Protein affects the digestibility of starch in rice pasta

Protein affects the digestibility of starch in rice pasta | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Protein affects the digestibility of starch in rice pasta Mingfen Chen, Tingjang Lu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3880561/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Controlling blood glucose is an important issue and a popular topic of discussion worldwide as it affects a wide range of diseases and demands attention not only from individuals with diabetes, but also from the elderly and even healthy individuals. The digestion of starch is affected by the presence of proteins, which can interact with it. This project aimed to investigate the starch digestibility of rice pasta by replacing the original plant protein with varied plant proteins such as pea protein, soybean protein, and rice protein, and measuring their physicochemical properties, cooking quality, and eating quality after cooking. The results revealed that the addition of plant proteins decreased the peak viscosity, final viscosity, and setback of rice flour, while increasing the cooking loss and decreasing the hardness of rice pasta. Furthermore, the use of pea protein to make rice pasta resulted in a lower estimated glycemic index, which was mainly due to the lower content of rapidly digestible starch. rice flour rice pasta plant protein eGI digestible starch Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Diabetes is a disease that affects the ability of patients to regulate glucose release into their blood due to insulin sensitivity or receptor malfunction. 1 The estimated number of diabetes cases worldwide is expected to reach 366 million in 2030 and continue to rise to 642 million by 2050. 2 , 3 The incidence of diabetes in the United States increases every year; however, diabetes prevalence will still increase to 33% by 2050 even though medical treatment reduces mortality. 4 A low-GI/GL dietary pattern has been shown to improve glycemic control, blood lipids, adiposity, and inflammation, with benefits similar to pharmacological agents. Glycemic index 5 measures the area under the glucose response curve and is divided into high GI (> 70), medium GI (70 < GI < 55), and low GI (< 55) foods. 6 – 9 Englyst, Englyst, Hudson, Cole and Cummings 10 demonstrated that by using in vitro testing, it was possible to accurately predict the glycemic index response that would occur in vivo through a specific biological reaction. In simpler terms, their study showed that measuring how foods affect blood sugar levels in a lab can give us a good idea of how they will affect blood sugar levels when eaten by humans. Higher dietary GI and GL were both associated with increased all-cause mortality and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. 11 Starch was divided into three types: rapidly digestible starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS) and resistant starch (RS) according to their digestibility until 20, 120 and 240 min respectively after eating. SDS is measured as the starch which is digested between 20 and 120 min; it is the fraction of starch which can be digested completely in the small intestine, but more slowly than RDS. RS is the fraction that is undigested after starch hydrolyzed until 120 min, and is defined as dietary fiber that is used for microbiology in the large intestine fermented and producing butyric acid benefit for human intestine health. 12 An in vitro method could determine the rate of starch which should assist in designing the diets for diabetes. 13 Rapidly digestible starch is positively correlated with glycemic response which is estimated as the glucose released to the blood, and changing the starch consumption as well as affecting its result. 10 , 12 The desert formula was designed for substitution by soya flour, legumes and insulin showing GI was a positive correction with rapidly available glucose but negative with SDS, IDF and TDF, and therefore escalating its functional characteristic. 14 Low GI does not mean slow digesting; it was affected by non-starch partition such as dietary fiber or protein change postprandial glycemic index. As starch underwent hydrolysis slowly it means glucose was produced at a lower postprandial glycemic index and the peak on the glucose release curve was smooth, since it was slow and prolonged; however, the true low GI food possessed a slowing and prolonged release of glucose characterization conforming to the definition of SDS. 15 A research report indicated that rice flour containing high levels of protein showed lower levels of starch digestibility and a lower estimated glycemic index. 16 , 17 The research report suggests that high-protein foods have a lower glycemic index and slower release of glucose, which is correlated with the SDS and RDS with GI. 10 , 13 , 15 , 16 , 18 Rapid digestible starch and rapid available starch can correct the glycemic response. Particle size, cooking method, food processing, and storage conditions can also affect the glycemic index. 12 The estimated glycemic index is a reliable and dependable method for predicting blood glucose response after consuming 50g of carbohydrate. 19 – 21 Legumes such as beans, chickpeas, and lentils have a low glycemic index and are recommended as a replacement for high-GI staple foods like rice or bread. 22 Protein can also affect starch physiochemistry through four different fractions, with the starch-protein complex slowing down enzyme hydrolysis. 23 , 24 Non-starch components like protein can impact the gelatinization properties and starch digestibility by changing the starch-protein structure, water absorption, gelatinization temperature, and starch hydrolysis rate. 22 , 25 Reducing carbohydrate intake and increasing protein supply can lower calorie intake without affecting fasting insulin secretion. 26 , 27 High amylose, resistant starch, lipid, and protein in food can reduce starch hydrolysis. 20 Rice protein and lipid have a significant effect on starch digestibility. Food processing techniques, such as parboiling, can change starch digestibility due to changing protein extractability and amylose-lipid interaction. 28 Pea protein is a promising ingredient for various food products such as baked goods, cereals, imitation meat, and beverages. Heating causes the interaction between pea protein and other components of the food matrix, resulting in the conversion of some weakly interacting β-sheets into strong β-sheets and β-sheet-related structures. 29 Rice protein is commonly used in infant formulas due to its hypoallergenic, nutritional, and functional properties, but its extraction process affects its quality and properties. 30 Adding protein from different sources can improve the hardness of pasta. 31 Pea, soybean, and rice are popular plant-based protein sources for making high protein products, and their effects on water absorption, solubility, swelling power, pasting properties, quality, and starch hydrolysis in rice pasta were measured and analyzed. In this study, the influence of water absorption, solubility, swelling power, and pasting properties on adding pea, soy, and rice protein to rice flour were measured. Furthermore, the quality and starch hydrolysis of rice pasta were also measured, and their correlations analyzed. Materials and Methods Materials In this study, Taichung 17 indica rice was used as the rice flour, sourced from a Taiwanese rice manufacturer with an amylose content of 31.7%. The pea protein, soybean protein, and rice protein used in this study were purchased from importers in Taiwan. Moisture and protein content determination Moisture content of the pasta samples was determined using a drying method, 130℃ until balance was achieved according to AACC 44 − 19 method (AACC,1983). Protein content was measured using the Combustion Nitrogen Analysis. The protein N converse cofactor was 6.25. Total starch content was determined with an enzymatic assay kit (Megazyme, Co. Wicklow, Ireland). Water absorption, water solubility and swelling power A sample (3 g) was taken in a pre-weighed 50 ml centrifuge tube; to this 10 ml of deionized water was added and kept for 30 min with intermittent shaking after every 5 min. It was then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 min. The supernatant was transferred in a pre-weighed 50 mL glass flask and kept for drying at 130 o C for 4–6 h. Thereafter, the weight of dry solids and gel was noted. The water absorption index (WAI), water solubility index (WSI) and swelling power (SP) were calculated using the following equation: Pasting properties determination Flour (3g, 14% dry basis) was weighed in an aluminum canister, to which 25 g distilled water was added. Viscosity was measured by RVA (Model 4S, Newport Scientific, Australia) using the profile outlined by Approved Method 61 − 02. 32 Two replicates of each sample were run. The pasting properties of rice flour, rice flour with 10% pea protein, soy protein, and rice protein were measured. Gluten-free rice pasta preparation According to the extrusion-cooking process, parboiled flour can be used to create pasta with an extremely firm texture. 33 For this study, dough was formulated using different isolated protein sources and substituting with rice protein 34 at 0% (control) and 10%. Each rice flour formulation was premixed for 10 min using a cubic mixer (Unique Tools Company, Thailand), with moisture content adjusted to 32–36%. The premixed flour was steamed for 10 min before being extruded using a pasta maker. The extruded pasta samples were then dried at room temperature until the final moisture content was below 12%. Cooking properties determination The cooking loss and yield were determined by cooking 5 g of product that had been broken into 5cm strands in 200 ml of deionized water until the optimal cooking time was reached. To stop the cooking process, the cooked strands were immediately cooled in deionized water. 35 The cooking yield was determined by comparing the weight of the pasta before and after cooking. The water used to cook the pasta was collected in a beaker that had been weighed beforehand, and then dried in an oven at 130°C until it reached a constant weight. The remaining residue was weighed, and the cooking loss was calculated as a percentage of the initial material. Each sample was measured three times to ensure accuracy. Texture analysis of pasta The textural characteristics of the pasta products were determined using a texture analyzer (TA-XT Plus, Stable Micro System, Godalming, England), calibrated for a load cell of 5 kg within 8 ~ 9 min after the pasta was cooked. The firmness of the pasta was measured followed AACC method 66-50.01 (AACC 2010). Three strands of cooked pasta were placed in sample holder and cut crosswise using a 1 mm acrylic knife blade to a distance of 10 mm with a speed of 1mm/s. Tensile strength was measured using a pasta/noodle tensile rig (A/SPR). A single strand of each pasta sample was locked in a slotted arm and measured at a test speed of 3.0 mm/s. and the maximum breaking force (g) and tensile strength(mm) were recorded. 36 Estimated glycemic index The eGI of rice pasta were determined according to Goñi, Garcia-Alonso and Saura-Calixto 5 using cooked pasta. Accurately weighed samples of the finely compressed rice pasta were placed into a 50 ml glass tube along with a 20 x 15 mm stirrer bar. Next, 15 ml of KCl-HCl (pH 1.5) solution was added to the tube, followed by the addition of 0.2 ml of 10% pepsin. The mixture was then incubated for 1 h. To perform an enzymatic reaction, 25 ml of Tris-maleate buffer with a pH of 6.9 and 5 ml of Tris-maleate buffer containing α-amylase at a concentration of 2.6U were added to a tube at 37°C. The reaction was allowed to proceed for 30, 60, 90, 120, and 180 min. After each time point, 0.2 ml of the reaction mixture was placed in boiling water to stop the reaction. 0.6 ml of 0.4M sodium acetate buffer (pH = 4.75) was added to a reaction mixture, followed by the addition of 50 µl of amyglucosidase (3300 IU/ml) at 50°C for 20 min. For sample analysis, 50 µl of the sample was added to 1.5 ml of GOPOD reagent, and the reaction was carried out at 50°C for 20 min. The absorbance at 510 nm was measured using a spectrophotometer, with 1 mg/ml glucose used as the standard. The Starch hydrolysis index (SHI) was calculated by computing the incremental area under the curve (IAUC). The IAUC of the test foods and the reference food (glucose or white bread) were both determined, and the following formula calculated the estimated GI. Starch digestibility can be modeled using a first-order equation that relates glucose concentration (Ct) to time (t) and a rate constant (k) for in vitro starch digestion: \(\text{C}\text{t}={\text{C}}_{{\infty }}\) (1-e −kt ) The value of k can be calculated by fitting a linear-least-squares regression line to a plot of natural logarithm of the difference between 1 and Ct versus time. An integral part of this equation was used to calculate the area under the hydrolysis curve (AUC). The hydrolysis index (HI) was then calculated by dividing the AUC of the sample by that of a reference sample (white bread). Finally, the estimated glycemic index was computed using the equation proposed by Goñi, Garcia-Alonso and Saura-Calixto. 5 $$\text{H}\text{y}\text{d}\text{r}\text{o}\text{l}\text{y}\text{s}\text{i}\text{s} \text{i}\text{n}\text{d}\text{e}\text{x} \left(\text{H}\text{I}\right)=\frac{AUC \left(test sample \right)}{AUC \left(reference food \right)}\times 100$$ $$Predicted glycemic index=39.71+(0.549\times \text{S}HI)$$ Digestibility starch The starch digestible of pasta samples was measured by a digestible and resistant starch assay kit (Megazyme K-DSRS). 37 Rapidly digestible starch (RDS) is defined as starch which is digested within 20 min, while slowly digestible starch (SDS) is defined as starch which is digested between 20 and 120 min. A new term, total digestible starch (TDS) is introduced (and measured) to cover all starch that is digested within 4 h. Resistant starch (RS) then is that starch which is not digested within 4 h. Rice slime (50 ~ 100mg) was weighted into 30 \(\times\) 84mm glass tubes with a stirrer bar ( \(20\times\) 6 mmm). Next, 0.5 ml of 95% v/v ethanol was added to wet the sample, followed by the addition of 17.5 ml of maleate buffer. The tubes were capped and allowed to equilibrate to 37°C for 5 min, with stirring at 170 rpm in a water bath using a special magnetic stirrer. Then, 2.5 ml of PAA/AMG solution (PAA, 2 KU; AMG, 0.85 KU) was added, and the tubes were capped and incubated at 37°C, with stirring at 170 rpm on the waterproof magnetic stirrer at 20, 60, 90, 180 and 240 min. The withdrawn aliquots were promptly mixed with 20 ml of 50 mM acetic acid solution, and the tubes were tightly sealed and thoroughly agitated. Results and Discussion Protein content The protein content of the rice flour used in this study was 7.69%. In contrast, the pea protein, soy protein, and rice protein had much higher protein contents of 84.3%, 87.7%, and 86.43%, respectively. After making the rice pasta and adding isolated plant protein, the protein content of each type of pasta was measured and presented in Table 2 . The pasta made solely from rice flour had a lower protein content of around 8%. In comparison, the other pasta with added isolated plant protein had a much higher protein content, ranging from 15% to over 17.67%. The protein content of the rice powder, soybean, and pea ranged from 84–87%. 38 Products were made with isolated pea protein, with protein content on a dry weight basis; adding 7.5 ~ 12.5% pea protein to wheat flour (protein = 9.8% ), the protein content of pasta was 4.6 ~ 17.8% 39 , similar to our result. Table 1 Protein content of rice flour and plant isolated protein Material protein (%, db) RF 7.69 SP 87.71 PP 84.31 RP 86.43 (RF: rice flour, SP: adding soybean protein, PP: adding pea protein, RP: adding rice protein, db: dry basis) Table 2 Proximal composition of rice pasta Pasta carbohydrate protein ash lipid RF 91.02 a 8.52 d 0.34 c 0.11 d 10%SP + RF 81.54 b 17.67 a 0.45 b 0.34 c 10%PP + RF 82.22 b 16.08 b 0.68 a 1.02 b 10%RP + RF 81.91 b 16.36 c 0.46 b 1.27 a (RF: rice flour pasta, 10%SP + RF: adding soybean protein pasta, 10%PP + RF: adding pea protein pasta, 10%RP + RF: adding rice protein pasta) Water absorption, water solubility and swelling power The water absorption, swelling power, and solubility of the samples were tested at two temperatures: 30°C and 85°C, to preliminarily determine the impact of protein addition on the product manufacturing process. Adding protein increased the water absorption, solubility, and swelling power at 30°C. The results for water absorption, water solubility, and swelling power of rice flour and isolated protein are presented in Figs. 1 and 2 at 30°C and 85°C, respectively. As the reaction temperature increased, water absorption, water solubility, and swelling power also increased. Soy protein had higher water absorption, water solubility, and swelling power than pea and rice protein at 30°C, being 1.8 times higher than pea protein and 2.9 times higher than rice protein. When added to rice flour, soy protein resulted in the highest solubility and swelling power, while rice protein had the lowest at 30°C. Compared to isolated soy protein, the addition of soy protein to rice flour showed a higher increase, while pea protein and rice protein showed a decrease. Soy protein had a higher water absorption capacity than rice protein. Soybean protein had higher water absorption capacity than rice and pea protein, which was 1.5 times that of pea protein and three times that of rice. 38 Adding rice protein to rice flour showed lower water absorption index and swelling power in comparison to pasta with soy and pea protein. The swelling power was corrected with amylose, amylopectin and lipid, the polysaccharide which leached out from the damaged starch has a more efficient effect on starch swelling. 40 , 41 The results showed that the addition of soy protein had a greater effect than rice and pea protein on the absorption, solubility, and swelling power at 85°C. On the other hand, rice protein increased all the parameters on rice flour in 85°C hot water. Rice protein had a lower water absorption index and swelling power than rice flour, pea protein, and soy protein. The water holding capacity of rice was 2.81 and 3.02; while these were lower than soy protein, they were higher than viscous food. Hence rice protein could be used to make required high water retention products. 42 Solubility of protein was affected by pH value because of the different isoelectric points; for example from pH 6–7, the solubility of plant protein in descending order was soybean, pea and rice protein. 38 WSI increased with temperature for starch; swelling power was related to the viscoelastic properties of starch solution as well as correlated with the eating quality of noodles. 43 By testing the viscosity of different starches under the same concentration, heating conditions and stirring speed, the results showed that the viscosity of each starch after stirring and heating showed significant differences. 44 These differences in viscosity indicated a relationship to the colloidal properties of starch. The change of the colloidal properties of the material requires a specific heating method to initiate change. Until the heating of the starch solution, water was absorbed into starch granules at room temperature and the starch started to swell. After increasing the temperature to the gelatinization temperature, the swelling becomes irreversible. 45 The RVA profile The texture and pasting characters of rice flour were affected by several parameters; using measure pasting analysis was an easier and less costly method for classifying rice. 46 The RVA test was conducted after adding 10% protein to rice flour. The results are presented in Fig. 3 . It was observed that the addition of protein had an impact on the viscosity and gelatinization performance of rice flour, resulting in a decrease in peak, trough, final viscosity, and setback viscosity. Adding pea protein only led to a decrease in breakdown viscosity and pasting temperature, while soy protein had the opposite effect. The results also showed that adding rice protein to rice flour led to an increase in pasting temperature and a significant reduction in peak viscosity, trough, final viscosity, and setback during gelatinization. Increasing the amount of rice protein in rice flour increased the pasting temperature. Rice protein restricts the diffusion of water into the starch granules, causing a delay in the pasting temperature. 47 In a report using rapid viscosity analysis, it was found that pasting temperature and setback were negatively correlated with RDS, and positively correlated with SDS and RS. 48 Adding pea protein can change the pasting temperature of rice flour during the heating and cooling periods due to its higher thermal transition temperature. 49 Adding soybean flour to replace rice flour would decrease all pasting properties because the amylose and amylopectin content cause a dilution effect. 50 RDS was found to be negatively correlated with pasting temperature, setback, and final viscosity, but positively correlated with SDS and RS (Chung et al., 2011). The cell structure of ingredients with intact botanical or physical structures, including viscous dietary fiber or amylose-amylopectin, can cause a restriction of starch swelling and reduce the digestion rate (Bjorck et al., 1994). RDS were negatively correlated with pasting temperature, setback and final viscosity but positively correlated with SDS and RS 48 . Cell structure causes restriction of starch swelling and reduce digestion rate. The cell structure of ingredients with an intact botanical or physical structure, including viscous dietary fiber or amylose-amylopectin, can cause a restriction of starch swelling and reduce the digestion rate. 18 Protein can affect the characteristics of rice flour, especially its gel-forming properties, depending on whether it is high-molecular or low-molecular polypeptide. Additionally, protein in rice flour can change the water absorption of starch granules and the hardness of rice gel. 51 Protein affects rice flour characteristics; especially gel-forming property was its high-molecular polypeptide instead of low-molecular one. In addition, protein in rice flour changed starch granule water absorption and hardness of rice gel. 51 Adding denatured pea protein led to a lower degree of gelatinization and greater binding of protein to the starch matrix 39 & Forde, 2019 . Pea protein has higher solubility than rice flour; in addition, blending pea and rice decreased the intensity to a greater extent of. Pea protein hindered rice protein structure or increased aggregation inducing enzyme activity to be reduced. 52 Soybean protein had more larger protein subunits in the size range of 50–500 kDa, and free sulfhydryl groups decreased upon increasing temperature that affected water absorption and viscosity. 53 Rice protein exhibited lower breakdown and final viscosity perhaps affected by higher solubility and lower swelling power. A greater degree of breakdown led to lower retrogradation because of its lower final viscosity. 54 Table 3 Texture characters and cooking properties of cooked rice pasta Pasta Texture characters Cooking properties Hardness(g) Tensile Strength(g) Elasticity (mm) loss (%) yield (%) RFN 334.5 ± 35.3 a 28.9 ± 3.0 a 18.4 ± 2.4 a 5.56 ± 0.25 d 100.53 ± 3.24 b SPN 86.5 ± 9.1 c - - 7.46 ± 0.51 c 114.43 ± 0.68 a PPN 181.4 ± 12.8 b 23.0 ± 2.0 b 12.3 ± 2.0 b 10.54 ± 0.07 b 89.77 ± 0.94 c RPN 53.8 ± 5.8 d 13.2 ± 0 c 11.8 ± 0.1 b 16.36 ± 0.84 a 87.25 ± 2.13 d The texture of cooked rice pasta was measured using a texture analyzer and the results are presented in Table 3 . When comparing the texture of cooked rice flour pasta to those with added isolated protein, the pasta made with rice flour alone was found to be the hardest, while the addition of isolated protein led to reduced tensile strength and elasticity. The impact on texture was less pronounced when using pea protein compared to rice and soy protein. Additionally, soy protein pasta had a lower cooking loss and higher cooking yield compared to pea and rice protein pasta. The addition of rice protein to rice flour led to an increase in cooking loss. Despite having better cooking properties, soy protein pasta began to break after being cooked for more than 6 min. Adding 10% plant protein to make rice pasta was similar to regular pasta making; the water adding and process wouldn’t be changed. Adding protein would change pasta color because of the original protein color, and soy protein pasta had dark color between all samples. After cooking, the color was still darker than that of the rice flour pasta. The substitution of rice flour with defatted soybean flour would increase cooking loss while the cooking yield was reduced. 50 Not only do the main methods of making noodles differ, including sheets and extrusion, but also the material is different. Besides the flour could affect noodle texture, color and cooking properties. 55 Adding rice flour which was not treated to make pasta was related to changing the amylopectin fraction; the interior structural had changed affecting the final product quality. 56 Materials, ingredients, processing, and method were the critical points to making pasta, not only affecting quality but also starch hydrolysis. Adding fiber or resistant starch was one way, and changing method was the another. Gluten free pasta for consumers is more popular in the world using corn flour, rice flour or pseudo-cereals by replacing durum or wheat flour. For suitable eating quality and higher fiber content, ingredients and novel processing have been developed. 7 , 57 – 59 Table 4 RDS, SDS. RS and estimated GI of cooked rice pasta RFN PPN SPN RPN RDS 70.35 ± 2.3 b 81.06 ± 1.47 a 71.62 ± 1.73 b 72.08 ± 0.8 b SDS 22.46 ± 3.37 a 2.07 ± 1.25 d 7.27 ± 1.29 c 10.91 ± 0.26 b TDS 91.58 ± 2.3 a 83.31 ± 1.45 b 78.20 ± 0.93 c 82.02 ± 0.91 b RS 0.56 ± 0.1 a 0.38 ± 0.01 b 0.53 ± 0.03 a 0.51 ± 0.07 a eGI 85.43 a 75.48 b 82.03 a 83.80 a (RFP: Rice flour pasta, SPN: soybean protein within rice flour pasta, PPN: pea protein within rice flour pasta. RDS: rapid digestible starch, SDS: slowly digestible starch, TDS: total digestible starch, RS: resistant starch, eGI: estimated glycemic index) Rice flour exhibited higher levels of total starch, slowly digestible starch, and total starch content. When blended with soy protein, the resulting rice pasta had a lower slowly digestible starch (SDS) content than 100% rice flour, indicating that adding soy protein did not increase SDS. However, the addition of pea protein resulted in a significantly higher resistant starch (RS) content compared to rice pasta made with 100% rice flour, while the addition of soy and rice protein resulted in lower RS content. Despite the fact that adding the same amount of plant protein to rice flour resulted in the same amylose dilution ratio, the starch hydrolysis was not the same. The addition of isolate protein to rice flour resulted in a decrease in SDS of rice pasta, but RDS and RS varied depending on the type of protein used. The addition of soy protein to rice pasta led to lower RS, while pea protein rice pasta had higher RS. Protein played an important role in starch digestibility as well as its restrict enzyme hydrolysis. During cooking, furthermore, starch-protein interaction cause flour in a slowly digestible state 60 . RS content and starch hydrolysis were not only affected by amylose, but also other characteristics; protein and starch resource showed a wider range between estimated glycemic index. 61 , 62 Protein isolation resistant to pepsin or the in vitro gastric stage differed from protein fraction; in pea protein, both albumin and globulin fractions underwent hydrolysis in proteolysis and subsequent intestinal digestion, while rice protein were resistant to pepsin hydrolysis because its prolamin was undigested. 63 eGI of rice pasta was similar to rice pasta and rice flour with soybean. Starch hydrolysis was more than 85% after 30 min hydrolysis, leading to higher eGI (Fig. 4). The way food is processed, such as through heat treatment or blending time, can affect starch digestibility and the glycemic response by changing the starch-protein interaction and contact surface area. 64 Cooking legume seeds can change their starch structure, resulting in lower SDS and RS compared to raw seeds. 65 , 66 In comparing starch hydrolysis content only using pepsin at KCl-HCl (pH 1.5) without adding amylase to the reaction, the starch hydrolysis was more than 55%. Table 5 Correction of RDS, SDS, RS and protein RDS SDS TDS RS Protein RDS 1 SDS -0.6308 1 TDS -0.1997 0.8709 1 RS -0.9708 0.6088 0.2365 1 Protein 0.2577 -0.9072 -0.9949 -0.2729 1 Although the research showed that total starch was not correlated to protein 67 , our results show that it was negatively correlated with total digestible starch and slowly digestible starch, while resistant starch was negative correctly with rapid digestible starch; however, total digestibility was positive with slowly digestible starch. In other words, protein and resistant starch significantly affected starch digestibility. Starch digestibility was restricted by peptides after protease hydrolyzing soy protein through retard starch swelling and gelatinization, further reducing starch digestibility. 68 Resistant starch was negative correlated with GI and HI; research also showed soluble starch synthase 21 increasing resistant starch, which would require granule bound starch synthase to regulate RS and amylose content in rice grain predominately altering starch composition. Starch was pre-treated with pepsin or without, following by treatment with human saliva -amylase, the ratios with or without pepsin were 1.5 ~ 1.8, similar to our result (1.7); the research indicated that this was due to their starch granule hardness. 69 Amino acid inhibited amylase inhibition from porcine pancreatin through a physical barrier between the enzyme and starch. Amino acid retarded the digestible rate and enhanced the order of starch structure. 70 Starch digestibility was suppressed by two α-amylases: native and pepsin hydrolyzed protein by increasing the molecular orders of starch, while pepsin pancreatin hydrolyzed protein migrated starch digestibility via increasing V-type structures. 71 Our result showed rice protein restricted α-amylase activity; however, pea and soybean increased α-amylase activity. Plant isolation protein apparently would not undergo α-glucosidase inhibition; inspecting pea protein showed higher inhibition of α-Glucosidase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Soybean and pea protein obtained small sequence peptide with α-glucosidase-inhibitory activity. 72 – 74 Conclusions Blending plant protein affects the composition and physicochemical properties of cereal flour, which can retard starch hydrolysis. Water absorption, solubility, and swelling power are reduced, resulting in decreased final viscosity and setback. Furthermore, the hardness, elasticity, and tensile strength of rice pasta made with 10% isolated plant protein were lower than those made with 100% rice flour. The content of rapidly digestible starch (SDS), slowly digestible starch (RDS), and resistant starch were all affected by the protein source. In particular, the SDS content of rice pasta made with 10% pea protein was higher than that of other samples, including those made with 100% rice flour. According to the correlation analysis, the estimated glycemic index was positively related to SDS and protein content, which means that adding protein to rice pasta could reduce starch hydrolysis and lower its glycemic index. Furthermore, the addition of protein affected the physicochemical properties and quality of the rice product, which varied depending on the protein source. In particular, the use of pea protein to make rice pasta resulted in higher SDS and eGI values and better eating quality, indicating its potential as a functional food ingredient. Declarations Data availability statement This manuscript does not report data generation or analysis. Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests. Authors contribution Mingfen Chen conceived the research idea, designed the experiments, collected and analyzed the data and contributed to the literature review, conducted statistical analyses. Tingjang Lu contributed to the writing and revision of the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript. Funding Authors would like to thank the Industrial Development Administration, Ministry of Economic Affairs, ROC (Taiwan) for funding. References A. D. Association, Diabetes Care 27 (suppl_1), s5-s10 (2004). K. Ogurtsova, J. D. da Rocha Fernandes, Y. Huang, et al., Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 128 , 40-50 (2017). S. Wild, G. Roglic, A. 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Rungsardthong, LWT - Food Science and Technology 60 (2, Part 1), 1061-1067 (2015). S. Dorglamud, P. Suwannaporn, T. C. Huang and R. F. Tester, Starch‐Stärke 65 (7‐8), 613-620 (2013). C. Marco, G. Perez, P. Ribotta and C. M. Rosell, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 87 (14), 2576-2582 (2007). J. A. M. Berghout, R. M. Boom and A. J. van der Goot, Food Hydrocolloids 43 , 465-472 (2015). M. A. Fitzgerald, M. Martin, R. M. Ward, W. D. Park and H. J. Shead, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51 (8), 2295-2299 (2003). B. X. Fu, Food Research International 41 (9), 888-902 (2008). A. Barbiroli, F. Bonomi, M. C. Casiraghi, S. Iametti, M. A. Pagani and A. Marti, Carbohydrate polymers 92 (2), 1865-1872 (2013). G. A. Camelo-Mendez, M. G. Ferruzzi, G. A. Gonzalez-Aguilar and L. A. Bello-Perez, Food Engineering Reviews 8 (1), 76-89 (2016). E. H. J. Kim, J. R. Petrie, L. Motoi, et al., Food Biophysics 3 (2), 229-234 (2008). M. Petitot, C. Barron, M. H. Morel and V. Micard, Food Biophysics 5 (4), 284-299 (2010). G. Zhang and B. R. Hamaker, Cereal Chemistry 75 (5), 710-713 (1998). J. Singh, A. Dartois and L. Kaur, Trends in Food Science & Technology 21 (4), 168-180 (2010). P. Hu, H. Zhao, Z. Duan, Z. Linlin and D. Wu, Journal of Cereal Science 40 (3), 231-237 (2004). L. Jiménez-Munoz, A. Brodkorb, L. Gómez-Mascaraque and M. Corredig, Food & Function 12 (18), 8747-8759 (2021). D. J. Jenkins, M. J. Thorne, K. Camelon, et al., The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 36 (6), 1093-1101 (1982). D. J. A. Jenkins, M. J. Thorne, K. Camelon, et al., American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 36 (6), 1093-1101 (1982). M. Piecyk, R. Wołosiak, B. Drużynska and E. Worobiej, Food Chemistry 135 (3), 1057-1064 (2012). G. Deepa, V. Singh and K. A. Naidu, Journal of food science and technology 47 (6), 644-649 (2010). M. Chen, L. Wang, H. F. Qian, et al., Food Chemistry 283 , 353-358 (2019). J. H. Wong, T. Lau, N. Cai, et al., Journal of Cereal Science 49 (1), 73-82 (2009). X. Lu, R. Chang, H. Lu, R. Ma, L. Qiu and Y. Tian, LWT 146 , 111417 (2021). C. Chi, X. Li, Y. Zhang, L. Chen and L. Li, Food Hydrocolloids 84 , 473-480 (2018). A. H.-M. Lin, B.-H. Lee and W.-J. Chang, Food Hydrocolloids 53 , 163-171 (2016). M. Jiang, H. Yan, R. He and Y. Ma, European Food Research and Technology 244 (11), 1995-2005 (2018). C. Uraipong and J. Zhao, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 98 (2), 758-766 (2018). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3880561","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":270489707,"identity":"157d956b-c6ad-46a1-a93f-8dee7afcbcc2","order_by":0,"name":"Mingfen Chen","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA4ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCw+wHH0gYSPDIszeA+YwNBLUc70k2sCiwkTPsOQBWDSSYCWg5c8BMoOJDmjHDjQQitfDdSEhjuGFwOLFx5tvjj3kYbGQ3HOA/JoFPi+SNxGMPZwC1tEvnJTbzMKQZbzjAzIZXi8GNhHRjCZAts3MMgVoOJ4K03CCgxUz6D1BLw80zIC3/idAC9L6EhAHI+zwgLQcIa5EEBbKEASiQcwxnzjFINp55mNn8Bz4tfOCo/AOKyjMGH95U2Mn2HW98bIBPC7o7gZhQTI6CUTAKRsEoIAwASgtRwITmpbUAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"National Taiwan University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mingfen","middleName":"","lastName":"Chen","suffix":""},{"id":270489708,"identity":"20a7e765-3915-4a8e-875d-732e94a89494","order_by":1,"name":"Tingjang Lu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National Taiwan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tingjang","middleName":"","lastName":"Lu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-01-20 03:59:08","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3880561/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3880561/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":50692257,"identity":"bce558d7-3be3-4dcc-869b-ded28886cb77","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-05 21:48:55","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":24387,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWater absorption index (WSI), water solubility index (WSI)and swelling power (SP) of isolated protein within rice flour at 30°C (left) and 85°C (right).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3880561/v1/dfd3ff0402042fed66413b3c.png"},{"id":50692255,"identity":"3525a040-dffb-4ed9-bab1-9e8df1822cf8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-05 21:48:55","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":40405,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe RVA profile of 10% isolated protein within rice flour\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3880561/v1/a66530943043c21d52ed77d1.png"},{"id":50692256,"identity":"91cb50c3-e1b7-4843-b92e-ea841ff4df8d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-05 21:48:55","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22497,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStarch hydrolysis of rice pasta\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(RFP: Rice flour pasta, SPN: soybean protein within rice flour pasta, PPN: pea protein within rice flour pasta)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3880561/v1/bb128ec960275bcba5b404c4.png"},{"id":51376917,"identity":"1f236489-4ad7-4ea5-9701-2a925bdf19e6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-02-20 14:19:14","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":483675,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3880561/v1/0d594a8e-0b5c-4c8c-b0de-1507647e6a7c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Protein affects the digestibility of starch in rice pasta","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDiabetes is a disease that affects the ability of patients to regulate glucose release into their blood due to insulin sensitivity or receptor malfunction.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The estimated number of diabetes cases worldwide is expected to reach 366\u0026nbsp;million in 2030 and continue to rise to 642\u0026nbsp;million by 2050.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe incidence of diabetes in the United States increases every year; however, diabetes prevalence will still increase to 33% by 2050 even though medical treatment reduces mortality.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e A low-GI/GL dietary pattern has been shown to improve glycemic control, blood lipids, adiposity, and inflammation, with benefits similar to pharmacological agents. Glycemic index\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e measures the area under the glucose response curve and is divided into high GI (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;70), medium GI (70\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;GI\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;55), and low GI (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;55) foods.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7 CR8\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnglyst, Englyst, Hudson, Cole and Cummings\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e demonstrated that by using in vitro testing, it was possible to accurately predict the glycemic index response that would occur in vivo through a specific biological reaction. In simpler terms, their study showed that measuring how foods affect blood sugar levels in a lab can give us a good idea of how they will affect blood sugar levels when eaten by humans. Higher dietary GI and GL were both associated with increased all-cause mortality and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStarch was divided into three types: rapidly digestible starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS) and resistant starch (RS) according to their digestibility until 20, 120 and 240 min respectively after eating. SDS is measured as the starch which is digested between 20 and 120 min; it is the fraction of starch which can be digested completely in the small intestine, but more slowly than RDS. RS is the fraction that is undigested after starch hydrolyzed until 120 min, and is defined as dietary fiber that is used for microbiology in the large intestine fermented and producing butyric acid benefit for human intestine health.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e An in vitro method could determine the rate of starch which should assist in designing the diets for diabetes.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Rapidly digestible starch is positively correlated with glycemic response which is estimated as the glucose released to the blood, and changing the starch consumption as well as affecting its result.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe desert formula was designed for substitution by soya flour, legumes and insulin showing GI was a positive correction with rapidly available glucose but negative with SDS, IDF and TDF, and therefore escalating its functional characteristic.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLow GI does not mean slow digesting; it was affected by non-starch partition such as dietary fiber or protein change postprandial glycemic index. As starch underwent hydrolysis slowly it means glucose was produced at a lower postprandial glycemic index and the peak on the glucose release curve was smooth, since it was slow and prolonged; however, the true low GI food possessed a slowing and prolonged release of glucose characterization conforming to the definition of SDS.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e A research report indicated that rice flour containing high levels of protein showed lower levels of starch digestibility and a lower estimated glycemic index.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research report suggests that high-protein foods have a lower glycemic index and slower release of glucose, which is correlated with the SDS and RDS with GI.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Rapid digestible starch and rapid available starch can correct the glycemic response. Particle size, cooking method, food processing, and storage conditions can also affect the glycemic index.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The estimated glycemic index is a reliable and dependable method for predicting blood glucose response after consuming 50g of carbohydrate.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLegumes such as beans, chickpeas, and lentils have a low glycemic index and are recommended as a replacement for high-GI staple foods like rice or bread.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein can also affect starch physiochemistry through four different fractions, with the starch-protein complex slowing down enzyme hydrolysis.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Non-starch components like protein can impact the gelatinization properties and starch digestibility by changing the starch-protein structure, water absorption, gelatinization temperature, and starch hydrolysis rate. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Reducing carbohydrate intake and increasing protein supply can lower calorie intake without affecting fasting insulin secretion. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e High amylose, resistant starch, lipid, and protein in food can reduce starch hydrolysis.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Rice protein and lipid have a significant effect on starch digestibility. Food processing techniques, such as parboiling, can change starch digestibility due to changing protein extractability and amylose-lipid interaction.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePea protein is a promising ingredient for various food products such as baked goods, cereals, imitation meat, and beverages. Heating causes the interaction between pea protein and other components of the food matrix, resulting in the conversion of some weakly interacting β-sheets into strong β-sheets and β-sheet-related structures.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Rice protein is commonly used in infant formulas due to its hypoallergenic, nutritional, and functional properties, but its extraction process affects its quality and properties.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Adding protein from different sources can improve the hardness of pasta.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Pea, soybean, and rice are popular plant-based protein sources for making high protein products, and their effects on water absorption, solubility, swelling power, pasting properties, quality, and starch hydrolysis in rice pasta were measured and analyzed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, the influence of water absorption, solubility, swelling power, and pasting properties on adding pea, soy, and rice protein to rice flour were measured. Furthermore, the quality and starch hydrolysis of rice pasta were also measured, and their correlations analyzed.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eMaterials\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn this study, Taichung 17 indica rice was used as the rice flour, sourced from a Taiwanese rice manufacturer with an amylose content of 31.7%. The pea protein, soybean protein, and rice protein used in this study were purchased from importers in Taiwan.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eMoisture and protein content determination\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMoisture content of the pasta samples was determined using a drying method, 130℃ until balance was achieved according to AACC 44\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;19 method (AACC,1983). Protein content was measured using the Combustion Nitrogen Analysis. The protein N converse cofactor was 6.25. Total starch content was determined with an enzymatic assay kit (Megazyme, Co. Wicklow, Ireland).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eWater absorption, water solubility and swelling power\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA sample (3 g) was taken in a pre-weighed 50 ml centrifuge tube; to this 10 ml of deionized water was added and kept for 30 min with intermittent shaking after every 5 min. It was then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 min. The supernatant was transferred in a pre-weighed 50 mL glass flask and kept for drying at 130\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 4\u0026ndash;6 h. Thereafter, the weight of dry solids and gel was noted. The water absorption index (WAI), water solubility index (WSI) and swelling power (SP) were calculated using the following equation:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\u003cimg 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\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003ePasting properties determination\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFlour (3g, 14% dry basis) was weighed in an aluminum canister, to which 25 g distilled water was added. Viscosity was measured by RVA (Model 4S, Newport Scientific, Australia) using the profile outlined by Approved Method 61\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;02.\u003csup\u003e32\u003c/sup\u003e Two replicates of each sample were run. The pasting properties of rice flour, rice flour with 10% pea protein, soy protein, and rice protein were measured.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eGluten-free rice pasta preparation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccording to the extrusion-cooking process, parboiled flour can be used to create pasta with an extremely firm texture.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e For this study, dough was formulated using different isolated protein sources and substituting with rice protein\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e at 0% (control) and 10%. Each rice flour formulation was premixed for 10 min using a cubic mixer (Unique Tools Company, Thailand), with moisture content adjusted to 32\u0026ndash;36%. The premixed flour was steamed for 10 min before being extruded using a pasta maker. The extruded pasta samples were then dried at room temperature until the final moisture content was below 12%.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eCooking properties determination\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe cooking loss and yield were determined by cooking 5 g of product that had been broken into 5cm strands in 200 ml of deionized water until the optimal cooking time was reached. To stop the cooking process, the cooked strands were immediately cooled in deionized water.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The cooking yield was determined by comparing the weight of the pasta before and after cooking. The water used to cook the pasta was collected in a beaker that had been weighed beforehand, and then dried in an oven at 130\u0026deg;C until it reached a constant weight. The remaining residue was weighed, and the cooking loss was calculated as a percentage of the initial material. Each sample was measured three times to ensure accuracy.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eTexture analysis of pasta\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe textural characteristics of the pasta products were determined using a texture analyzer (TA-XT Plus, Stable Micro System, Godalming, England), calibrated for a load cell of 5 kg within 8\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;9 min after the pasta was cooked. The firmness of the pasta was measured followed AACC method 66-50.01 (AACC 2010). Three strands of cooked pasta were placed in sample holder and cut crosswise using a 1 mm acrylic knife blade to a distance of 10 mm with a speed of 1mm/s.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTensile strength was measured using a pasta/noodle tensile rig (A/SPR). A single strand of each pasta sample was locked in a slotted arm and measured at a test speed of 3.0 mm/s. and the maximum breaking force (g) and tensile strength(mm) were recorded.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eEstimated glycemic index\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe eGI of rice pasta were determined according to Go\u0026ntilde;i, Garcia-Alonso and Saura-Calixto \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e using cooked pasta. Accurately weighed samples of the finely compressed rice pasta were placed into a 50 ml glass tube along with a 20 x 15 mm stirrer bar. Next, 15 ml of KCl-HCl (pH 1.5) solution was added to the tube, followed by the addition of 0.2 ml of 10% pepsin. The mixture was then incubated for 1 h. To perform an enzymatic reaction, 25 ml of Tris-maleate buffer with a pH of 6.9 and 5 ml of Tris-maleate buffer containing \u0026alpha;-amylase at a concentration of 2.6U were added to a tube at 37\u0026deg;C. The reaction was allowed to proceed for 30, 60, 90, 120, and 180 min. After each time point, 0.2 ml of the reaction mixture was placed in boiling water to stop the reaction. 0.6 ml of 0.4M sodium acetate buffer (pH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.75) was added to a reaction mixture, followed by the addition of 50 \u0026micro;l of amyglucosidase (3300 IU/ml) at 50\u0026deg;C for 20 min.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor sample analysis, 50 \u0026micro;l of the sample was added to 1.5 ml of GOPOD reagent, and the reaction was carried out at 50\u0026deg;C for 20 min. The absorbance at 510 nm was measured using a spectrophotometer, with 1 mg/ml glucose used as the standard.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Starch hydrolysis index (SHI) was calculated by computing the incremental area under the curve (IAUC). The IAUC of the test foods and the reference food (glucose or white bread) were both determined, and the following formula calculated the estimated GI.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStarch digestibility can be modeled using a first-order equation that relates glucose concentration (Ct) to time (t) and a rate constant (k) for in vitro starch digestion:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\text{C}\\text{t}={\\text{C}}_{{\\infty }}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e(1-e\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;kt\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe value of k can be calculated by fitting a linear-least-squares regression line to a plot of natural logarithm of the difference between 1 and Ct versus time. An integral part of this equation was used to calculate the area under the hydrolysis curve (AUC). The hydrolysis index (HI) was then calculated by dividing the AUC of the sample by that of a reference sample (white bread). Finally, the estimated glycemic index was computed using the equation proposed by Go\u0026ntilde;i, Garcia-Alonso and Saura-Calixto. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equc\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equc\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$\\text{H}\\text{y}\\text{d}\\text{r}\\text{o}\\text{l}\\text{y}\\text{s}\\text{i}\\text{s} \\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{d}\\text{e}\\text{x} \\left(\\text{H}\\text{I}\\right)=\\frac{AUC \\left(test sample \\right)}{AUC \\left(reference food \\right)}\\times 100$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Equd\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equd\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e$$Predicted glycemic index=39.71+(0.549\\times \\text{S}HI)$$\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eDigestibility starch\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe starch digestible of pasta samples was measured by a digestible and resistant starch assay kit (Megazyme K-DSRS).\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Rapidly digestible starch (RDS) is defined as starch which is digested within 20 min, while slowly digestible starch (SDS) is defined as starch which is digested between 20 and 120 min. A new term, total digestible starch (TDS) is introduced (and measured) to cover all starch that is digested within 4 h. Resistant starch (RS) then is that starch which is not digested within 4 h.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRice slime (50\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;100mg) was weighted into 30\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\times\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e84mm glass tubes with a stirrer bar (\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(20\\times\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e 6 mmm). Next, 0.5 ml of 95% v/v ethanol was added to wet the sample, followed by the addition of 17.5 ml of maleate buffer. The tubes were capped and allowed to equilibrate to 37\u0026deg;C for 5 min, with stirring at 170 rpm in a water bath using a special magnetic stirrer. Then, 2.5 ml of PAA/AMG solution (PAA, 2 KU; AMG, 0.85 KU) was added, and the tubes were capped and incubated at 37\u0026deg;C, with stirring at 170 rpm on the waterproof magnetic stirrer at 20, 60, 90, 180 and 240 min. The withdrawn aliquots were promptly mixed with 20 ml of 50 mM acetic acid solution, and the tubes were tightly sealed and thoroughly agitated.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eProtein content\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe protein content of the rice flour used in this study was 7.69%. In contrast, the pea protein, soy protein, and rice protein had much higher protein contents of 84.3%, 87.7%, and 86.43%, respectively. After making the rice pasta and adding isolated plant protein, the protein content of each type of pasta was measured and presented in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The pasta made solely from rice flour had a lower protein content of around 8%. In comparison, the other pasta with added isolated plant protein had a much higher protein content, ranging from 15% to over 17.67%. The protein content of the rice powder, soybean, and pea ranged from 84\u0026ndash;87%.\u003csup\u003e38\u003c/sup\u003e Products were made with isolated pea protein, with protein content on a dry weight basis; adding 7.5\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;12.5% pea protein to wheat flour (protein\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.8% ), the protein content of pasta was 4.6\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;17.8%\u003csup\u003e39\u003c/sup\u003e, similar to our result.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProtein content of rice flour and plant isolated protein\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaterial\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eprotein (%, db)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e87.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e(RF: rice flour, SP: adding soybean protein, PP: adding pea protein, RP: adding rice protein, db: dry basis)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProximal composition of rice pasta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePasta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ecarbohydrate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eprotein\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eash\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003elipid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.02\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.52 \u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11 \u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10%SP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;RF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.54 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.67 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.45 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10%PP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;RF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.22 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.08 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.68 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.02 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10%RP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;RF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.91 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.36 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.46 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.27 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e(RF: rice flour pasta, 10%SP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;RF: adding soybean protein pasta, 10%PP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;RF: adding pea protein pasta, 10%RP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;RF: adding rice protein pasta)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eWater absorption, water solubility and swelling power\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe water absorption, swelling power, and solubility of the samples were tested at two temperatures: 30\u0026deg;C and 85\u0026deg;C, to preliminarily determine the impact of protein addition on the product manufacturing process. Adding protein increased the water absorption, solubility, and swelling power at 30\u0026deg;C. The results for water absorption, water solubility, and swelling power of rice flour and isolated protein are presented in Figs. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e at 30\u0026deg;C and 85\u0026deg;C, respectively. As the reaction temperature increased, water absorption, water solubility, and swelling power also increased. Soy protein had higher water absorption, water solubility, and swelling power than pea and rice protein at 30\u0026deg;C, being 1.8 times higher than pea protein and 2.9 times higher than rice protein. When added to rice flour, soy protein resulted in the highest solubility and swelling power, while rice protein had the lowest at 30\u0026deg;C. Compared to isolated soy protein, the addition of soy protein to rice flour showed a higher increase, while pea protein and rice protein showed a decrease. Soy protein had a higher water absorption capacity than rice protein. Soybean protein had higher water absorption capacity than rice and pea protein, which was 1.5 times that of pea protein and three times that of rice.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdding rice protein to rice flour showed lower water absorption index and swelling power in comparison to pasta with soy and pea protein. The swelling power was corrected with amylose, amylopectin and lipid, the polysaccharide which leached out from the damaged starch has a more efficient effect on starch swelling.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The results showed that the addition of soy protein had a greater effect than rice and pea protein on the absorption, solubility, and swelling power at 85\u0026deg;C. On the other hand, rice protein increased all the parameters on rice flour in 85\u0026deg;C hot water. Rice protein had a lower water absorption index and swelling power than rice flour, pea protein, and soy protein. The water holding capacity of rice was 2.81 and 3.02; while these were lower than soy protein, they were higher than viscous food. Hence rice protein could be used to make required high water retention products.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Solubility of protein was affected by pH value because of the different isoelectric points; for example from pH 6\u0026ndash;7, the solubility of plant protein in descending order was soybean, pea and rice protein.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e WSI increased with temperature for starch; swelling power was related to the viscoelastic properties of starch solution as well as correlated with the eating quality of noodles.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e By testing the viscosity of different starches under the same concentration, heating conditions and stirring speed, the results showed that the viscosity of each starch after stirring and heating showed significant differences.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e These differences in viscosity indicated a relationship to the colloidal properties of starch. The change of the colloidal properties of the material requires a specific heating method to initiate change. Until the heating of the starch solution, water was absorbed into starch granules at room temperature and the starch started to swell. After increasing the temperature to the gelatinization temperature, the swelling becomes irreversible.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eThe RVA profile\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe texture and pasting characters of rice flour were affected by several parameters; using measure pasting analysis was an easier and less costly method for classifying rice. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The RVA test was conducted after adding 10% protein to rice flour. The results are presented in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. It was observed that the addition of protein had an impact on the viscosity and gelatinization performance of rice flour, resulting in a decrease in peak, trough, final viscosity, and setback viscosity. Adding pea protein only led to a decrease in breakdown viscosity and pasting temperature, while soy protein had the opposite effect. The results also showed that adding rice protein to rice flour led to an increase in pasting temperature and a significant reduction in peak viscosity, trough, final viscosity, and setback during gelatinization.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIncreasing the amount of rice protein in rice flour increased the pasting temperature. Rice protein restricts the diffusion of water into the starch granules, causing a delay in the pasting temperature.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e In a report using rapid viscosity analysis, it was found that pasting temperature and setback were negatively correlated with RDS, and positively correlated with SDS and RS.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Adding pea protein can change the pasting temperature of rice flour during the heating and cooling periods due to its higher thermal transition temperature.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Adding soybean flour to replace rice flour would decrease all pasting properties because the amylose and amylopectin content cause a dilution effect.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e RDS was found to be negatively correlated with pasting temperature, setback, and final viscosity, but positively correlated with SDS and RS (Chung et al., 2011). The cell structure of ingredients with intact botanical or physical structures, including viscous dietary fiber or amylose-amylopectin, can cause a restriction of starch swelling and reduce the digestion rate (Bjorck et al., 1994). RDS were negatively correlated with pasting temperature, setback and final viscosity but positively correlated with SDS and RS \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Cell structure causes restriction of starch swelling and reduce digestion rate. The cell structure of ingredients with an intact botanical or physical structure, including viscous dietary fiber or amylose-amylopectin, can cause a restriction of starch swelling and reduce the digestion rate.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Protein can affect the characteristics of rice flour, especially its gel-forming properties, depending on whether it is high-molecular or low-molecular polypeptide. Additionally, protein in rice flour can change the water absorption of starch granules and the hardness of rice gel.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProtein affects rice flour characteristics; especially gel-forming property was its high-molecular polypeptide instead of low-molecular one. In addition, protein in rice flour changed starch granule water absorption and hardness of rice gel.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Adding denatured pea protein led to a lower degree of gelatinization and greater binding of protein to the starch matrix \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; Forde, 2019\u003c/sup\u003e. Pea protein has higher solubility than rice flour; in addition, blending pea and rice decreased the intensity to a greater extent of. Pea protein hindered rice protein structure or increased aggregation inducing enzyme activity to be reduced.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Soybean protein had more larger protein subunits in the size range of 50\u0026ndash;500 kDa, and free sulfhydryl groups decreased upon increasing temperature that affected water absorption and viscosity.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Rice protein exhibited lower breakdown and final viscosity perhaps affected by higher solubility and lower swelling power. A greater degree of breakdown led to lower retrogradation because of its lower final viscosity.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTexture characters and cooking properties of cooked rice pasta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePasta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTexture characters\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCooking properties\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHardness(g)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTensile Strength(g)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eElasticity (mm)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eloss (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eyield (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRFN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e334.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;35.3 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.0 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.4 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25 \u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.24 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSPN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.1 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.51 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.68 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePPN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e181.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.8 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0 \u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0 \u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.94 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRPN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.8 \u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1 \u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.84 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e87.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.13 \u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe texture of cooked rice pasta was measured using a texture analyzer and the results are presented in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. When comparing the texture of cooked rice flour pasta to those with added isolated protein, the pasta made with rice flour alone was found to be the hardest, while the addition of isolated protein led to reduced tensile strength and elasticity. The impact on texture was less pronounced when using pea protein compared to rice and soy protein. Additionally, soy protein pasta had a lower cooking loss and higher cooking yield compared to pea and rice protein pasta. The addition of rice protein to rice flour led to an increase in cooking loss. Despite having better cooking properties, soy protein pasta began to break after being cooked for more than 6 min.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAdding 10% plant protein to make rice pasta was similar to regular pasta making; the water adding and process wouldn\u0026rsquo;t be changed. Adding protein would change pasta color because of the original protein color, and soy protein pasta had dark color between all samples. After cooking, the color was still darker than that of the rice flour pasta. The substitution of rice flour with defatted soybean flour would increase cooking loss while the cooking yield was reduced. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Not only do the main methods of making noodles differ, including sheets and extrusion, but also the material is different. Besides the flour could affect noodle texture, color and cooking properties.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Adding rice flour which was not treated to make pasta was related to changing the amylopectin fraction; the interior structural had changed affecting the final product quality. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Materials, ingredients, processing, and method were the critical points to making pasta, not only affecting quality but also starch hydrolysis. Adding fiber or resistant starch was one way, and changing method was the another. Gluten free pasta for consumers is more popular in the world using corn flour, rice flour or pseudo-cereals by replacing durum or wheat flour. For suitable eating quality and higher fiber content, ingredients and novel processing have been developed. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRDS, SDS. RS and estimated GI of cooked rice pasta\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRFN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePPN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSPN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRPN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRDS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.3 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.47 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.73 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSDS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.37\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.25\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.29\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.26 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTDS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.45 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.93 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.91 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eeGI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.43 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.48 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.03 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.80 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e(RFP: Rice flour pasta, SPN: soybean protein within rice flour pasta, PPN: pea protein within rice flour pasta. RDS: rapid digestible starch, SDS: slowly digestible starch, TDS: total digestible starch, RS: resistant starch, eGI: estimated glycemic index)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRice flour exhibited higher levels of total starch, slowly digestible starch, and total starch content. When blended with soy protein, the resulting rice pasta had a lower slowly digestible starch (SDS) content than 100% rice flour, indicating that adding soy protein did not increase SDS. However, the addition of pea protein resulted in a significantly higher resistant starch (RS) content compared to rice pasta made with 100% rice flour, while the addition of soy and rice protein resulted in lower RS content. Despite the fact that adding the same amount of plant protein to rice flour resulted in the same amylose dilution ratio, the starch hydrolysis was not the same. The addition of isolate protein to rice flour resulted in a decrease in SDS of rice pasta, but RDS and RS varied depending on the type of protein used. The addition of soy protein to rice pasta led to lower RS, while pea protein rice pasta had higher RS.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProtein played an important role in starch digestibility as well as its restrict enzyme hydrolysis. During cooking, furthermore, starch-protein interaction cause flour in a slowly digestible state \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. RS content and starch hydrolysis were not only affected by amylose, but also other characteristics; protein and starch resource showed a wider range between estimated glycemic index.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Protein isolation resistant to pepsin or the in vitro gastric stage differed from protein fraction; in pea protein, both albumin and globulin fractions underwent hydrolysis in proteolysis and subsequent intestinal digestion, while rice protein were resistant to pepsin hydrolysis because its prolamin was undigested.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e eGI of rice pasta was similar to rice pasta and rice flour with soybean. Starch hydrolysis was more than 85% after 30 min hydrolysis, leading to higher eGI (Fig. 4). The way food is processed, such as through heat treatment or blending time, can affect starch digestibility and the glycemic response by changing the starch-protein interaction and contact surface area. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Cooking legume seeds can change their starch structure, resulting in lower SDS and RS compared to raw seeds. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e In comparing starch hydrolysis content only using pepsin at KCl-HCl (pH 1.5) without adding amylase to the reaction, the starch hydrolysis was more than 55%.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCorrection of RDS, SDS, RS and protein\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRDS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSDS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTDS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProtein\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRDS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSDS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.6308\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTDS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.1997\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8709\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.9708\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6088\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2365\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProtein\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2577\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.9072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.9949\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.2729\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlthough the research showed that total starch was not correlated to protein\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, our results show that it was negatively correlated with total digestible starch and slowly digestible starch, while resistant starch was negative correctly with rapid digestible starch; however, total digestibility was positive with slowly digestible starch. In other words, protein and resistant starch significantly affected starch digestibility. Starch digestibility was restricted by peptides after protease hydrolyzing soy protein through retard starch swelling and gelatinization, further reducing starch digestibility.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eResistant starch was negative correlated with GI and HI; research also showed soluble starch synthase\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e increasing resistant starch, which would require granule bound starch synthase to regulate RS and amylose content in rice grain predominately altering starch composition. Starch was pre-treated with pepsin or without, following by treatment with human saliva -amylase, the ratios with or without pepsin were 1.5\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;1.8, similar to our result (1.7); the research indicated that this was due to their starch granule hardness.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Amino acid inhibited amylase inhibition from porcine pancreatin through a physical barrier between the enzyme and starch. Amino acid retarded the digestible rate and enhanced the order of starch structure. \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Starch digestibility was suppressed by two \u0026alpha;-amylases: native and pepsin hydrolyzed protein by increasing the molecular orders of starch, while pepsin pancreatin hydrolyzed protein migrated starch digestibility via increasing V-type structures.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOur result showed rice protein restricted \u0026alpha;-amylase activity; however, pea and soybean increased \u0026alpha;-amylase activity. Plant isolation protein apparently would not undergo \u0026alpha;-glucosidase inhibition; inspecting pea protein showed higher inhibition of \u0026alpha;-Glucosidase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Soybean and pea protein obtained small sequence peptide with \u0026alpha;-glucosidase-inhibitory activity.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eBlending plant protein affects the composition and physicochemical properties of cereal flour, which can retard starch hydrolysis. Water absorption, solubility, and swelling power are reduced, resulting in decreased final viscosity and setback. Furthermore, the hardness, elasticity, and tensile strength of rice pasta made with 10% isolated plant protein were lower than those made with 100% rice flour. The content of rapidly digestible starch (SDS), slowly digestible starch (RDS), and resistant starch were all affected by the protein source. In particular, the SDS content of rice pasta made with 10% pea protein was higher than that of other samples, including those made with 100% rice flour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the correlation analysis, the estimated glycemic index was positively related to SDS and protein content, which means that adding protein to rice pasta could reduce starch hydrolysis and lower its glycemic index. Furthermore, the addition of protein affected the physicochemical properties and quality of the rice product, which varied depending on the protein source. In particular, the use of pea protein to make rice pasta resulted in higher SDS and eGI values and better eating quality, indicating its potential as a functional food ingredient.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis manuscript does not report data generation or analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMingfen Chen conceived the research idea, designed the experiments, collected and analyzed the data and contributed to the literature review, conducted statistical analyses. Tingjang Lu contributed to the writing and revision of the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors would like to thank the Industrial Development Administration, Ministry of Economic Affairs, ROC (Taiwan) for funding.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eA. D. Association, Diabetes Care \u003cstrong\u003e27\u003c/strong\u003e (suppl_1), s5-s10 (2004).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eK. Ogurtsova, J. D. da Rocha Fernandes, Y. Huang, et al., Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice \u003cstrong\u003e128\u003c/strong\u003e, 40-50 (2017).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eS. Wild, G. Roglic, A. Green, R. Sicree and H. King, Estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030 \u003cstrong\u003e27\u003c/strong\u003e (5), 1047-1053 (2004).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJ. P. Boyle, T. J. Thompson, E. W. Gregg, L. E. Barker and D. F. 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The digestion of starch is affected by the presence of proteins, which can interact with it. This project aimed to investigate the starch digestibility of rice pasta by replacing the original plant protein with varied plant proteins such as pea protein, soybean protein, and rice protein, and measuring their physicochemical properties, cooking quality, and eating quality after cooking. The results revealed that the addition of plant proteins decreased the peak viscosity, final viscosity, and setback of rice flour, while increasing the cooking loss and decreasing the hardness of rice pasta. Furthermore, the use of pea protein to make rice pasta resulted in a lower estimated glycemic index, which was mainly due to the lower content of rapidly digestible starch.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Protein affects the digestibility of starch in rice pasta","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-02-05 21:48:50","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3880561/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9023c6f8-a0b5-4565-9078-5b71c0f9fb2c","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 5th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-02-20T14:11:05+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-02-05 21:48:50","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3880561","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3880561","identity":"rs-3880561","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}