15","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-08-11 15:58:05","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":491038,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e (a,b,c, d,e) Cearals based (Wheat bran,rice husk,multigrain, rice bran) based bidegrdable products Developed by CSIR NIIST\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e (a,b) rice husk and banana fiber based bideogrdable strip SEM images , (c) combined bideogrdable stript SEM images Developed by CSIR\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1864716/v1/0fe0b0574f2f50ed1e83ba0d.png"},{"id":25094848,"identity":"5fb9c391-5f77-461f-9159-189adb13ec41","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-08-11 16:03:06","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":385549,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e(a, b) Sea weed based biodegradable products (Herrmann et al., 2019) (c, d) water hyacinth biodegradable products (plates and paper) (Developed by CSIR NIIST: Hossain et al., 2020:)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1864716/v1/25ac99254eeefc604578a3a3.png"},{"id":25094165,"identity":"d72f38b3-35c8-4be4-ac43-25f33b6aaef5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-08-11 15:58:05","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":557367,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Arica palm plates, (b)plantain leaf products (c), (d)banana leaf products, (e) sugarcane products, (f) earthen products (Reframed from Herrmann \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2019)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1864716/v1/4761db8365d488fbfa4eaec4.png"},{"id":25094171,"identity":"65fff1b7-5586-489d-8b7c-8a7387a09949","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-08-11 15:58:06","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":285593,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a, b, c, d) Coconut wood, coconut coir, coconut de oiled cake\u0026nbsp;and coconut husk based biodegradable products developed by Developed by CSIR NIIST\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1864716/v1/603a413e302385470a508de8.png"},{"id":25094164,"identity":"abd29cb7-4603-4b8f-b1bb-f6ecbeb6182c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-08-11 15:58:05","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":375980,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a), Powder based biodegradable products from agrowaste and its end product contribution to circular economy, (b) plant fiber based biodegradable paper and coating further removal of coating reusing for plant growth as recycling study conducted at CSIR NIIST, Trivandrum India.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1864716/v1/8fc1f721e10b3eea9047c4c0.png"},{"id":25829880,"identity":"1ad23ab1-abcc-4492-8758-7a759bf03727","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-08-30 07:38:41","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3568385,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1864716/v1/9b1fb321-ee19-497f-a78c-e1ce4266cbc6.pdf"},{"id":25094170,"identity":"73f8945e-e4cf-4500-94ad-846ccbde05be","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-08-11 15:58:06","extension":"docx","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":179473,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Graphicalabstract.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1864716/v1/4c1b915b1e212faa36313c81.docx"},{"id":25094847,"identity":"3cd6bb49-2095-4eaf-8d7f-2379275ccd7e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-08-11 16:03:06","extension":"docx","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":13786,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Highlights.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1864716/v1/b04a1a8db484efc7dd50c38f.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Biodegradable Products from renewable sources: Impact on Replacing Single Use Plastic for Protecting the Environment","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe annual global consumption of plastics is around 359 million tonnes with an average global per capita consumption of plastics about 28 kg per year in the year 2018. Japan has the highest per capita consumption of plastics of 114 kg followed by USA with 109 kg as per capita consumption (\u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\"\u003ehttps://www.statista.com/chart/17564/annual-per-capita-production-of-plastic-by-region/\u003c/a\u003e). India consumes as much as 15 million tonnes of plastics annually with per capita consumption of 11 kg. Out of all plastics that are being produced, only 9 % is being recycled, while the rest is partly incinerated and partly thrown as landfills and posing a serious threat to the environment (Rashid, 2019). Due to the ease in use of plastics and economic benefits, there has been a great rise in production and utilization of plastics. However, they act as a menace to the marine life and cause serious ecological issues. Moreover, plastics are largely produced from non-renewable resources which are very limited and question their future availability. Hence there is a need for finding an alternative to plastics which are abundant and eco-friendly.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBiodegradable materials are the materials that have the ability to degrade without leaving toxic residues in the environment (Patel et al., 2011). They can also be considered as green polymers because they are derived from renewable materials such as agro wastes, animal hides, organic wastes from processing industries etc. Biodegradable materials can be used to make packaging films, cutleries, fiber boards, composite films, plates, bags, bowls, paper, leather, insulating materials, coating and waxing materials and edible films. Most of these things are made from fruits, vegetables, wood, animal skins, sea weeds, cereals, pulses, millets, leaves, plant fibers, rejected processing industrial wastes etc. To fabricate any biodegradable material, the primary requisites are raw materials, additives, binders, colorants, stabilizers and processing aids.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Various methods can be employed for making biodegradable plastics. \u0026nbsp; A few of the widely used methods are injection molding, compression molding, solution casting, extrusion, surface modification techniques, bio coatings, solution intercalation, cast tape drying, solvent intercalation and ionic cross linking etc., Depending upon the raw materials and end product requirement, the desired method can be chosen for manufacturing. Binders are important in the manufacture of biodegradable materials because they are known to influence the extent of biodegradability. Binders may be synthetic or natural, they help in binding the particles together. Natural binders are obtained from plant and animal sources which include alginate, chitosan, starch, cellulose, protein, lignin, resins and similar other products. Binders can also be produced by microbial methods. A few of the binders produced through microbial route are poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and polyhydroxybutyrate cohydroxyvalerate (PHBv) (Vieira et al., 2011). Synthetic binders are obtained by polymerization process with agriculture sources are polylactic acid, polyvinyl acetate, ecoflex, bionolle etc. are subjecting natural polymers to chemical processes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur objective of this paper is to develop biodegradable products from renewable sources and this step would lead us to the origination of \u0026ldquo;green\u0026rdquo; products and processing technologies. Even binders used for this production from agriculture waste. The chosen material must be a source of food for the bacteria, animals, fishes to feed on in the disposal area. Also, the process of biodegradation must happen in shorter time duration (within six months)\u0026nbsp;A schematic representation of the model shown in Table 1 depicts various biodegradable product charcestistics from various renewable resource.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt; Insert Table 1, here \u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2.\tAdditives","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.1 Plasticizers:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlasticizers are the non-volatile compounds that enhance the flexibility and workability of the substances (Sejidov et al., 2005). They are mainly divided into two types: water soluble and insoluble. Synthetic plasticizers are generally not preferred due to its toxicity. Traditionally, biodegradable products are produced from natural sources like areca leaves, sal leaves, coconut shells, bamboo and banana fibres. They are widely used to manufacture plates, bowls, cutleries, bags, spoons, wraps, cardboard paper etc., However, due to the absence of binders and other suitable processing methods, they possess less tensile strength and restricted usage. In such cases, there is a need for the development of biodegradable materials from other sources such as agricultural produce and wastes, animal sources and other processing waste. A wide range of raw materials such as fruit peels, rice husk, rice bran and straws, wheat bran and husk, cereal and pulses waste etc., serve as useful starting materials for potential biodegradable derivatives. Vegan leather can also be produced from certain plant sources like mango, barks of trees, sugarcane bagasse, leaf fibers, cactus plants etc. applications of the developed products in various sectors and the impact on environment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.2 Binders\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBinders are the compounds that bind the particles together by means of cohesion. They are also used to improve the functional properties of the materials. Binders are of different types and can be classified in many ways. Depending upon the nature of their source, they may be natural or synthetic.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCarrageenan, a sulphated polysaccharide is derived from red algae and can be extracted in different forms like kappa, nu, mu, iota, ksi, lambda, and theta. They are useful as gelation, thickening, stabilizing and binding agents. They can also be used in cosmetics, pharmaceutical formulations and other industrial applications. Alginate is another polysaccharide which can be derived from brown algae and bacterial sources and is mostly available in the forms of sodium alginate, potassium alginate and calcium alginate. This can be used as a gelling agent, stabilizer, texture improver and emulsifier in the food sector, biomaterials in pharmaceutical industries and in cosmetics for retention of color properties (Wahab \u0026amp; Abd Razak, 2016).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChitosan is an amino polysaccharide derived from chitin which is prominent in the exoskeleton of insects, crustaceans, and fungi and is obtained by subjecting chitin to partial alkaline deacetylation. It is a natural polymer and can be used in wide range of sectors like food, agriculture, and pharmaceuticals. Starch is an another important highly branched polysaccharide containing amylose and amylopectin and is present in many parts of the plant. Native starch does not possess any thermoplastic property. However, with the introduction of plasticizers and thermal shearing, it can be converted into thermoplastic starch. Though water is generally used as a plasticizer, some resulting product turns brittle with time because of the escaping tendency of water. Therefore, other plasticizers like sugars, glycerol, sorbitol etc. are used to form a rubber-like product (Mohanty \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2005). Cellulose, widely known natural polymer, is an essential and versatile polysaccharide composed of a linear chain with ringed glucose molecules and is present in cell walls of plant cells (Wahab \u0026amp; Abd Razak, 2016). Different protein sources like whey protein, casein, zein, gluten and soy protein can also be used as natural polymers to produce different biodegradable packaging materials (Rydz et al., 2018). Plant based gums like gum Arabica, cassia gum, guar gum and other seed gums are other widely used natural polysaccharides which have applications like thickening, binding, edible coatings, drug delivery systems, pharmaceutical applications and emulsifier etc (Saha et al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOther types of natural binders include gelatin which is widely obtained from the skin and bones of animals and polyesters obtained from microorganisms (Hanani \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2012). It can be used as a thickening, gelling, emulsifying and binding agent. Polyesters like polyhydroxyalkanoates are obtained from microorganisms and they can be decomposed by their enzymatic actions. These are linear and thermoplastic polyesters and are classified into two types namely polyhydroxybutyrate and polyhydroxyoctanoate (Gross \u0026amp; Kalra, 2002).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSynthetic binders, which are also biodegradable in nature, are made from low molecular weight compounds by subjecting them to polymerization processes (Rend\u0026oacute;n‐Villalobos et al., 2016). Some of the synthetic binders are polylactic acid (PLA) and polycaprolactone. PLA is a synthetic binder obtained by condensation of lactides. It has two isomers and can be used in producing commercial packaging films and in medical applications. Polycaprolactone, which has a low melting point and widely used in orthopedic casts and pigment dispersants, is obtained by open ring polymerization of \u0026epsilon;-caprolactone. Other types of binders include semi synthetic binders which are obtained by introducing natural polymers into the synthetic polymers. For example, natural starch can be incorporated into synthetic polymers to improve their biodegradability (Rend\u0026oacute;n‐Villalobos \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2016). The various biodegradable binders from various renewable resources is observed in Table 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt; Insert Table 2, here \u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3.\tMethods To Prepare Biodegradable Materials","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe development and preparation of biodegradable materials is an interesting and challenging task due to the incompatibility between the raw materials, complexity and innovation involved, difficulty in testing the developed materials and others. The success of the method depends on the mechanical and physical aspects of the manufactured biodegradable products and their compatibility with nature. There are different methods available for manufacturing the biodegradable materials. Some of them are cooking method, wet method, dry method and casting methods\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCooking method involves different steps. The first step is the extraction of pulp from raw materials either by chemical or mechanical processing of the plant fibers. This is continued by the mixing of pulp with suitable binders and cooking. The final step is the preparation of sheets from the cooked pulp followed by compression for making the end product with desired shape and size. Then the obtained products are tested for their quality characteristics like strength, water resistance, biodegradability etc.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWet method is the method in which desired raw materials and binders are mixed and grinded properly. \u0026nbsp;Then the grinded mixture is kneaded to form a dough of required consistency and flexibility. Kneading modifies the structures of the components present in the mixture to give them the required characteristics. Then the prepared dough is molded into different shapes either by compression molding or injection molding. Compression molding is a type of molding where the raw materials are compressed into the molds to obtain different shapes. It can be done in two ways namely; heat pressing in a compression oven (100 - 180\u0026deg;C for 10-15 min) and cold pressing (60 - 80\u0026deg;C) by means of a hydraulic press. Development of biodegradable products like potato leather, cups of different sizes can be made from compression molding (Baranova 2019).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Injection molding can be defined as a method of manufacturing polymers by injecting the molten raw material into the predesigned molds under high pressures. It is most commonly used for manufacturing thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers and to mold complex shapes during\u0026nbsp;plasticization, injection and cooling temperatures are 100\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003eC, 110\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003eC and 140\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003eC. They found that the method requires higher temperatures, wastage of raw materials for initial trials and increased the density of matrix and amorphous to crystalline ratio of the implants. This method is suitable for producing larger volumes of products at a time.\u0026nbsp;After moulding, they are cooled to suitable working temperature and are cut down. Then the obtained products are evaluated based on their characteristic quality parameters which depends on their purpose of make.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dry method involves an initial preparation of mixture of raw materials and binders and subjecting the mixture to a roasting unit operation. \u0026nbsp;Roasting is a method of cooking where the products are subjected to dry heat that evenly cooks the products from all the sides. Generally, the temperatures in roasting are greater than 150\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003eC. Then the roasted mixture is subjected to steam compression. Then products with different shapes and sizes are obtained by cooling the molds and cutting them. Then the obtained products are tested for their quality parameters to check if they are meeting the required standards.\u0026nbsp;Solution casting is one of the methods of developing biodegradable materials. In this method, the prepared solutions of raw materials are poured into the molds and are dried. The molds can also be dipped into the prepared solution so that they form a film around the mold. Kamnet et al. (2005) reported the manufacture of stearic acid-modified gelatin-based films by solution casting. From the results, it was concluded that the biodegradable modified gelatin films can be formed by casting their aqueous solutions and it resulted in the alteration of their properties.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExtrusion is another type of manufacturing process to produce biodegradable materials, which involves cooking of the raw material in a barrel where simultaneous heating and mixing can be done and the products can be extruded like threads in a suitable preheated mold followed by drying. Baranova (2019)\u0026nbsp;manufactured biodegradable cutlery like forks by extrusion and found that the nozzle and barrel temperatures were around\u0026nbsp;100\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003eC and 30\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003eC-50\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003eC respectively. \u0026nbsp;He also found that preheating the moulds gives smooth finish to developed products.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4.\tSources For Biodegradable Material Production","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e4.1 Fruit and vegetables based biodegradable materials:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e These are the biodegradable materials generated from fruits and vegetable peels, seeds, leaves and other disused parts. FAO reports indicate that one-third of the food is discarded as waste in dumping areas. However, fruit and vegetable wastes are employed as substrates in organic acid production and to develop value-added products (Wadhwa et al., 2015). Apart from cutleries, biodegradable packaging films can also be made from such wastes which can be promoted as antimicrobial and antioxidant agents for protection of food. Food industries have traditionally been utilizing polymer films like polypropylene, polyethylene etc. as packaging materials for fruits and vegetables and this is attributed to the relative abundance of the material at low price in addition to possessing excellent mechanical properties (Galgano, 2015). However, the negative impacts of petrochemical-based materials have led to a renewed interest in incorporating ecofriendly biodegradable materials. The substitution of synthetic materials by bio-derived substances is preferred because the raw materials are predominantly derived from agricultural sources, they are renewable, nontoxic and are capable of recycling and results in lesser cost. For instance, papaya leaves are active substances used in packaging (Sukoco et al., 2019). Yusof \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2012 have attempted the production of pineapple fiber-based papers was optimized by experimenting various ratios of leaf fiber and recycled newspaper pulp and it was found that the developed material has improved the tensile force tear force can be used as a medium of packaging. Hariprasad \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2013 made another attempt biodegradable plates from banana-coir epoxy hybrid composites prepared with resin, coir, and banana using hand lay-up method, indicated that the alkali treated composites possess better tensile strength, impact strength and low flexural strength than untreated composites. The various uses of potato peels in developing bioplastics via compression, and extrusion with heatable molds were reported by MacArthur (2017). Being rich in starch, potato peel can act as binder and becomes highly viscous upon heating. Highly viscous nature is one of the desirable properties for facilitating easy extrusion. The use of orange and wheat peels can also be used for producing bioplastics by different ingredients and methods. Bakatovich et al. (2018) have developed thermal insulating plates from agricultural plant wastes with liquid glass, emulsion of PVA and latex as binders. The prepared mixtures were consolidated in a mold at a pressure of 0.2 to 0.4 MPa and then dried at a temperature of 50\u0026deg;C. They found that the plates which were made from the composites of rice straw and flax boon fibers was best in terms of formation of optimal composite structure, and lower absorption of moisture, which are environmentally friendly and also reduce the carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. An edible plate from sorghum and rice flour was developed by using spinach juice instead of water in the preparation of the dough (Sood et al., 2018). The prepared dough was molded by using a plate mold and was baked at 80\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003eC for 5 min. Chemical parameters like moisture, protein, ash and fat content were found to be 2.57, 4.81, 1.60 and 1.72 per cent respectively. It was found that the energy and starch content of the plate were 343.4 kcal and 4.25% respectively. The consumers\u0026rsquo; acceptability score was found to be 7.20 out of 10.0 hedonic scale.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn edible coating is a thin film that envelopes the surface of the food and serves two important purposes. Firstly, it provides an improvement in shelf-life by mitigating the reduction in water content. Secondly, the semipermeable barrier restricts the movement of solutes, gas exchange, oxygen and moisture thus aiding in preservation. The edible coatings have an edge over synthetic films because they can be consumed with the provided package and limits the disposal problem. Also, their biodegradation time is faster in comparison with plastic products (Jankar \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2018). Edible films from grape juice and corn starches subjected to modification by chemical means were produced (Yıldırım-Yal\u0026ccedil;ın et al., 2019) and it was found that the starch modified with sodium trimetaphosphate significantly decreased the oxygen permeability, water vapor permeability, solubility, percent elongation and the resulting films exhibited transparent and flexible properties. The developed starch-based films have its application in dried/instant water-soluble food products. Pająk et al. (2019) developed edible films from starches extracted from pumpkin, quinoa, lentils and compared their properties with potato-based starch (PS) films and it was evident that the lentil starch-based films exhibited lowest solubility and swelling and starch-based films from pumpkin exhibited highest swelling. All the films revealed solid like behavior based on melting of the films but melted faster than PS film. Muthu et al. (2019) have investigated biodegradable plates from mango seed shell using corn starch as a binder with different compositions and found that the plates formed from 30% weight mango seed shell powder were proved to be best based on oil and water absorption studies. Due to the high fiber content, molding was found to be difficult above 40 % weight mango seed shell powder sample. Biodegradable products that include plates and cutleries from pineapple leaf pulp were generated with various binders and bio coatings (eg. beeswax, shellac, alginate/gellan gum etc.) to improve water resistance properties and it was found that the bio coatings improved the physical and mechanical properties like grammage, tensile strength, thickness, tear resistance and water absorption (Iewkittayakorn \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2020). The optimal cooking time and pulp dosage were found to be 180 minutes and 300 g of pulp per frame, by moist weight. The papers coated after hot pressing were found to degrade faster than papers coated prior to it. Based on all the properties, it was found that the beeswax\u0026ndash;chitosan solution was suited best as bio coatings for the pineapple leaf pulp plates.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ethe processing of the waste material (stalks, peels, seeds, pulp and residues) is not adequately performed and are either accumulated in the landfills or served as animal feed. The fruit waste can be used in production of biodegradable plates, cutlery and edible films as best alternative for single use plastic and reduce impact of issues on environment. Another advantage, the presence of water molecules in fruits, vegetables and their relatively lesser molecular weight enable the use of these materials as plasticizers and 100% degradable. An illustration of the fruits and vegetable waste based biodegradable products developed by \u003cem\u003eCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research -\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNational Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(\u003cem\u003eNIIST\u003c/em\u003e)is provided in Fig 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt; Insert Figure 1, here \u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e4.2 Cereals, millets, pulses and other plant sources based biodegradable materials\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThese are the biodegradable materials produced from different types of cereals, millets, pulses and other plant sources. The main sources include rice straw, wheat straw, rice husk, wheat bran, sugarcane bagasse, hemp, flax fibres, millets like foxtail millet, finger millet, sorghum and some plant leaves like palm leaves. These products are used for producing versatile products such as thermal insulation materials, fiber boards, packaging films, edible and biodegradable cutleries and composites. They have advantages like high amount of starch, renewable in nature, low cost compared to non-renewable materials, easily available and serves as a better alternative to the plastics. Starch is one of the abundantly present renewable polysaccharides in cereals and is stored in the plants as semicrystalline granules. Starch has been extensively used in foods as a thickener, filler to improve textural properties etc. In addition to that, they are also utilized for a variety of non-food applications Eg. in film formation and edible product preparation. The strength of film relies on the amylose content and the resulting starch-based films are soluble in water, oil repellent, impermeable to oxygen and flexible. Similarly, the cereal-based edible and biodegradable products exhibit high mechanical and barrier properties due to high concentrated starch acts as a plasticizer (Katiyar, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe rice industry will continue to flourish to meet the requirements and so does the agricultural wastes from it. The two main resulting residual products are rice straw and rice husk. Both of these are rich in carbon and silica. Other products are rice bran and ash. Harvesting one kilogram of paddy rice will result in the formation of 0.4\u0026ndash;4 kg of rice straw. Rice husk varies between 20 and 33% of the weight of the paddy. The composition of rice kernel is approximately 20% rice husk/hull, 11% of the surrounding bran and 69% of endosperm. For every 1000 kg of rice, 200 kg of husk and 80-110 kg of bran is formed after milling (Pode, 2016). Rice husk remains either underused or are discarded because of its properties such as rough surface, limited nutritional content, more silica levels, lesser bulk density and also is hard to decompose. Rice husk has been utilized for preparation of various biodegradable products alternative single use products. Yang et al. (2004) have prepared rice husk flour with polypropylene composites and studied their properties. Four different levels of the sample were introduced as filler in the polypropylene matrix and it was observed that tensile strength decreased whereas tensile modulus increased with increase in filler percentage, composite becomes more brittle and shows plastic deformation. Furthermore, Thin medium and high-density fiberboards prepared from rice straw using methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) as a resin (Halvarsson \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2010) showed that the defibration at a 0.5 MPa pressure and 1 min retention time generated fibers of required quality for the development of fiberboards. The properties like modulus of rupture and elasticity, and water absorption capacity increased with increase in fiber board density. It was found that the produced fiberboards were acceptable for grades 120 and 130 according to MDF (Medium density fiberboard) standards. Moreover, A research group has developed laminate grade colored base paper from pulverized coal fly ash and rice straw (Sinha \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2011). The sample containing filler with 22 % coal ash and remaining 78 % rice straw pulp exhibited an 99.6 % opacity, tear strength of 3.82 mN.m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e /g and burst strength of 1.4 KPa.m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e /g. It was concluded that the paper filled with fly ash has higher tear factor and better tensile index than paper filled with kaolin clay at higher level of filler percentages. Another study reported the use of rice straw (RS) and corn starch based biodegradable composites (Liu \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2012). Two treatments were given to RS, one with sodium hydroxide and another with hot-water to notice their effect on the removal of silica. It was found that the composites made from RS treated with hot water and corn starch had good interface and larger flexural strength than other samples. At 10% starch content and a composite density of 0.7 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e, flexural strength reached its peak. Composites made from the control sample (non-treated RS and corn starch) had lower moisture absorption capacity and it was concluded that the manufactured composites are suitable for use in ceiling panels and bulletein boards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWheat grain consists of the following components: the germ layer, endosperm, pericarp and the aleurone layer. It serves as a rich source of bioactive components. During grain processing, significant amounts of bran and straw are formed. Wheat straw comprises cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and has a few applications (paper processing, fodder for animals) but a large chunk of it is discarded as waste. Wheat bran has in majority the carbohydrate fraction that includes cellulose, hemicellulose and starch and less quantity of lignin and protein. However, because of the widespread availability of the material and lack of nutritional content, it is sold for a cheaper price. The polymeric composition of straw and bran can be exploited for the production of biodegradable materials (Souza Filho \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2020). The presence of gluten in wheat contributes to the film-forming ability and this involves the inclusion of plasticizers (Eg. glycerol). The films formed from wheat gluten provide good barrier properties and are semipermeable to gases (Mastromatteo et al., 2008). Biotrem is a Polish based company which has been producing a variety of biodegradable articles such as plates, bowls and cutlery from wheat bran and lactic acid generally by compression molding technique. They produce an average of 15 million biodegradable articles in a year. Snijder et al. (2003) have reported production of biodegradable plates, trays and bowls from wheat bran in Biotrem. Wheat bran and water are subjected to different temperatures and pressures to develop various products depending on the end user needs. To increase the toughness of the products, biodegradable binders like bionolle, ecoflex, gelatin and biopar etc. are used. Another firm Bakey\u0026rsquo;s is an Indian based company which produces edible cutlery like spoons, forks and chopsticks from a mixture of dried jowar or sorghum, rice and wheat. The company produces spoons and forks with delayed slogging capacity which is edible and biodegradable in 5-7 days. The produced cutlery has a shelf life of 2 years without losing their crispiness as the moisture content is less than 2 % and is available in various flavors. In addition, strong and thin pulp molded packaging material from wheat straw was developed by Curling \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., (2017). The treated wheat straw has higher tensile modulus than expanded polystyrene. Wet addition of chemicals is preferable for increasing the water resistance capacity. It was observed that the pulp molded material is biodegradable which exhibits 20 % loss in mass only in 4 weeks when covered by soil. Besides composite materials prepared from pretreated wheat husks were evaluated and the effect of pretreatments on the composite material was observed. It was found that composite boards made from 2% sodium hydroxide solution treated husk decreased the internal bonding and also the bending strength. This is attributed to the decrease in surface energy, increased lignin content and the equilibrium moisture content of husks. It was observed that all the developed composite boards had low thermal conductivity (Hysek \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn corresponding to the pulses, the biodegradable composite was developed from straw fiber using hydrolyzed soybean protein isolate/urea/formaldehyde (HSPI/U/F) adhesive. It was found that the bio composite flowerpots (BFP) are biodegradable and its degradability increased by addition of HSPI, which was nearly 50% at 24 months. It is also found that upon subjecting to composting for 30 days, the accumulated CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e release reached 24g and the bacteria, fungi present on the BFP surface indicates that the degradation process can be accelerated (Sun \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2019). Furthermore, Edible cutlery from sorghum was prepared via doughing by addition of rice and wheat in various proportions, followed by molding and baking at 360\u003csup\u003e\u0026deg;\u003c/sup\u003eC for 10 minutes. The product is finally cooled in room temperature and was found to be a best and sustainable alternative for plastics cutleries (Rashid, 2019). The schematic diagrams of cereal-based biodegradables products and its structural images developed by CSIR NIIST observed fig.2a and 2b.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt; Insert Figure 2 (a,b), here \u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e4.3 Seaweed based biodegradable materials\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeaweeds are the marine microalgae and underutilized renewable marine resources occurring in shallow coastal waters. Seaweeds are a storehouse of bioactive compounds like polyphenols, terpenoids, carotenoids and tocopherols. They are a good source of proteins, peptides, polysaccharides, amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants, vitamins and minerals and known to have several health benefits. They are a rich source of lectins which have the ability to bind the carbohydrates and agglutinate the cells. They are mainly used as food, animal feeds, fertilizer, phycocolloid industries and as sources of traditional medicine but can be used as a potential source to produce bioplastics (Abirami \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2016). Polysacharrides such as carrageenan, agar and alginate are produced from seaweeds only (Gade \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2013). Several materials like edible films and glasses, biodegradable packaging films, biodegradable cups, sachets, wrappers etc. can be manufactured from seaweeds. The following write up describes the various methods of production of biodegradable materials from seaweed. Evoware is a company based in Indonesia which produces different products (sachets and edible wrappings) from the unaltered seaweeds that can be dissolved in water and eaten. These sachets, in turn can be used for packaging dry stuff like seasonings, coffee, salt, sugar etc. and dammar coated sachets for liquid and semisolid stuffs like sauces and seasoning oils etc. Their other applications include packaging of soaps, shampoos, straws, toothpicks etc. (Mulyono, 2017). Their products are completely biodegradable and can be used as fertilizers to plants also. They also produce edible glasses which tastes like jelly and comes in flavors from peppermint to green tea. The packaging materials are printable, heat sealable and can be produced in different colors also. Nevertheless, their products serve as a good alternative for single-use plastic packaging. Another research agar derived from the red seaweed was identified as a raw material to prepare bioplastic films (Hii \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2016). It was found that the yield of agar was about 9 to 11 % by both alkali and photo bleaching extraction methods. Alkali extracted agar (AEA) and photo bleached agar (PBA) were used along with sago starch and glycerol and it was found that the tensile strength and percent elongation of PBA film was higher than AEA film but AEA film showed better thermal stability than PBA film. It was observed that AEA film decomposed totally after 30 days when the soil burial test was performed. In addition, polylactic acid (PLA) and seaweed-based films were fabricated at a temperature of 5, 20 and 40\u003csup\u003eᵒ\u003c/sup\u003eC (Rodr\u0026iacute;guez-Mart\u0026iacute;nez \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2016). The films were developed by extrusion process and with two compositions and hence the developed films can be used for protecting the packed foods. In addition, Khalil et al. (2018) have developed microbial-induced calcium carbonate filled seaweed-based film for the application in green plasticulture. The red seaweed (\u003cem\u003eKappaphycus alvarezii\u003c/em\u003e) was used as a base matrix and microbial induced calcium carbonate (MB-CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) and commercial CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (C-CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) as two different fillers and prepared two separate films. Films incorporated with MB-CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e exhibited bright color, improved water barrier properties, hydrophobicity and biodegradability than that of C-CaCO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e. Additionally, the biodegradable cup developed from agar and hemp coated with candelilla wax was found to serve as an alternative to single use cups (Hanley et al., 2019). To improve the water proofing, candelilla wax coating was preferred. The appearance can be improved by spray coating of wax instead of coating it normally. The developed cup is biodegradable in nature, does not affect smell, can be stored up to six months, formed into a cup shape and can remain waterproof. Furthermore, Tran \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2020) have developed biodegradable films from seaweed-based polysaccharides such as sodium alginate, kappa-carrageenan and Gac pulp by a casting process using glycerol as a plasticizer. They found that sodium alginate, kappa-carrageenan altered the physical and mechanical properties of the film. On the other hand, Gac pulp effected the colour parameters alone. Glycerol was the main factor responsible for the effect on all the film properties excluding opacity and color values. The optimum composition was found to be sodium alginate 1.03%, kappa-carrageenan 0.65% w/v, Gac pulp 0.4% w/v and glycerol 0.85% w/v. It was concluded that the developed edible films are suitable as coating materials for foods. Since the polymers derived from seaweeds and also an excellent source of renewable material because of their increased carbohydrate content, larger yield and easy availability. They are considered to be better alternatives for single use plastic in comparison with biomass derived from terrestrial sources (Lakshmi \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2017). The schematic presentation of sea weed based biodegradables products prepared by CSIR NIIST depicts in fig.3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt; Insert Figure 3, here \u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e4.4 Wood based biodegradable products\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eVersatile products such as biodegradable composites, paper, packaging films, plates, cups, spoons, bags etc., can be prepared from wide range of wood-based sources such as bamboo, coconut, jute fibers, pineapple leaf-based fiber, rubber wood and other fibers. Many other interesting products like multilayered straws from coconut leaf fibers, face masks from hemp, bottles from bamboo, clutch facings from coconut coir fiber, bags from jute fibers for purposes like packaging, handbags, school bags, fabrics from jute fibers, bamboo straw ash utilized in the construction of roads, to enhance the index properties of lateritic soil can also be prepared. These plant-based fibers have higher cellulose and protein content, therefore, good structural features and utilization in composite materials (Kumar \u0026amp; Allamraju, 2019). Most of these sources are renewable in nature and are either biodegradable or compostable in nature. In the upcoming session, some of the biodegradable products produced from wood sources are discussed in detail. Biodegradable composites were developed from china jute fiber and polylactic acid (PLA) by Hu et al. (2007) and composite plates were prepared with three different fractions of jute fibers (30, 40 and 50% in volume) by film stacking hot press method. They determined that the tensile, flexural strength and notched impact slightly improved with increase in fiber content. It is also identified that silane treatment decreases the water absorption rates, but does not have any significant impact on the mechanical characteristics. Besides jute fiber reinforced paper laminates and fiber free paper laminates were prepared by Verma (2009) and he investigated that there is a significant improvement in the tensile strength, load carrying capacity and fracture energy than the fiber free laminates. He concluded that thin kraft paper and old newspaper laminates and composites exhibited better properties than the thick kraft paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCoir is the fibrous material obtained from the outer husk of coconut. The higher content contributes to the high durability but the large quantities of waste generated from coconut husk after extracting the edible components are not properly utilized. The chemical modification methods performed with coir fiber has been successfully used in packaging industries, furniture manufacture etc (Verma \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2013).With this respect Ramirez \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e (2010) have developed biodegradable composites from green coconut fibers, corn starch and Brazilian cassava starch by compression molding and found that the coir fibers showed greater tensile strength and higher Young\u0026rsquo;s modulus constant , it is reported that there is a rise in the tensile strength with increasing fiber content in both the starches. It is also observed that the cassava starch composites showed higher water absorption than corn starch composites. Furthermore, the hybrid fiber reinforced nanocomposites were developed from wider range of organic as well as synthetic materials like kenaf fiber, polypropylene, coir fiber and montmorillonite nanoclay by using hot compression (Islam \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2015) and investigations established that the young\u0026rsquo;s modulus and tensile strength were better due to the hybridization and addition of montmorillonite. For good measure, adding montmorillonite improved the adhesion and compatibility of the fiber, which indicates the formation of new bonds between hybrid fibers and polymer matrix. It is concluded that the hybridization enhanced the water absorptivity and biodegradability properties of the hybrid fiber. Again, cellulose nanofibrils (CCNF) were developed from coconut coir fibers by Wu \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e (2019) which can be incorporated in biodegradable composite PVA films. The extraction of cellulose from coir fiber is done by multiple treatments like ultrasonic-assisted solvent immersion, alkaline treatment and bleaching, accompanied by addition of CCNF in different weight percentages to the PVA by solution casting method. It is revealed that the CCNF were characterized by thermal stability, crystallinity and morphology and also addition of CCNF enhanced the tensile strength, biodegradability, thermal stability of the films and elongation at break especially at 3 % level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe fibers extracted from bamboo possess excellent mechanical properties. However, they are brittle and this is due to the additional lignin content in comparison with other natural fibers. The use of bamboo remained underutilized but is now widely accepted for its application in composite industry. It has a cellulose content of 60% and higher lignin percentage (Khalil et al., 2012). Regards the use polypropylene (PP) composites were produced by compression molding reinforced with jute and bamboo fibers and the mechanical aspects like tensile strength (TS), tensile modulus (TM), bending strength (BS), and bending modulus (BM) were compared with jute fiber-based polypropylene composites (Nahar \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2012). It has emerged that the bamboo-based fiber reinforced polypropylene composites have mechanical properties that are better in comparison with the jute fiber-based polypropylene composites. It is concluded that the jute-based composites have lesser interfacial shear strength and poor fiber matrix compared to bamboo-based PP composites. Another investigation laminated boards were prepared from bamboo (Li \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2015) by treating with soyabean oil at a temperature of 180\u0026deg;C and a period of 2 h. The oil treatment increased the hydrophobicity of the bamboo. The SEM/FTIR results indicate that surplus oil is present on the surface of the modified bamboo, thus altering its chemical composition. Therefore, the bamboo\u0026rsquo;s bonding strength was improved by ethanol extraction after oil heat treatment and have better interfacial properties. Further study biobased hybrid composites from kenaf, coir and bamboo fibers were prepared as a reinforcement to polylactic acid (PLA) polymer matrix (Yusoff \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2016). Three different configurations like bamboo-coir/PLA, kenaf-coir/PLA and kenaf-bamboo-coir/PLA composites were developed and has been clarified that the kenaf-bamboo-coir/PLA composites have better tensile and flexural strengths, higher flexural modulus and high strain energy per unit volume at break than the others. They concluded that the high strength and stiffness of bamboo, kenaf fibers with the better ductility of coir fibers enhanced the mechanical properties of hybrid composites when compared to single fibers. Recently syamsu \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e (2019) had been communicated manufacturing of liner paper from bamboo, sago pith waste and water hyacinth by adopting various ratios of mixing. Out of all the combinations, it is found out that the water hyacinth and sago pith waste have short fibers whereas bamboo has long fibers. It also concluded that bamboo has a high holocellulose content and \u0026alpha;-cellulose content and less extractive substance level which is helpful for making pulp and paper. The developed biodegradable products from bamboo, coir, jute fiber and coconut wood have 100% biodegradable in nature and cost effective completely alternative to single use products. Schematic illustration of traditional based biodegradable products (Fig.4) compared with wood based biodegradable products developed by CSIR NIIST shown in Fig.5.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt; Insert Figure 4, here \u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt; Insert Figure 5, here \u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e4.5 Biodegradable leather\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeather is an ancient, flexible and durable material produced by tanning of animal hides and skins. Leather production mainly consists of four steps namely pre-tanning, tanning, post-tanning and finishing. It is extensively used for making a variety of products like garments, bags, footwear, automobile seats, upholstery, fashionable accessories and other products. But the production of leather has many impacts on environment like carbon footprint, water and air pollution due to chemical wastes, disposal and others. In addition to that, billions of animals are slaughtered every year for their hides which is a very cruel, evil and merciless act. Although leather is produced from animal sources, due to the presence of harmful chemicals used in the processing, the products take up to 50-100 years for degradation. Hence, there is a need for the development of a sustainable, non-animal based and ecofriendly leather (Sathis et al.,2016).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVegan or biodegradable or pleather leather is a leather developed from plant sources, which is biodegradable in nature. Nowadays many types of vegan leathers like pineapple leaf-based leather, cactus-based leather, mushroom mycelium leather, potato leather, sugarcane bagasse leather etc., are widely researched and being developed. Mycoworks is a startup company which produces leather from the composite of mushroom mycelium and cotton cellulose. Ecovative design is a company which also produces leather from mushroom that can be used to make footwears, bags etc. Desserto is a company which produces organic, soft, high quality, durable and partially biodegradable leather from cactus plants that have required mechanical specifications and can meet the standards of a leather. Pinatex is a natural, sustainable and innovative non-woven textile fabric developed by The Ananas Anam company which can be used as an alternative to leather. It is produced from pineapple leaf fibers which is a waste product of pineapple cultivation. They generally use an environment friendly and sustainable production process which reduces the pollution and generation of wastes. Another Indian based company malai used to develop vegan leather from agrowaste (pineapple leaf, banana stem and coconut water) alternative to animal leather, the developed leather be used manufacture of handy crafts, bags and packaging materials moreover developed product has resembles the aesthetics and workability of leather. It can be cut, stitched, glued, embossed, printed and painted. One more multinational brand VEJA French footwear produced vegan leather from corn waste utilized for manufacture of footwear as brand name \u0026ldquo;Campo\u0026rdquo; is made from a canvas waxed with 50 percent corn waste, which is alternative to tanned leather and 100% biodegradable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKuria et al. (2016) used vegetable tanning materials to produce leather from \u003cem\u003eAcacia xanthophloea\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eHagenia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAcacia nilotica\u003c/em\u003e plants and standard mimosa and compared their physical properties and found that all the leathers showed more than the minimum set standards of physical properties and with quality comparable to that of commercial mimosa tanned leather. It was concluded that the vegetable tanning materials can replace commercial mimosa. Ariram et al. (2020) developed a bioacceptable leather using sugarcane bagasse, by using a tanning agent to convert the cellulose and hemi-cellulose content of hydrolyzed bagasse into dialdehyde polysaccharides by oxidation process. The developed tanning agent has mechanical strength comparable to the chrome tanned leather. They observed that the developed leather shows better biodegradation than the chrome tanned leather. The conclusion about vegan leather, people preferring to produce leather from vegeform, now vegan leather has huge demand and is widely used in many applications, such as handy crafts, bags and packaging materials, developing bio composite substitutes to leather from renewable source and further advantage. it poses no harm to the soil, nor emits any harmful fuel. It is completely biodegradable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Biodegradable Plastics","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e5.1 Types of biodegradable plastics:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe main issues that can be overcome by using biodegradable plastics are as follows: (i) The bulky plastic products discarded in landfills can be significantly reduced, (ii) The littering nondegradable plastic products contribute to environmental pollution and recycling is not a cost-effective option, (iii) Adopting biodegradable plastics that are derived from renewable sources will lead to a more sustainable environment by saving nonrenewable sources (Ren, 2003). Biodegradable plastics developed from nonrenewable sources are referred to as synthetic polymers. Some examples include polybutyrate (PBAT), polybutylene succinate (PBS) and polycaprolactone (PCL) (Luyt \u0026amp; Malik, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePolylactic acid (PLA) is one example of biodegradable plastic that is derived from lactic acid by the fermentation of renewable crop sources (E.g. Corn, Sugarbeets). This polyester has found its significance because of easy availability and less cost (Zhong, Godwin, Jin, \u0026amp; Xiao, 2020). Lactide is a chiral compound and can exist in two forms: L-lactide and D-lactide. In the case of packaging materials, poly (D,L-lactide) containing 90% of L-lactide is used. An increase in the concentration of D-lactide results in the formation of PLA polymers having a better crystalline structure. The PLA films thus produced will have higher thermal stability and exhibit good mechanical and barrier properties (Byun \u0026amp; Kim, 2014). Poly (butylene succinate) is another example of a biodegradable plastic belonging to the poly (alkene dicarboxylate) family. They are produced by polycondensation reactions that involve glycols (ethylene glycol, 1,4-butanediol) and aliphatic dicarboxylic acids (adipic acid, succinic acid) (Vroman \u0026amp; Tighzert, 2009). The high melting point, less production cost, better processability and excellent mechanical properties are attributes that make PBS a better alternative material to plastic products (Zhao et al., 2005). Poly (butylene adipate-co-terphthalate), referred to as PBAT is formed by the polycondensation reaction of 1,4-butanediol with a mixture of adipic and terephthalic acids. This polymer preparation consumes longer time and requires high vacuum and high temperature. However, the product is completely biodegradable and possesses good tensile strength and high elongation at break values in comparison to the commonly used biodegradable polyesters like PLA, PBS etc. (Ferreira, Cividanes, Gouveia, \u0026amp; Lona, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e5.2 Global production of bioplastics\u003c/em\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBioplastics constitute approximately one percent of the total amount of 368 million tonnes of plastics generated every year. With the increase in demand and new products coming out, the production of bioplastics will continue to burgeon. The global production capacity is bound to rise from 2.11 million tonnes in 2020 to 2.87 million tonnes in the next five years (https://www.european-bioplastics.org/).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6 Degradation Mechanism Of Biodegradable Products ","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe non-biodegradable nature of plastics poses major threats to environment such as global warming, ozone depletion, eutrophication, toxicity etc. Therefore, there is a need for adopting biodegradable products. Biodegradability process of these products involve the following steps: abiotic degradation, biodeterioration and depolymerization, assimilation and mineralization (Thakur et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.1 Abiotic degradation:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe process of degradation can be influenced by abiotic factors such as weather, sunshine, water, ageing, soil burial etc. Temperature exerts a significant influence on the macromolecular structure. A few thermoplastic polymers have their melting temperatures close to ambient conditions or composting temperatures (eg. PCL). Although not predominant, the mechanical damage (shear, compression) can increase the process of degradation. Photodegradation, a process that occurs by the exposure of light is an important factor that contributes to biodegradation (Siracusa, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.2 Biodeterioration and depolymerization:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe next stage of abiotic degradation is biodeterioration. Upon fragmentation, the microbial activity begins both on the surface as well as inside the material. During this process, the microorganisms cleave the biodegradable products into small pieces. This is followed by depolymerization, in which the catalytic agents secreted by the microorganisms (enzymes, free radicals) disintegrate the polymeric molecules into lower molecular weight polymers. The resulting monomers, dimers and oligomers are capable of crossing the semipermeable bacterial membrane (Popescu et al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.3 Assimilation and mineralization:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe monomers, after disintegration passing into the membrane is oxidized to ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and this is used in maintaining the cell structure and action. The transported molecules are bio-assimilated by microorganisms producing energy and biomass. The last stage is mineralization wherein simple molecules (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO etc.) are oxidized fully and then released into the environment (Nasrollahzadeh, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7.\tWaste Management And Recycling","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn order to preserve our natural resources and focus on achieving circular economy, plastic recycling is the need of the hour. The accumulation and spread of plastic waste due to land-based (emission of waste water, industrial activities, littering in beaches and other tourist destinations) and sea-based (aquaculture, maritime-associated activities, fishing) sources is a matter of concern (Dahlbo \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2018). Among the various plastic using sectors such as electronics, construction, transportation etc., packaging industry tops the list because the plastic products (cups, bags, bottle caps, wrappings, containers, films etc.) are used for a relatively shorter period and then trashed into bins. The plastic packaging is preferred in many areas because of many advantages: low price, affordable, less weight, resistant to corrosives and simple to use. Some of the commonly used plastic resins are polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polypropylene (PP) (Jang \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe waste management strategies should be practiced to rid our earth of single-use plastics. They can be physical, chemical or biological treatment methods. The physical methods (photooxidation) help in the reduction of plastic waste by pulverization, squeezing or incineration. Chemical methods (gasification, pyrolysis) utilize the chemicals that can split the polymeric linkage and convert the plastics into non-hazardous products. Biological methods (fermentation, composting) can degrade plastic without the generation of byproducts. For instance, biomethanation converts the polymers into methane and manure using microbes. Plastic products are widespread and it is necessary to find an ideal alternative to overcome the problems related to its usage. Reduction in plastic usage would decrease carbon dioxide emissions. The development of biodegradable materials will benefit the environment because of its inherent properties. Biodegradable products are those that can be decomposed by bacteria, fungi, algae etc. Therefore, adopting biosynthetic materials (starch, cellulose etc.) are advantageous because they are completely converted to water, methane, carbon dioxide and biomass within a short span of time (Viera \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2020). The schematic diagram of waste managemt utilization and life cycle assessment of powder (Rice bran and rice) based biodegradables products (fig6.a) and fiber (pineapple fiber) based biodegradables products (Fig.6b). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt; Insert Figure 6, here \u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"8. Current Limitations And Future Directions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe requirement of petroleum, our primary resource of energy generation is on the rise and the price rates of petroleum are bound to rise in years to come. The dearth of this fossil fuel resource combined with the soaring prices will not only plague the chemical companies and other industries but will have a detrimental effect on the society as well. In order to meet the demands of future energy supply, there is a pressing need to look out for alternative renewable resources that will never cease to exist. Examples of this kind are hydraulic, tidal, wind, solar energies etc. and energy derived from renewable sources like biomass (organic material from plant and animal matter). Natural fibers are excellent substitutes to be incorporated in various applications such as construction, aerospace, furniture etc. These include rice husk, wheat bran, banana stem, jute, bagasse, hemp, pineapple leaf, coir, oil palm etc. The advantages of natural fiber composites are its abundant supply, renewable nature, less cost, low density, environmentally benign and absence of hazardous substances. However, the main drawback with natural fibers is that its inherent nature to absorb moisture, inferior wetting properties, poor interfacial bonding between the fibers and polymers etc. This can be overcome by subjecting the fibers to alkali treatment or compatibilizers etc (Salit, Jawaid, Yusoff, \u0026amp; Hoque, 2015).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe source of biodegradable polymers can be of either natural or synthetic origin. Also, they can be either from renewable or non-renewable sources. The physical and chemical aspects of biopolymers depend on the processing conditions in addition to their structure and molecular weights. The most important parameters that require careful attention for developing a good biodegradable product are as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhysical properties:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe permeability of the biopolymer material to molecules like gases, water vapor etc. is subject to variation and this is dependent upon the barrier properties. Several physical characteristics (density, pressure, area, thickness, addition of plasticizers etc.) influence their properties. Testing these features at identical conditions is important to ensure the consistency and suitability of the material for various applications. Firstly, the oxygen transmission rate must be kept in check because the presence of oxygen in foods would bring about lipid oxidation, thereby influencing the nutritional quality. Higher the number of hydrogen bonds in the sample, greater is the hydrophilicity and oxygen permeability. Therefore, maintaining the proper relative humidity levels are important. Secondly, monitoring the water vapor transmission rate is necessary for the long shelf-life period of foods. The hydrophilic property of the biopolymers can be masked by coating the external surface with hydrophobic substances. Addition of lipids can also influence the hydrorepellent properties. Thirdly, the control of carbon dioxide transmission rate is vital and proteins in general have low rates in comparison to polysaccharides.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eMechanical properties\u003c/em\u003e:\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn important aspect of consideration for preserving foods and resisting physical damages is to oversee the mechanical properties.\u0026nbsp;These include the determination of tensile strength, elongation at break, young\u0026rsquo;s modulus etc. Films derived from biopolymers must possess mechanical properties close to non-biodegradable ones and this comparison is achieved by testing the aforementioned properties. Tensile strength refers to the maximum extent to which a material can be stretched without breaking apart and is dependent on the surface area, bond strength, length etc. Elongation at break determines the ductility of the material and is evaluated by measuring the ratio of initial length and final length before rupture. Young\u0026rsquo;s modulus corresponds to the elastic properties of the material and is calculated using the ratio of longitudinal stress to strain.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eBiodegradation:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSynthetic polymers have been in use for a long time and this preference is attributed to its flexible properties, less cost and mechanical resistance. However, the prolonged usage has led to harmful effects on the environment, humans and wild life too. Plastics are nonbiodegradable. Once deposited, it remains in the soil for a much longer time. They are broken down by either wind abrasion or solar radiation into smaller chunks and this in turn becomes the feed for birds and other species. Therefore, replacement of plastic products and Styrofoam with biodegradable materials must be of topmost priority for the development of a sustainable environment. A biodegradable polymer decomposes completely into carbon dioxide, gases, biomass and water. It does not result in the accumulation of harmful residues in the environment. Therefore, renewable sources from agrowastes would enable to achieve a cleaner and a safe environment. Table 3 gives the various biodegradables manufacturing companies with different renewable raw materials for in all over the world. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026lt; Insert Table 3, here \u0026gt;\u0026gt;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"9. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis review attempts to emphasize the recent developments in bio-based materials with improved functionality and properties. The use of plastics in various sectors such as food, textiles etc. has affected the ecosystem. The 3Rs \u0026ndash; reduce, reuse and recycle do not alone eliminate the negative impacts on the environment. The chemical additives form the plastics such as phthalates and bisphenol-A affect the health of humans and the plastic processing generates carbon dioxide in addition to heat. The rising concern of the people for environment and climatic changes has driven the researchers to develop biodegradable materials which can decompose fast and reduce the problems created by the use of plastics. A biodegradable material is generally of renewable resource origin and is well known for its versatile properties that are comparable to regular plastics. These can be produced from different sources like fruits, vegetables, cereals, pulses, animals and their wastes, seaweeds and other traditional leaves etc. Several methods are available for manufacturing the biodegradable materials. The biodegradability of the product depends on the type of binders and other raw materials used. Although several methods and raw materials are available for their development, their industrial application is less due to oxygen/ water vapor barriers, thermal resistance and other mechanical properties of the products. These types of properties can be improved by altering the raw materials and method of production. Consumer acceptance of the biodegradable materials can be improved by commercializing the manufacturing techniques used. The agro-industrial wastes are a repository of nutrients and discarding them amounts to the loss of useful material. Currently, the wastes are underutilized or remains unutilized as a result of incineration or landfilling procedures. The interest in bio-based polymers, composites and biodegradable products is expanding and also the use of natural fibers (jute, wheat straw, hemp, flax etc.) in food packaging applications is gaining importance. Coupling plant-derived fibers with biopolymers yields ecofriendly biocomposites with good flexibility and mechanical properties that match the petroleum-based polymers. The use of bio-based materials improves the utilization of renewable and recycled products, thus resulting in the conservation of raw materials and preservation of natural resources. They also help in significantly reducing the exposure to hazardous chemicals, limiting the toxicity and effective in combining the needs of present with the future. There is a strong need of collaboration of industries, researchers and government agencies for the successful development and use of biodegradable materials for creating a better living environment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare their Consent to participate in this article\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare their Consent for publication in this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is no need of any ethical approval and this filed is not reverent\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors declare that they have no conflicts of interest\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThis work was supported by\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eMinistry of Food Processing Industries Grant number GAP:128339\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and preparing the tables were performed by [Anjineyulu Kothakota] [\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eRakesh Raghunathan], [Puja Nelluri],[Dileepmon Raendran\u003cem\u003e],\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/em\u003e[Ravi Pandiselvam], [Venkatesh Thulasiraman]\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;The first draft of the manuscript was written by \u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e[Sushanta Kumar Sahoo],\u0026nbsp;[Saju Pillai], [Rifna Elnjikkal Jerome], \u003cem\u003eall authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the Agro-Processing \u0026amp; Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST) Trivandrum- 695 019, Kerala, India.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbhijith, R., Ashok, A., \u0026amp; Rejeesh, C. R (2018) Sustainable packaging applications from mycelium to substitute polystyrene: a review. Mater. 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Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Offic\\Wadhwa,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWahab IF and Abd Razak, SI (2016) Polysaccharides as composite biomaterials.\u0026nbsp;Composites from Renewable and Sustainable Materials: 65-84.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWei K, Lv \u0026nbsp;C, Chen M, Zhou X, Dai Z and Shen D (2015) Development and performance evaluation of a new thermal insulation material from rice straw using high frequency hot-pressing.\u0026nbsp;Energy Build\u0026nbsp;87:116-122.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWu J, Du X, Yin Z, Xu S, Xu S and Zhang Y (2019) Preparation and characterization of cellulose nanofibrils from coconut coir fibers and their reinforcements in biodegradable composite films.\u0026nbsp;Carbohydr.\u0026nbsp;Polym.,\u0026nbsp;211:49-56.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eXue F, Gu Y, Wang Y, Li C and Adhikari, B (2019) Encapsulation of essential oil in emulsion based edible films prepared by soy protein isolate-gum acacia conjugates.\u0026nbsp;Food Hydrocoll,\u0026nbsp;96:178-189.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYang HS, Kim HJ, Son J, Park HJ, Lee BJ and Hwang, TS (2004) Rice-husk flour filled polypropylene composites; mechanical and morphological study.\u0026nbsp;Compos.\u0026nbsp;Struct\u0026nbsp;63(3-4):305-312.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYehuala GA and Emire, SA (2013) Antimicrobial activity, physicochemical and mechanical properties of aloe (Aloe debrana) based packaging films.\u0026nbsp;Curr.\u0026nbsp;J.\u0026nbsp;Appl.\u0026nbsp;Sci.,\u0026nbsp;3(4):1257.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYıldırım-Yal\u0026ccedil;ın, M, Şeker M and Sadıkoğlu H, (2019) Development and characterization of edible films based on modified corn starch and grape juice.\u0026nbsp;Food Chem\u0026nbsp;292:6-13.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYu T, Ren J, Li S, Yuan, H and Li, Y (2010) Effect of fiber surface-treatments on the properties of poly (lactic acid)/ramie composites.\u0026nbsp;Compos PT A Appl Sci Manuf,\u0026nbsp;41(4):499-505.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYusof, Y, Ahmad, M.R, Saidin, W, Mustapa MS and Tahar MS (2012) Producing paper using pineapple leaf fiber. In\u0026nbsp;Advanced materials research\u0026nbsp;(383:3382-3386). Trans Tech Publications Ltd.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYusoff, R.B., Takagi, H. and Nakagaito, A.N., 2016. Tensile and flexural properties of polylactic acid-based hybrid green composites reinforced by kenaf, bamboo and coir fibers.\u0026nbsp;Ind Crops Prod, \u003cem\u003e94\u003c/em\u003e, pp.562-573.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZhao JH, Wang XQ Zeng J, Yang G, Shi FH and Yan Q (2005) Biodegradation of poly (butylene succinate) in compost.\u0026nbsp;J. Appl. Polym. Sci.,\u0026nbsp;97(6):2273-2278.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZhang P, Zhao Y and Shi Q (2016) Characterization of a novel edible film based on gum ghatti: Effect of plasticizer type and concentration.\u0026nbsp;Carbohydr.\u0026nbsp;Polym.,\u0026nbsp;153:345-355.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZhong Y, Godwin P, Jin Y and Xiao, H (2020) Biodegradable polymers and green-based antimicrobial packaging materials: A mini-review. Adv. Ind Eng Poly Res., 3(1):27-35.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003ctable align=\"\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"text-align: center;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"text-align: center;\"\u003eVarious biodegradable products with different raw materials, process description, product future \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"text-align: center;\"\u003eTraditional based biodegradable products\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTest materials used\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdditives Used\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable products\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProcess description\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProduct features\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eReferences/Company\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAreca leaves\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeleaf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHeat pressing\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEco-friendly and cheap. Good water holding capacity, microwave compatible.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdhikary et al., 2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSal leaves\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBags, plates, spoons. wraps\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaves were stitched together according to its future uses.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo machinery required. Fast decomposing rate.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdhikary et al., 2009\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoconut shells\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHard natural bowls\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNuts were de-husked and cracked into two hemispheres, hot pressing\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGreat hard bowls for holding water, reusable.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGautam et al.,\u0026nbsp;2017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBanana Fibres\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNaOH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCardboard, paper\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFibers extracted are chopped and treated with NaOH and boiled, blended and dried to form sheets.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFully natural cardboard with strength and durability.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBamboo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHard cutleries\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHarvested bamboo is treated with high temp steam, extract sugar content and then cut and polished\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThey are reusable and extremely durable.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChen et al., 2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePalm leaves\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable plates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompression method: operating temperature 130 to 150\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAreca palm leaves is used. This is water resistant and stable.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAura Exim,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eErnakulum, Kerala, India.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCereal, millet and pulse based biodegradable products\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRice straw\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUF resin (urea\u0026ndash;formaldehyde) (binder)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRice straw based medium density fibreboard (RSMDF).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHot compression (Temp:140\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC, Time: 4min).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe RSMDF panels properties were met standards of MDF.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\"\u003eAM El-Kassas\u003c/a\u003e et al., 2013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMDI resin\u0026ndash;acetone mixture \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; (methylene diphenol diisocyanate )\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(RSTIB) Rice straw thermal insulation material\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehigh frequency hot-pressing\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow thermal conductivity, low density, used as insulation material for walls or ceilings.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWei et al., 2015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFood grade gums\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFresh food and beverage packaging\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHot compression method\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNontoxic products, water resistant, faster degradation.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFang Thai factory, Thailand.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn starch\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable Composites\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHot compression moulding process.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigher flexural strength. Used for ceiling panels and bulletin boards\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\"\u003eLiu\u003c/a\u003e et al., 2012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWheat husk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUF resin (9%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHusk based composite materials(board)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompression methods :120-160\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC, Time:5min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHydrothermal and plasma treatment offered higher mechanical attributes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlkali treatment had higher moisture and lower mechanical attributes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\"\u003eH\u0026yacute;sek\u003c/a\u003e et al., 2018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWheat starch\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePVA (poly vinyl alcohol)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePackaging films\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCasting method\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFlexible and homogeneous films.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJayasekara et al. 2004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSugarcane Bagasse\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePLA, PHA, Food grade gums\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCups, plates, cutleries\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompression method and Injection method\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWater resistant, heat resistant, Degraded within 3 to 6 months.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Ecoware solutions Pvt.ltd. New Delhi, India\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. Ecosave biodegradable product,\u0026nbsp;Bangalore, India.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoir fibres and Kenaf\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGreen nano composites for food packaging\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHot pressing\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGood tensile, flexural and water absorption characteristics, higher young\u0026rsquo;s moduli.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaiful Islam et al., 2015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJute\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJute fiber for packaging materials\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFilm stacking hot pressed method.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe tensile strength decreases when exposed to longer time of coating. It is suitable for packaging low moisture-based materials\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHu\u0026nbsp;et al., 2010\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJute, hemp, flax\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eresin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlates and composite channels\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHand layup technique: \u0026nbsp;Fabrics were wetted with resin by using paint brush and roller with curing time 15hr at room temperature.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGood mechanical properties and an alternative for traditional and commercial packaging, building application. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBambach et al. \u0026nbsp;(2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMillets (Finger millet, Sorghum, foxtail millet)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFood grade gums\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCutleries, plates\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompression method\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaterials used flours, water and sorghum (One type of grain). It can be decomposed less than a week. They can easily decompose due to their brittle structure.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. Bakeys, hyderabad, Telangana, India.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. Edible Pro, Banglure, Karnataka, India \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFruit based bio degradable products\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Aloe Vera, Papaya leaves extract\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGelatine and Glycerol\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAntimicrobial Packaging films\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAloe Vera and papaya extract mixed in 3:1 ratio in gelatine Casting methods\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffective inhibition against \u003cem\u003eE. coli, S. typhi, S. aureus, C. albicans\u003c/em\u003e and\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;F. xylarioides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYehuala et al., 2013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrape pomace\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSodium tri -metaphosphate (STMP) or \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Citric Acid (CA), Corn starch\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEdible films\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJuice, STMP/CA and starch and glycerol are heated in water bath for at 80\u0026nbsp;℃\u0026nbsp;for 30 minutes with constant stirring at 500 rpm.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSTMP and CA increased water vapour permeability. Most suitable for dried/instant water-soluble food products.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\"\u003eYıldırım-Yal\u0026ccedil;ın\u003c/a\u003e et al., 2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePineapple leaf fibre \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;(PALF)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsed newspaper, NaOH.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNon timber paper\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePineapple leaf fibre is subjected to soda pulping for 1 day and \u0026nbsp; blended with used newspaper and dried inside frame.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMechanical electrical and chemical properties of paper improved.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYusof et al., 2012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBanana fibres\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEpoxy Resin, coir\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComposite plate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBanana woven fibres are extracted by\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHand \u0026ndash;lay method. Banana-coir \u0026ndash;epoxy (5%,5%, 90%) is done by fibre-reinforced plastic processes for 24 hrs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlkali treated composite has better tensile strength and impact strength and decreased flexural strength\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\"\u003eHariprasad\u003c/a\u003e et al., 2013.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMango seed shell\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn starch, wheat and rice husk, bagasse powder.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable plate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSolution with all contents is mixed for 25 min at 900rpm. Plate cooking temp is 250\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 3- 5 min.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBetter alternative for plastic tableware and control the landfills. Production is very cheap and reliable.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMuthu \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLemon waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSweet potato starch,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNano-titanic inclusions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEdible films and food packaging materials.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCasting of films through film forming solution of starch and lemon waster by integrating with TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e nanoparticles.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTransmittance was lowered and thermal stability increased by conc. of TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sub\u003eNP.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFilm can be used as UV \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; screening biodegradable packaging material.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\"\u003eDash\u003c/a\u003e \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2019.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrange peel, potato peel, wheat bran \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn starch, glycerol, vegetable oil as lubricant \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTake away container, bowls, cups, glass\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompression method and extrusion method\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFinal product resistant to shrinkage, stickiness and deformation, water resistant, Good textural and flexible \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBaranova \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePineapple leaf plates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeeswax, chitosan, shellac, alginate/ gellan gum and beeswax\u0026ndash;chitosan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoating/Waxing materials\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeeswax-chitosan emulsion is prepared by adding glycerol, emulsion coating, moulding plates.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlates enhanced with higher water absorbency, tear resistance, tensile strength.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIewkittayakorn et al., 2020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVegetable based biodegradable products\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVegetable wastes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Liquid glass,\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;emulsion of PVA latex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThermal insulating plates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMolding pressure 0.2\u0026ndash;0.4 MPa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor 6hrs. and later drying at 50 \u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRye straw and flax boon in liquid glass binder has best mechanical, physical, thermal characteristics.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThey can be used for thermal insulation in ventilation.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBakatovich et al., 2018\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePotato waste\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStarch\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEdible films \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompression method:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOperating temperature of 249-281\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePressure: \u0026nbsp;8.98-13.85MPa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe starches from pumpkin fruits, lentil and quinoa seeds presented to be a good material to develop edible films. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePajak \u003cem\u003eet al.,\u003c/em\u003e 2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpinach juice waste \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGluten, guar gum, Sorbic acid \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEdible plates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBaking temperature 80 \u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC for 50 min oven.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe final product has good amount of protein, texture and good colour due to addition of spinach\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSood et al., (2018)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePotato peels \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable binder\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRigid boards, fashion accessories\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompression method and injection method\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEasily biodegradable, good tensile, flexural and strengthen boards.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChipsboard, Uk London\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePomelo peel flour\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTea polyphenol (TP)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable/ edible film\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCasting technique.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTP incorporation improved antioxidant and antimicrobial activity; Films can be useful for application of oil products storage.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWu et al., 2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVegetable waste pectin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNano titanium inclusions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFood packaging materials\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCasting technique and Incorporation of (TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e - NPs) to film genic solution of sweet potato starch and lemon waste pectin.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConc of \u0026nbsp;TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026ndash; NPs regulate the properties of films; low conc shows improved mechanical and moisture barrier properties, at high concentration thermal stability is increased.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\"\u003eDash\u003c/a\u003e et al 2019.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePotato\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeels waste\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGlycerol (plasticizer) and\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2% egg yolk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(emulsifier)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiopolymer film\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUltrasound treatment to films to breakdown to form smaller particles to form gel matrixes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThermal decomposition up to 200\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC. Film reduces hardness and prevents the formation of microbes on bread sample.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\"\u003eBorah\u003c/a\u003e et al., 2017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTomato pomace (LFTP)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSodium caseinate (NaCas)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecomposite biodegradable films\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCasting methods\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLFTP content enhances antimicrobial activity of films and high thermal stability and increases flexibility\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAloui, et al., 2019\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeaweed based biodegradable products\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRed algae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNano clay\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAgar based Nano composite film\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCasting methods\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNano composite films can be manipulated to use as hydrogels or food packaging material.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRhim , 2011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSilver nanoparticles\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable films\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSolvent casting method\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImproved water vapour\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ebarrier properties,\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003esurface hydrophobicity,\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeffective against\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGram positive and negative bacteria.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRhim et al , 2013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNano Crystalline cellulose (NCC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable Nano-composite film\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSolution casting\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNCC improved thermal stability, water vapour permeability, tensile strength\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHuq, et al., 2012\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNatural Cellulose (NFC, DCC, MFC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComposite films\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIonic cross linking (Ca \u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eImproved features: Tensile strength, grease barrier, reduced water permeability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\"\u003eSirvi\u0026ouml;\u003c/a\u003e et al., 2014\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRed sea weed /\u0026nbsp;Irish Moss\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCinnamon oil, sorbitol\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOil composite edible film\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCarrageenan sorbitol is mixed at 60\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 10min and cooled at 55 \u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSorbitol concentration enhances thickness and elongation break\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePraseptiangga et al., 2016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ek-carrageenan,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ei-carrageenan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ealginate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEdible films\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMixed with glycerol in proportions and homogenised at 15000 rpm for 15min.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ek-carrageenan and alginate combination improved moisture barrier, tensile properties, elongation and transparency.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePaula et al., 2015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGreen algae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn starch\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEdible glass\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVacuums pressing \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe glass is edible, water resistant, heat resistant,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEvoware, Japanese company 2018\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbbreviations used: microfibrillated cellulose (MFC), nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) and birch pulp derivate, nanofibrillated anionic dicarboxylic acid cellulose (DCC).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWood based biodegradable products\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJute fibre\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePLA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable composites\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHot press method\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoor durability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNot suitable for humid environment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHu et al. (2007)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoconut fibres\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn starch (CS) and cassava starch (CAS)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable composites\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompression moulding\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCAS composites had higher water absorption capacity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRamirez et al. (2010)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePP composites reinforced with jute and bamboo fibres\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComposites\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompression moulding\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBamboo based PP composites exhibited better properties than others\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNahar et al. (2012)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBamboo\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSago pith waste and water hyacinth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLiner paper\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMixing all the raw materials in different ratios\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBamboo and bamboo water hyacinth-based liner paper met the required standards compared to others\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSyamsu et al. (2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoconut coir\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn starch and glycerol as plasticizer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComposites\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIncorporating coir fibres into corn starch bioplastic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComposites can be used for making spoons, cups, plates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Sen et al. (2015)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKenaf fiber, coir fiber\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMontmorillonite nanoclay\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003enanocomposites\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehot compression method\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnhanced biodegradability and water absorption properties due to hybridization\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIslam et al. (2015)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJute fabric\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEpoxy resin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNatural fibre composite panels\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVacuum infusion and hydraulic pressing\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIncreased ability to bear loads\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsed in construction/automotives industry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePinto et al. (2016)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJute, flax and hemp fibres\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResin\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eComposite plates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ehand layup technique\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSuitable for residential and light commercial markets\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBambach (2017)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable Vegetables leather as an alternative to plastic and animal leather\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSugarcane bagasse\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGoatskin leather, NH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eOH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBio acceptable leather\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDialdehyde polysaccharides (DAPB) are formed from sugarcane bagasse by oxidation. Leathers were tanned by DAPB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDAPB tanned leather had resistance to cellulose degradation. Also, good mechanical properties. Better degradation than untanned one.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\"\u003eAriram\u003c/a\u003e et al., 2020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBarks of \u003cem\u003eAcacia nilotica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAcacia xanthophloea\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eHagenia abyssinica,\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFormic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVegetable tanning for leather\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTanning was done with water and vegetable tanning material added.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNew tanning products were way cheaper and can replace costly mimosa tanning.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKuria et al., 2016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePineapple leaf fibres\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNaOH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePinatex\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSoda pulping, Fermentation, Drying followed by Mesh thinning\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTextile industry uses PALF fibres as new innovative textile.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnanas Anam Company, Philippines. 2013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCactus plants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable leather\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFermentation, Drying followed by Mesh thinning\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProduces a high quality, organic and soft leather that meets the standards of a regular leather\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDesserto company\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoconut water and pineapple leaf\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable leather\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCellulase based fermentation, drying and polishing\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProduced can be cut, stitched, glued, embossed, printed and painted\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMalai, cochin , India\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"text-align: center;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style=\"text-align: center;\"\u003eVarious biodegradable binders used for biodegradable products\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS. No\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eName of binder\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrigin/derived\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProperties\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDegradable nature \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUses\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Starch\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCassava starch\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolysaccharide derived tapioca\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStarch used as binder to improve mechanical, barrier properties, thermal properties of product, \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTensile strength Mpa 30.40), Elongation at break (% 613.40), E (Mpa 6629)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNaturally degraded\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProduction of plates, cutlery, polyethene covers, packaging films \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn starch\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolysaccharide derived maize\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn starch enhanced the thermal, mechanical and chemical properties significantly, Tensile strength (Mpa 70.08,), Elongation at break (0.15%), Melting temperature (297\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDegraded in 30days\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProduction of plates, cutlery, polyethene covers, packaging films\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChitosan\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolysaccharide of N-deacetylation of chitin derived from shells of marine crustaceans\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe polymer ability to form films and resistant heat. Youngs modulus (Mpa-130), Tensile strength (Mpa-10), Elongation at break (% 9),\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDegraded in 30days\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProduction of plates, cutlery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCellulose\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026beta;-(1\u0026rarr;4)-linked glucose residues derived from plans\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExcellent mechanical properties, such as a tensile strength of 47.0 MPa and modulus of 9.6 GPa, WVP (0.48g mm/ m\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003ed kPa)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDegraded in 30days\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProduction of plates, cutlery, mulching mats, wooden products.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGelatine\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnimal collagen\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProtein produces high transparency bioplastics with acceptable mechanical properties,\u0026nbsp;Tensile strength (5.6-7.1MPa), Tensile modulus (127-188MPa), Elongation (14.5-20.1%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNaturally degraded\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWheat gluten\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWheat\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBetter mechanical and barrier properties, melting point (Tm \u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC 100 -120), Tensile strength (N mm\u003csup\u003e-2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e28-78), Elongation at break (% 450-790)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNatural degraded\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProduction of plates and cutlery \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eZein\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEndosperm of corn\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGood gas barrier, biodegradation, and biocompatibility properties, tensile stress (1.758 Mpa), strain at break (1088.8%), Elongation (14.5%),\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt degrades naturally\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFood packaging\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRenewable synthetic binders\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEcoflex\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTerephthalic acid, adipic acid and 1,4-butanediol\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMelting point (110-115\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC),\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMelt flow index (3g/10min),\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResistant to water, heat and tear\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompostable polymer (degraded by microorganisms and enzymes)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsed for production of bags for organic waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEastar Bio\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDerived from diacids and glycols\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMelting point (105\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC), Melt flow index (3g/10min), Tensile stress 22Mpa, Elongation at break 700Mpa, Density (g/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)1.22, high water vapour transmission rate, low oxygen permeability. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompostable polymer (degraded by microorganisms and enzymes)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBio Par\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003estarch and poly-ester\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMelting point (77-125\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC), Melt flow index (2.5-3.5g/10min), Tensile stress 31Mpa, Elongation at break 900Mpa, Density (g/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)1.35. High tear resistance and stretchable, high oxygen permeability \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompostable polymer (degraded by microorganisms and enzymes)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePLA (Polylactic acid)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRenewable material (cellulose)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMelting point (160-200\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC), Melt flow index (3-3.5g/10min), Tensile stress 45Mpa, Elongation at break 3Mpa, Density (g/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e )1.21,its good water and humidity properties\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompostable polymer (degraded by microorganisms and enzymes)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProduction of cutlery and bags for organic waste\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePHA \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Poly hydroxyalkanoate)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRenewable material (cellulose)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Melting point (180\u0026deg;C and 210\u0026deg;C), softening point of 55 \u0026deg;C,\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eexcellent balance between high rigidity and good elasticity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePHB \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(The poly-3-hydroxybutyrate)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStarch/glucose as primary materials produced by microorganisms\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMelting point (Tm \u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC177), Tensile strength (MPa-40), Elongation at break (%6), water insoluble, resistant hydrolytic reaction\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePackaging materials\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBionolle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epolycondensation of polyols with aliphatic dicarboxylic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eacids\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGood resistance to water, insensitive for hydrolysis, Melting point (100\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC), Melt flow index (2.16g/10min), Tensile stress 40Mpa, Elongation at break 600Mpa, Density (g/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e )1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompostable polymer (degraded by microorganisms and enzymes)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProduction of cutlery and Packaging materials\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Gums\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGur gum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGalactomannan derived from seeds of plant\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIts acts have binder, improves mechanical properties Tensile strength (7.7 Mpa), Elongation at break (9.06%), density (g/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e )1.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt degrades naturally\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsed for cutlery and food packaging\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocust bean gum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGalactomannan derived from seeds of plant \u003cem\u003eCeratonia siliqua L.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIts acts have binder, it improves mechanical and water barrier properties, Tensile strength (11.6 Mpa), Elongation at break (1.12%), density (g/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e )1.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt degrades naturally\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsed for cutlery and food packaging\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArabic gum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003egalactopyranosyl derived from plant \u003cem\u003eAcacia senegal\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIts acts binder, it reduces mechanical and barrier properties, tensile strength (5.82 Mpa), elongation at break (30.54%), density (g/cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e )1.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt degrades naturally\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsed for cutlery and food packaging\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGum ghatti\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNon-starch polysaccharides from Anogeissus latifolia\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIts acts binder, its improve the mechanical properties, tensile strength (7.55 Mpa), elongation at break (24.73%), Tg (53.5\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC), Elongation modulus (1800Mpa).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt degrades naturally\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsed for cutlery and food packaging\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eXanthan gum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoly saccharide derived from bacteria (\u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\" title=\"Xanthomonas campestris\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eXanthomonas campestris\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIts acts binder, it enhances the mechanical, water vapour permeability of product, tensile strength (7.84 Mpa), elongation at break (91.35%), Puncture force (3.22 N), WVP (g mm/ m\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003ed kPa)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt degrades naturally\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsed for cutlery and food packaging\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlginate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoly saccharide derived from \u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\"\u003ecell walls\u003c/a\u003e of \u003ca href=\"about%3Ablank\" title=\"Brown algae\"\u003ebrown algae\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIts acts binder, its increase the mechanical, barrier, radiometric properties, tensile strength (40 Mpa), elongation at break (3%), WVP (4.107g mm/ m\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003ed kPa)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt degrades naturally\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsed for cutlery , mulching mats \u0026nbsp;food packaging\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaragana\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSulfated polysaccharide extracted from red edible seaweeds\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIts works as binder and improves the physical, mechanical, thermal and barrier properties, tensile strength (19.23 Mpa), elongation at break (4.36%), WVP (3.82g mm/ m\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003ed kPa)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt degrades naturally\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUsed for cutlery and food packaging\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: center;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp style=\"text-align: center;\"\u003eVarious biodegradable manufactu\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable align=\"\" border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompany\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaterials used\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAreas of application\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSulapac, Finland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWood and natural binders\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable straws, cosmetics, supplements\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEggplant, Italy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) plastics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiomed, agriculture, packaging, electronics\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePond, Denmark\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNatural fibres (flax, pineapple, palm leaves)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBioresins\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEcoshell, Mexico\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlant-based renewable biomass\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBags, trays, containers, cutlery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100Bio, USA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolylactic acid (PLA) composts\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable styrofoam for food packaging\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWorldcentric, USA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlant fibers with long roots\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiodegradable bags, dishware, cutleries\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePapelyco (LifePack), Colombia, SA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn husk and seeds\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlantable plates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBe Green packaging, USA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNatural fibres\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConsumer packaged goods\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEcoware, New Zealand\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePLA bioplastic, birchwood, bamboo, PBAT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePaper cups, bowls, noodle boxes, straws, tableware\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTIPA Corp Ltd, Israel\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFully compostable polymers (Bioplastics)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFlow-wrap packaging, lidding, transparent films\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNature Works, USA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn starch\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSingle-use flatware, cups, packaging\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEcovative design, USA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMycelium\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlant-based meats, leather-like textiles, packaging\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGreen Dot bioplastics, USA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNatural fibers, wood, starch\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiocomposites, elastomers, starch composites\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGenecis Bioindustries Inc, Canada\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePHBV - Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompostable coffee pods, 3D printing filaments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEcolife, Canada\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolylactic acid (PLA), GMO-free renewable resources\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompostable shopping bags, garbage bags, binliners\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnvigreen, India\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNatural starch, vegetable oil derivatives\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePackaging films, trash bags, aprons, wrapping covers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAura Exim, India\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWheat bran, areca palm, coconut palm leaf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlates, spoons, straw and other cutleries\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiotrem, Poland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWheat bran\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDisposable tableware, cutlery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEcosave, India\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSugarcane bagasse, Rice husk, Areca nut\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTableware, cotton bags, cutleries\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAggarwal Biotech Pvt Ltd, India\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorn starch with biodegradable polymers\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiopolymer granules, carry bags\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChuk,Yesh compostable lmt.India \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSugarcane bagasse compostable table ware \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompostable plates, cups , dinnerware\u0026rsquo;s\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"single-use plastics, biodegradable, polysaccharide, modification methods, renewable sources","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1864716/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1864716/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePlastics are ubiquitous in many sectors including, but not limited to, construction, textiles, electronics and transportation. The immoderate use of single-use plastics has wreaked havoc on society. The intensifying environmental pollution and waste accumulation have driven the scientific communities and industries to shift their focus on biodegradable materials. An ecofriendly and sustainable economic system demands proper usage of raw materials and substitution of fossil fuel-based resources with renewable materials. Of late, bio-based constituents have attracted considerable attention from the public in view of ecological safety and economic interests. Bio-based sources are cost-effective, reusable, sustainable, clean and reduce the ecological footprint. Biopolymers can be derived from biomass (polysaccharides, proteins, lipids), bio-derived substances (polylactate) or from microorganisms (PHB, PHA, Xanthum gum). The commonly used polysaccharides include starch, cellulose, gums and chitosan. However, the hydrophilic nature of most of the polysaccharides affects the physical and mechanical properties and is not on par with the synthetic plastics that are generally used. In order to expand the applications of biodegradable polymers in various sectors, it is imperative to address the challenges associated with gas permeability, processing method, thermal stability etc. Various physical and chemical modification methods are employed to overcome these limitations. Creating awareness among the public and encouraging them to use renewable sources is important. There is a strong need to develop innovative biodegradable products and promote them by fostering collaboration among entrepreneurs, researchers and the government. This paper provides an overview of the biodegradable materials that can be produced from different sources such as vegetable and fruit waste, cereals and pulses waste, seaweeds, animal waste, wood waste, traditional sources and aims to address the current limitations and indicate the future directions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Biodegradable Products from renewable sources: Impact on Replacing Single Use Plastic for Protecting the Environment","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2022-08-11 15:58:03","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1864716/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"94e7900e-86af-4c01-8bea-789fdb1784e5","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 11th, 2022","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2022-08-30T07:38:35+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2022-08-11 15:58:03","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-1864716","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-1864716","identity":"rs-1864716","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"_2-kVJe1T_tPrBINL-cwx","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}