Evaluating the role of park and ride facilities in enhancing urban mobility A case study of Dar es Salaam City BRT Phase 1, Tanzania

Evaluating the role of park and ride facilities in enhancing urban mobility A case study of Dar es Salaam City BRT Phase 1, Tanzania | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Evaluating the role of park and ride facilities in enhancing urban mobility A case study of Dar es Salaam City BRT Phase 1, Tanzania Wilfred Gordian Kazaura This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7441762/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Park and ride systems play a growing role in urban mobility, particularly in rapidly urbanizing cities including Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. This study assessed the demand, functionality, and operational challenges of park and ride facilities along the BRT corridor. The research aimed to evaluate service utilization, user perceptions and infrastructural adequacy to inform strategies for enhancing integrated transport systems. Data were collected through structured interviews with parking operators, government officials, and park and ride users. Descriptive statistical tools were used to summarize utilization trends, and qualitative analysis contextualize operational challenges. Findings revealed that demand for park and ride services exceeds current capacity, especially on weekdays, lots occupied as early as 6.30 a.m. in contrast to weekends. About 56% of users utilize parking lots without connecting to BRT services. Security, affordability and proximity to terminals influenced user satisfaction. However, deficiencies such as gravel surfaces, lack of amenities, and misuse of space by storage of impounded vehicles, compromised facility performance. Moreover, BRT operational delays and overcrowding during peak periods deterred modal shift behaviour. The potential of park and ride schemes in urban transport call for adaptive management strategies, including flexible fee structures and space monitoring, that enhance system efficiency and promote sustainable mobility transitions. Bus Rapid Transit system Park and ride Security Traffic congestion Urban mobility Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction Urban centres across the Global South are undergoing rapid transformations, driven by accelerated population growth and urbanization. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania's commercial capital, exemplifies this trend, with projections indicating its evolution into a megacity by 2030. This expansion has intensified the demand for efficient and sustainable transportation systems to accommodate the mobility needs of its burgeoning population. In response, the city introduced the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in 2016, aiming to enhance urban mobility and alleviate congestion. Characterized by dedicated lanes and high-capacity buses, the BRT was envisioned as a reliable alternative to existing public transport options. In Tanzania, park and ride option is stipulated in The National Transport Policy of 2003 section 5.4.2.1. It provide for the solution of reducing traffic congestion toward the Central Business District. Due to the rapid increase of car ownership and use, the existing road capacities has not been able to cope with vehicle influx. The policy provide for park and ride facilities to minimize traffic congestion through the pursuance of the following policy direction: i) Definition of proper space for private vehicle parking to attain smooth traffic flow that could facilitate implementation of traffic management measures alongside the major roads and improve utilization of the limited road capacities. ii) Designation and development of parking spaces in any land parcels along the highways, BRT and expressways. The parking should attractive, safe, accessible and affordable in terms of costs to allow individual vehicle owners to park and board public buses in more efficient ways. iii) Promotion of public transport as the most effective and efficient means of travel in urban areas and discourage private vehicles particularly in areas prone to acute congestion especially during peak hours. 1.2 Theory underpinning the study 1.2.1 Utility theory The theory advocates utility of drivers and other users shifting from private vehicles/cars to public transport (BRT). The distance from the parking to the riding station, the parking fee, security within the parking lot, time to secure parking space, and the environmental friendliness which include condition and services within the parking lot are among the key factors that influence the decision of mode shifting (Andrejszki et.al, 2015; Madudova & Dávid, 2019). The theory consider social-economic attributes, environmental conditions and services available in the park and ride lot (Zietsman et.al, 2006; Maat et.al., 2005). Distance and parking fee rates are among of the important factors that maximize the utility of park and ride users (Li et.al, 2009), however, quality and condition of parking lot together with safety and security are the contributing factors (Andrejszki et.al, 2015). As indicated in Figure 2, the utility of the vehicle users in making decision shifting from private car to public transport is influenced by safety and security within the lot, walking distance from the parking to the bus stations, environmental condition and services available including water, lighting, public toilets, and the parking fee rates. (Cornejo, et. El, 2014). Chen and Kim, (2018) The implementation of the BRT system in Dar es Salaam has been the subject of various studies assessing its impact on urban development and residents' livelihoods. Krüger et al. (2021) conducted a pilot study examining the BRT as a component of critical infrastructure. Their research highlighted improvements in commuting times and access to basic services, contributing to enhanced urban livelihoods. However, the study also identified challenges, including the need for network expansion and vulnerabilities to natural events like flooding. The authors emphasized the importance of considering the BRT within the broader context of urban infrastructure and the necessity for further research into its comprehensive impacts on urban life. Despite the advancements brought about by the BRT system, operational challenges persist. Mchome and Nzoya (2023) explored setbacks associated with BRT systems in African developing countries, noting issues such as prolonged waiting times, overcrowding during peak hours, and safety concerns. Their study recommended measures including the introduction of passenger information displays, automated fare collection systems, and bus priority signals to enhance efficiency and commuter satisfaction. To complement existing transport infrastructure and bolster network resilience, Henry et al. (2022) examined the potential of on-demand park-and-ride systems. Their research formulated a stochastic facility location problem to optimize the placement of park-and-ride facilities, taking into account users' mode choices and varying traffic conditions. The findings suggested that such systems could capture a considerable proportion of users during disrupted traffic conditions, thereby enhancing overall network resilience. In the context of integrating park-and-ride systems with existing public transportation, Diputra and RakaMandi (2023) proposed a framework for integrated parking planning in Bali's Metropolitan Sarbagita area. Their study focused on physical integration with walking, biking, and park-and-ride options, aiming to provide sustainable mobility and transportation equity. The research emphasized the importance of operational and policy-level integration for successful implementation. Ortega et al. (2020) highlighted the role of park-and-ride systems within Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs) as a strategy to mitigate the adverse effects of private vehicles in Central Business Districts. Their integrated model estimated potential demand for park-and-ride facilities in Cuenca, Ecuador, demonstrating the effectiveness of such systems in sustainable urban planning. Examining the long-term impacts of bus-based park-and-ride schemes, Mills and White (2018) presented a case study of the Chelmsford system in the UK. Despite observing a net increase in passenger car unit-kilometres, the study found an overall economic benefit due to reduced congestion in urban corridors. The research emphasized the importance of evaluating the broader impacts of park-and-ride systems beyond immediate traffic metrics. Looking towards future urban transportation, Ceder (2021) reviewed potential developments, emphasizing the inefficiency of private cars and advocating for public transport modes, including metro, bus, light rail, and ridesharing services. The study proposed a visionary approach to urban mobility, focusing on optimizing connectivity and achieving seamless door-to-door travel experiences. Kane and Whitehead (2017) discussed the challenges and opportunities presented by disruptive technologies in urban transport systems, such as vehicle electrification, autonomous vehicles, and the sharing economy. They stressed the role of urban planners and policymakers in shaping outcomes to avoid non-optimal scenarios and ensure the benefits of these disruptions are realized. Studies provide a comprehensive review of practices in selecting appropriate locations for park-and-ride facilities. For instance, a study by Kar et al. (2023) offers insights into factors influencing the identification of potential sites and the development of commuter behaviour models, aiding planners and policymakers in developing context-specific guidelines. Exploring the impact of Automated Mobility-on-Demand (AMOD) services, Nguyen-Phuoc et al. (2023) utilized agent-based microsimulation to assess their effects on public transport systems. The study found that full automation scenarios could reduce congestion and increase public transport usage, while partial automation might lead to higher travel demand and decreased public transport share. These findings have implications for urban and transport planners considering the integration of AMOD services. Shaheen and Cohen (2020) discussed the transformative effects of technology on mobility, highlighting the rise of shared and on-demand mobility services. They examined the evolving concepts of Mobility on Demand (MOD) and Mobility as a Service (MaaS), exploring their potential to reinvent public transit by enhancing competitiveness with private vehicle ownership through partnerships and automation. The integration of park-and-ride systems with existing public transport infrastructure, as observed in Dar es Salaam's BRT system, presents avenues to improve urban mobility and resilience. However, challenges such as operational inefficiencies, safety concerns, and the necessity for strategic planning remain. Drawing from global experiences and research, it is evident that a multifaceted approach involving infrastructure development, policy integration, and technological innovation is essential for the successful implementation and sustainability of such systems. Therefore, this study evaluated the operational efficiency, capacity utilization, and management challenges of the park-and-ride facilities along the BRT routes in Dar es Salaam. Specifically, the study aimed to evaluate the existing demand and usage patterns of park-and-ride facilities at selected BRT terminals in Dar es Salaam, particularly focusing on Kimara, Kariakoo, Airtel, and Ferry lots across different days of the week. It further examined factors influencing the usefulness of these facilities, such as affordability, security provisions, and proximity to BRT terminals, through a combination of field observations and interviews with key stakeholders. The study also evaluated the extent to which users of park-and-ride facilities proceeded to utilize the BRT system after parking, while identifying patterns of unintended use—such as by nearby workers or residents—that reduced available space for transit users. In addition, operational and infrastructural challenges affecting the efficiency and satisfaction levels of park-and-ride services were investigated, including the condition of physical infrastructure, facility management practices, and coordination with BRT operations. Based on these insights, the study generated practical recommendations aimed at enhancing the functionality, accessibility, and service delivery of park-and-ride lots as an integral component of Dar es Salaam’s sustainable urban transport strategy. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Study areas This study was conducted in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania's rapidly growing economic hub, located at 6°48' S and 39°17' E. Dar es Salaam is a city characterized by rapid population growth and urbanization. According to the 2022 Population Census Report, the city's population has risen significantly, from 4.3 million in 2012 to 5.4 million in 2022, reflecting an annual growth rate of 5.6%. Car ownership is approximately 35 vehicles per 1,000 people. The city is also home to a well-developed transportation infrastructure, including roads, railways, airports, and harbours, with a total road network covering about 619 kilometres. Of this, 442 kilometres are paved, while 177 kilometres remain unpaved. In response to the growing transportation needs, Dar es Salaam has implemented the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system, which is planned in three phases. The first phase, completed along Morogoro, Msimbazi, and Kawawa roads, covers 20.9 kilometres. The ongoing second phase involves Kilwa Road, Chang’ombe Road, Nyerere Road, and New Bagamoyo Road, which will ultimately cover about 163.1 kilometres. The third phase, planned for completion in peri-urban areas, will connect Bagamoyo, Kisarawe, and Kibaha centres in the Coastal region, covering an additional 142.2 kilometres. The BRT system, which is designed to improve urban mobility, also integrates park-and-ride facilities at major terminals, supporting the convenience of commuters and reducing congestion in the city (Fig. 1 ). 2.2 Study design and data collection The study utilized a mixed-methods research design, combining both qualitative and quantitative approaches to gather a comprehensive set of data. The qualitative approach aimed to capture descriptive information about the management, operations, and challenges associated with the parking facilities located along the BRT routes. The quantitative component was used to collect numerical data, such as the number of vehicles parked, parking durations, and parking fees, which were crucial for understanding the efficiency of the facilities. Geographical Information System (GIS) tools were employed to assess the spatial distribution and physical characteristics of the park-and-ride facilities. GIS allowed for the precise measurement of parking lot sizes, the identification of available amenities, and the analysis of the relationship between parking facilities and the urban environment. Additionally, data on the locations of the parking lots were collected using handheld GPS devices, which enabled the accurate mapping of the parking lots within the city. The study focused on four major park-and-ride terminals within the first phase of the BRT system: Kimara, Kivukoni, Morocco, and Gerezani. The Kivukoni terminal, also known as Ferry, covers 700 square meters and accommodates 86 vehicles. The Kimara terminal, with a parking capacity for 120 vehicles, spans 1,000 square meters. The Morocco terminal, known as Airtel, covers 500 square meters and holds 60 vehicles, while the Gerezani terminal, named Kariakoo, is the largest, with a coverage area of 1,870 square meters and a capacity of 230 vehicles. On average, each vehicle occupies 8.1 square meters of parking space (see Fig. 2 ). In addition to the GIS analysis, data were collected through interviews with key stakeholders. These included two operators from each of the four parking lots, local ward and sub-ward officials, and representatives from the Dar es Salaam Rapid Transit (DART), the Land Transport Regulatory Authority (LATRA), and the Tanzania National Roads Agency (TANROADS). The interviews aimed to gather insights into the operational challenges, security concerns, and management issues facing the park-and-ride facilities. These qualitative data were supplemented with information on the existing infrastructure, security conditions, and the perceived effectiveness of the current systems. Structured open-ended questionnaires were administered to 120 drivers who regularly used the park-and-ride lots. The surveys were conducted at different times of the day to capture variations in parking patterns and demand. Forty questionnaires were distributed in the morning (6:00 AM to 10:00 AM), forty in the noon hours (12:00 PM to 2:00 PM), and forty in the late afternoon (4:00 PM to 6:00 PM). The survey aimed to gather data on vehicle types, parking durations, parking fees, and user satisfaction. The data on parking lot usage, including the number of vehicles parked per day and the associated parking fees, were also obtained from the parking registers. This data provided a quantitative assessment of parking lot capacity and utilization rates, which were essential for evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of the park-and-ride facilities in Dar es Salaam. Existing designs and planning documents for the parking lots were reviewed in detail to understand the layout and operational strategies. This was complemented by physical observations and field mapping to assess the conditions of the parking lots, the availability of supporting infrastructure (e.g., lighting, security), and the level of service provided to users. These field observations also allowed for an assessment of how the facilities align with the broader urban mobility framework. Attribute data for the parking lots, such as parking capacity and the facilities available, were collected using the Open Data Kit (ODK) application. This mobile data collection tool facilitated the systematic gathering of structured information in the field. All data collected through this method were then processed and analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), Microsoft Excel, and Quantum Geographic Information System (QGIS). SPSS was employed for the statistical analysis of survey responses, while QGIS was used to map and analyze the spatial distribution of the parking lots and their surrounding urban context. The results were presented through various formats, including maps, tables, and figures, to provide a clear understanding of the parking system’s operational status, usage patterns, and spatial distribution. The analysis also highlighted key areas for improvement in the integration of park-and-ride facilities within the broader BRT network and urban transportation infrastructure of Dar es Salaam. The findings offer valuable insights for policymakers, urban planners, and transportation authorities seeking to enhance the city’s public transport system and address the growing demand for efficient and sustainable transportation options. 3. Results 3.1 Park and Ride Service Demand The findings from Table 1 reveal that the demand for park and ride services in Dar es Salaam, particularly along the BRT Phase 1 corridor, is significantly higher than the current capacity of the parking lots provided. On working days (Monday to Friday), all four studied lots—Kimara, Kariakoo, Airtel, and Ferry—experience a surge in demand during the early morning hours, often reaching full capacity between 6:30 a.m. and 7:30 a.m. This reflects a heavy reliance on the park and ride system by commuters who use private vehicles from residential areas before transferring to BRT buses for access to the central business district and other destinations. The situation slightly improves on weekends. On Saturdays, Kimara and Kariakoo lots remain busy but provide slightly more flexibility in terms of parking time—up to around 7.00 a.m. to 7.30 a.m.—while Airtel and Ferry lots are less congested and only fill up later in the morning, between 10.00 a.m. and 10.30 a.m. Sundays show even lower usage in Airtel and Ferry lots, where parking spaces remain largely available throughout the day, suggesting a drop in weekday commuting patterns and reduced weekend travel by private vehicles in those areas. The consistently high demand in Kimara and Kariakoo lots is closely linked to surrounding land use and urban activity. For example, the Kimara lot is adjacent to critical facilities such as religious centers, a police station, a health center, and retail outlets (as depicted in Fig. 3 ). These establishments attract people throughout the week, including weekends, thus maintaining steady demand for parking. Similarly, the Kariakoo lot’s proximity to one of Dar es Salaam's busiest commercial hubs ensures that the space remains in high demand. In contrast, the relatively lower weekend demand at Airtel and Ferry lots may reflect their locations, which are less commercially active or lacking significant public institutions in the immediate vicinity. Nevertheless, even these lots experience some weekend usage spikes around mid-morning, possibly linked to occasional market visits or social activities. A practical challenge observed is the alternative use of designated park and ride spaces for storing damaged or impounded vehicles, particularly in Kimara (as shown in Plate 1). This dual usage further reduces the number of available parking slots for daily commuters, exacerbating the supply-demand gap in already constrained facilities. The study highlights that while park and ride lots are effectively utilized and play a vital role in urban mobility during working days, the mismatch between demand and capacity, particularly in Kimara and Kariakoo, calls for urgent measures to expand lot capacities and improve parking management. Additionally, weekend usage trends suggest opportunities for adaptive use or revenue generation strategies during off-peak periods. Table 1 Maximum time to secure a parking space at selected park and ride lots in Dar es Salaam by day of the week Days in the week Maximum time to secure parking space Kimara Kariakoo Airtel Ferry Working days: Monday-Friday 6.30 a.m. 6.30 a.m. 7.30 a.m. 7.00 a.m. Saturdays 7.30 a.m. 7.00 a.m. 10.30 a.m. 10.00 a.m. Sundays 7.30 a.m. 8.30 a.m. Available all the time Available all the time 3.2 Usefulness of park and ride lots The effectiveness and frequent use of park and ride lots in Dar es Salaam are influenced by several interrelated factors as reported by parking operators and officers from TANROADS. One of the key factors is the affordability of parking fees. The daily charges across different lots range from 2,000 to 4,000 Tanzanian Shillings (approximately $ 0.87 to $ 1.74). Specifically, Kimara charges 2,000 TZS (≈ $ 0.87), Airtel 3,000 TZS (≈ $ 1.30), Ferry 3,500 TZS (≈ $ 1.52), and Kariakoo 4,000 TZS (≈ $ 1.74) per day. These charges are generally considered affordable and acceptable by most users. However, Kimara is notably more popular due to its lower rate. Despite the affordability, many drivers expressed a preference for hourly charges instead of the current flat daily rate, as some vehicles are parked for only a few hours yet are charged the full-day fee. The suggestion to adopt an hourly payment model was widely supported among the respondents. Security within the parking lots is another major factor influencing usability. All park and ride lots are secured by private firms contracted by the government, providing users with confidence to leave their vehicles for extended periods. The presence of vigilant guards and clear contractual terms—requiring the firms to compensate for any damages—have ensured a crime-free environment within the lots. Although there have been no reported cases of theft or vandalism, plans are underway to install CCTV cameras to further strengthen the security infrastructure. The proximity of parking lots to BRT terminals also contributes significantly to their usefulness. Short walking distances from the lots to the terminals make the system convenient and user-friendly. Kimara is approximately 150 meters from the terminal, Airtel 87 meters, and Ferry 120 meters. The exception is Kariakoo, which is around 450 meters from the Gerezani terminal, representing the longest distance among the four. Nonetheless, the generally short walking distances eliminate the need for additional transport and encourage more people to use the park and ride service. 3.3 Operational and infrastructure challenges of park and ride lots in Dar es Salaam Despite their intended function as key nodes for modal shift in urban mobility, the park and ride facilities associated with the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in Dar es Salaam face several critical challenges that limit their effectiveness. These challenges are classified into three main categories: inappropriate utilization of parking space, inefficiencies within the BRT service, and infrastructural inadequacies of the parking lots themselves. 3.3.1 Misuse of parking facilities One of the primary challenges is the mismatch between the intended and actual use of the park and ride lots. The study found that only 44% of vehicle owners using the parking facilities continued their journey using the BRT buses. The remaining 56% consisted of individuals working in nearby establishments—such as businesses and institutions—who utilized the lots for general parking rather than for integrating with the BRT system. This deviation undermines the purpose of the park and ride scheme, which is to reduce vehicular congestion in central urban areas through modal transfer. As noted by the operator of the Ferry parking lot: “It is difficult to determine whether a driver intends to use the BRT system after parking, hence lots are often occupied by unintended users.” This indiscriminate use reduces availability for legitimate park and ride users and challenges the effectiveness of the service. 3.3.2 Operational limitations of the BRT system The efficiency of park and ride lots is further compromised by service-related issues within the BRT system. Approximately 90% of respondents cited extended waiting times at terminals and severe passenger congestion on buses, especially during peak hours and weekends. Observations during the study indicated waiting times ranging from 15 to 30 minutes during morning and evening rush hours. Plate 2 illustrates the extent of overcrowding in BRT buses, particularly during peak travel times. Such operational inefficiencies discourage potential users from opting for the BRT, thereby reducing the attractiveness and effectiveness of the park and ride model as a sustainable urban transport solution. 3.3.3 Infrastructural deficiencies within parking lots The condition of the physical infrastructure within the parking lots presents a substantial barrier to user satisfaction. All lots assessed in this study were surfaced with either gravel or bare earth, rendering them susceptible to significant deterioration during the rainy season. Users frequently reported challenges such as mud, potholes, and waterlogging, which negatively affect accessibility and convenience. Moreover, the absence of essential amenities such as toilets, water supply, boundary fencing, and car sheds further compromises user comfort and safety. Operators acknowledged these deficiencies and emphasized the need for major improvements, including the installation of protective sheds and secure fencing to enhance the overall quality and usability of the facilities. While the park and ride system in Dar es Salaam has significant potential to enhance urban mobility through integrated transport, its current effectiveness is limited by misuse of parking space, inefficiencies in the BRT service, and infrastructural shortfalls. Addressing these challenges is essential for optimizing the role of park and ride facilities in supporting sustainable urban transport strategies. 4. Discussion Urban transportation systems in rapidly growing cities, particularly in the Global South, face multifaceted challenges that necessitate innovative and context-sensitive solutions. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania’s largest city, exemplifies these complexities, grappling with issues of urban sprawl, informal settlements, and inadequate infrastructure. Insights from recent studies reveal a strong interplay between transportation planning, land use, and urban development in the city. The interrelationship between urban expansion and transportation infrastructure is evident in Dar es Salaam’s development trajectory. Mkalawa and Haixiao ( 2014 ) analyzed the city’s growth from 1945 to 2012, demonstrating how transportation demand and infrastructure have evolved alongside population increases. They observed that residential expansion was influenced not only by population growth but also by the availability and accessibility of transport infrastructure, emphasizing the mutual dependency between urban land use and transport systems. This highlights the need for integrated planning strategies that address urban growth while simultaneously enhancing transportation efficiency. One major challenge in Dar es Salaam is the prevalence of informal settlements, which limit the effectiveness of conventional urban mobility systems. Mohamed et al. ( 2024 ) identified urban sprawl caused by informal housing as a key factor contributing to long travel times and poor accessibility. Although transit-oriented development (TOD) presents a viable solution, its implementation within informal contexts remains limited. The study suggests that current regularization strategies provide partial opportunities for enhancing mobility, but they often fail to align with broader transportation visions. A back-casting approach that anticipates future urban populations and strategically plans new transit corridors could offer a more sustainable framework. Innovative public transport solutions are increasingly being explored to address these challenges. Liyanage et al. ( 2024 ), in their study of Melbourne, Australia, showed that on-demand transport services significantly improved travel efficiency. By leveraging smart card data, the study revealed a 30% reduction in average trip times, a rise in vehicle occupancy rates from 8% to over 50%, and a 70% decrease in emissions per passenger compared to traditional fixed-route services. These outcomes suggest that demand-responsive transport systems could offer similar benefits in Dar es Salaam, where congestion and long commute times are prevalent. The implementation of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) in Dar es Salaam provides an example of a large-scale public transport intervention aimed at improving urban mobility. Krüger et al. ( 2021 ) found that the BRT system improved commuting experiences by reducing travel time and increasing access to essential services, positively impacting livelihoods. However, the study also pointed out limitations such as the incomplete coverage of the bus network and its vulnerability to natural disasters like flooding. This suggests a need for expanded investment and enhanced resilience planning to maximize the benefits of BRT. Traffic congestion is another persistent problem in Dar es Salaam and other sub-Saharan African cities. Rwakarehe ( 2021 ) identified poorly planned infrastructure, disorganized public transport, and weak land-use regulations as key contributors to congestion. Notably, private cars account for only 8% of total transport mode share, indicating that the problem lies more in system inefficiencies than in vehicle numbers. The study recommends integrated land use and transportation planning, alongside measurable benchmarks for road network expansion. International experiences further reinforce the importance of aligning land use with transportation. Soria-Lara et al. ( 2016 ), through a case study in Granada, Spain, demonstrated that spatial metrics could improve the formulation of transport strategies by providing detailed insights into land use patterns such as diversity and connectivity. Similarly, Straatemeier and Bertolini ( 2020 ) used accessibility indicators in the Netherlands to develop coherent land-use and transportation interventions. Their findings emphasize the potential of data-driven tools in guiding integrated urban development. Institutional frameworks also shape the success of integrated planning. Duman et al. (2021) illustrated how the evolution of formal and informal institutions in the Helsinki Metropolitan Region affected land use and transportation integration. A historical perspective on institutional dynamics can reveal opportunities and constraints in planning processes. Complementing this, Hersperger et al. ( 2018 ) proposed a research agenda that differentiates between planning intentions, implementation tools, and external conditions, calling for a clearer understanding of how spatial planning drives urban change. Beyond passenger mobility, accessibility considerations are equally relevant for freight transport. Larsson and Olsson ( 2017 ) showed that accessibility measures could help implement national freight policies in Sweden, although they cautioned that data limitations and communication challenges need to be addressed for broader application. Their study suggests that freight accessibility should be factored into urban transport strategies in cities like Dar es Salaam, where goods movement is critical to economic vitality. External factors such as weather conditions also play a role in shaping public transport usage. Tao et al. ( 2018 ) examined how temperature and rainfall affected hourly bus ridership in Brisbane, Australia, finding significant variations in demand across different weather conditions. Such findings highlight the importance of incorporating environmental variables into transit service planning, especially in tropical cities like Dar es Salaam, which experience seasonal rainfall variability. The synthesis of these studies reveals that addressing urban transportation challenges in Dar es Salaam requires a holistic and integrated approach. Solutions must account for the dynamic relationship between urban growth and transport infrastructure, the unique mobility constraints of informal settlements, and the potential of innovative transport systems like BRT and on-demand services. Institutional support, data-driven planning, and responsiveness to environmental factors are equally vital. With coordinated efforts and context-sensitive strategies, Dar es Salaam can move toward a more efficient, equitable, and sustainable urban transport future. 5. Conclusions The findings from this study emphasize the potential of park and ride systems in enhancing urban mobility in Dar es Salaam, particularly along the BRT Phase 1 corridor. However, the demand for parking spaces consistently exceeds available capacity, especially during weekdays, highlighting the need for urgent infrastructural improvements. Kimara and Kariakoo lots, in particular, face overwhelming demand early in the morning, making it difficult for many commuters to access parking. While weekend usage is lower, it is clear that park and ride facilities could be better optimized during off-peak times, particularly in areas like Airtel and Ferry. To address these challenges, several recommendations emerge. First, expanding the physical capacity of park and ride lots, particularly in high-demand areas such as Kimara and Kariakoo, is essential. This could involve both expanding existing lots and developing new facilities in strategic locations. Second, there is a need for more adaptive use of the parking spaces during off-peak periods, which could include introducing flexible payment systems such as hourly parking fees. This change would address user complaints about flat daily rates that do not align with short-term parking needs. In addition, improving the BRT system's operational efficiency is critical. Reducing waiting times and alleviating overcrowding on buses would encourage more commuters to use the park and ride system as intended. Infrastructure within the parking lots must also be upgraded. The installation of protective sheds, fencing, water supplies, and better surfacing will enhance user comfort and safety, improving the overall experience. Moreover, effective management practices should be adopted to reduce misuse of parking spaces. Implementing monitoring systems to ensure that spaces are used according to the park and ride model will free up spaces for legitimate users. Additionally, enhancing security through the installation of CCTV cameras and ensuring adequate lighting will further encourage commuters to rely on park and ride facilities, knowing their vehicles are safe. Declarations Author Contribution WGK: has contributed in data collection, analysis, thesis production, and submission Declaration of Competing Interests The author declares no competing interests that could have influenced the outcomes or interpretation of this study. The research was conducted independently, fully adhering to ethical guidelines, and no financial or non-financial relationships could have posed a conflict of interest. References Andrejszki, T., Torok, A., & Csete, M. (2015). 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How to ride transport disruption–a sustainable framework for future urban mobility. Australian Planner , 54 (3), 177-185. https://doi.org/10.1080/07293682.2018.1424002 Kar, M., Sadhukhan, S., & Parida, M. (2023). Location planning of park-and-ride facilities around rapid transit systems in cities: a review. Journal of Urban Planning and Development , 149 (1), 03122004. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)UP.1943-5444.00008 Krüger, F., Titz, A., Arndt, R., Groß, F., Mehrbach, F., Pajung, V., Suda, L., Wadenstorfer, M., & Wimmer, L. (2021). The Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) in Dar es Salaam: a pilot study on critical infrastructure, sustainable urban development and livelihoods. Sustainability , 13 (3), 1058. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031058 Larsson, A., & Olsson, J. (2017). Potentials and limitations for the use of accessibility measures for national transport policy goals in freight transport and logistics: Evidence from Västra Götaland County, Sweden. Region , 4 (1), 71-92. https://doi.org/10.18335/region.v4i1.172 Liyanage, S., Dia, H., Duncan, G., & Abduljabbar, R. (2024). Evaluation of the impacts of on-demand bus services using traffic simulation. Sustainability , 16 (19), 8477. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198477 Maat, K., Van Wee, B., & Stead, D. (2005). Land use and travel behaviour: expected effects from the perspective of utility theory and activity-based theories. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design , 32 (1), 33-46. Madudova, E., & Dávid, A. (2019). Identifying the derived utility function of transport services: Case study of rail and sea container transport. Transportation Research Procedia , 40 , 1096-1102. Mchome, E. E., & Nzoya, U. W. (2023). Users’ perception on operation and performance of public transport systems in African developing countries: The Case of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) in Dar es Salaam City, Tanzania. Open Journal of Applied Sciences , 13 , 2408-2420. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojapps.2023.1312188 Mills, G., & White, P. (2018). Evaluating the long-term impacts of bus-based park and ride. Research in Transportation Economics , 69 , 536-543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.retrec.2018.07.028 Mkalawa, C. C., & Haixiao, P. (2014). Dar es Salaam city temporal growth and its influence on transportation. Urban, Planning and Transport Research , 2 (1), 423-446.https://doi.org/10.1080/21650020.2014.978951 Mohamed, F., Lwilla, R., Mnisih, Z. V., Munis, S., & Thiedeitz, M. (2024). Transport mobility analysis for informal settlements in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Tanzania Journal of Engineering and Technology , 43 (3), 84-94. https://doi.org/10.52339/tjet.v43i3.1138 Nguyen-Phuoc, D. Q., Zhou, M., Hong Chua, M., Romano Alho, A., Oh, S., Seshadri, R., & Le, D. (2023). Examining the effects of Automated Mobility-on-Demand services on public transport systems using an agent-based simulation approach. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice , 169 , 103583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2023.103583 Ortega, J., Tóth, J., Péter, T., & Moslem, S. (2020). An integrated model of park-and-ride facilities for sustainable urban mobility. Sustainability , 12 (11), 4631. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114631 Rwakarehe, E. E. (2021). Review of strategies for curbing traffic congestion in sub-Saharan Africa cities: technical and policy perspectives. Tanzania Journal of Engineering and Technology , 40 (2), 24-32. Shaheen, S., & Cohen, A. (2020). Mobility on demand (MOD) and mobility as a service (MaaS): Early understanding of shared mobility impacts and public transit partnerships. Demand for Emerging Transportation Systems , 37-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815018-4.00003-6 Soria-Lara, J. A., Aguilera-Benavente, F., & Arranz-López, A. (2016). Integrating land use and transport practice through spatial metrics. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice , 91 , 330-345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2016.06.023 Straatemeier, T., & Bertolini, L. (2020). How can planning for accessibility lead to more integrated transport and land-use strategies? Two examples from the Netherlands. European Planning Studies , 28 (9), 1713-1734. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2019.1612326 Tao, S., Corcoran, J., Rowe, F., & Hickman, M. (2018). To travel or not to travel: ‘Weather’ is the question. Modelling the effect of local weather conditions on bus ridership. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies , 86 , 147-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2017.11.005. Zietsman, J., Rilett, L. R., & Kim, S. J. (2006). Transportation corridor decision-making with multi-attribute utility theory. International Journal of Management and decision making , 7 (2-3), 254-266. United Republic of Tanzania (2003), National Transport Policy; Government Printers, Dar es Salaam Plates Plates 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Plate1.png Plate 1: Section of the Kimara park and ride lot occupied by damaged vehicles reserved by traffic police. Plate2.png Plate 2: Passenger overcrowding in BRT Buses during peak hours in Dar es Salaam. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 27 Aug, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 26 Aug, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 26 Aug, 2025 First submitted to journal 23 Aug, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7441762","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":506494904,"identity":"fa9633bc-6ab9-4661-a500-94975974c34a","order_by":0,"name":"Wilfred Gordian Kazaura","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABFElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACZuaGD0DSAMqV4OEHUQkF+LQwNs5A0mIjI9kA0mKARwsDqpY0G4MDIBqPFoPjjI3NFRXWxvz9h59JV9Qc5jE+vzrxwwMDBnl+sQPYtRxmbGw8cybdTOLAMTPJM8cO85jdeLtZAugww5mzE7BqMTvM2P6wse2wDcPBBjPJBjaQlrMbQFoSDG7j1NLY2PjvsI38YfZvkg3/gA6bcXbzD8JaGg6bGRzjMZNsbEvjMeDv3YbXFnuQloZj6caGZ3iKLRv7bHgkbvBus0gwkMDpF8n+wwcbG2qsDeedP77xZsM3CXv+/rObb/6osJHnl8auBQuQAKuUIFY5CPAfIEX1KBgFo2AUjAAAAExeY6NlnTFjAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Ardhi University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wilfred","middleName":"Gordian","lastName":"Kazaura","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-23 14:08:08","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7441762/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7441762/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":90320119,"identity":"4327183b-5250-4751-b9a7-31a50e3db750","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 10:43:05","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":42745,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFigure 2: Utility of mode shifting—private vehicles to public transport\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource: Andrejszki et.al, 2021, Modified to fit this study.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7441762/v1/56a17249debeda36188965b7.png"},{"id":90321786,"identity":"6001013c-64a0-4a71-931f-189b0749c268","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 10:59:05","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":744574,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFig. 1: Map of Dar es Salaam City in Tanzania.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7441762/v1/23f0cf4fce3f5163f1ac12ff.png"},{"id":90320131,"identity":"e837622e-a12f-436f-8104-7cedca4cf961","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 10:43:05","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":844949,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFig. 2: Location of park and ride facilities along BRT Phase 1 routes in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7441762/v1/273f7ddd3f9aeb6bc7a212a1.png"},{"id":90320853,"identity":"af78626a-5d30-491a-a4dd-ad35efaea3b7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 10:51:05","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1304101,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFig. 3: Existing development activities surrounding the Kimara park and ride lot, Dar es Salaam.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7441762/v1/6b0ff27756ec9b5883ee709d.png"},{"id":91148057,"identity":"eb873267-841a-4ba0-b083-349d8fde9e93","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-12 06:41:39","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3854800,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7441762/v1/5745a780-2fe1-4990-a360-d944d37f9f4a.pdf"},{"id":90321789,"identity":"f79ced9b-b34b-4391-a130-0a00b113869d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 10:59:05","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":603597,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlate 1: Section of the Kimara park and ride lot occupied by damaged vehicles reserved by traffic police.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Plate1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7441762/v1/15f3e6898251ee5eab630d82.png"},{"id":90320120,"identity":"7fd11b91-cce5-4913-a612-709247739a1b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 10:43:05","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":781710,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlate 2: Passenger overcrowding in BRT Buses during peak hours in Dar es Salaam.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Plate2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7441762/v1/fc1b3a965ff7af7a2c9f24ee.png"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Evaluating the role of park and ride facilities in enhancing urban mobility A case study of Dar es Salaam City BRT Phase 1, Tanzania","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eUrban centres across the Global South are undergoing rapid transformations, driven by accelerated population growth and urbanization. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania's commercial capital, exemplifies this trend, with projections indicating its evolution into a megacity by 2030. This expansion has intensified the demand for efficient and sustainable transportation systems to accommodate the mobility needs of its burgeoning population. In response, the city introduced the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in 2016, aiming to enhance urban mobility and alleviate congestion. Characterized by dedicated lanes and high-capacity buses, the BRT was envisioned as a reliable alternative to existing public transport options.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Tanzania, park and ride option is stipulated in The National Transport Policy of 2003 section 5.4.2.1. It provide for the solution of reducing traffic congestion toward the Central Business District. Due to the rapid increase of car ownership and use, the existing road capacities has not been able to cope with vehicle influx. The policy provide for park and ride facilities to minimize traffic congestion through the pursuance of the following policy direction:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ei) Definition of proper space for private vehicle parking to attain smooth traffic flow that could facilitate implementation of traffic management measures alongside the major roads and improve utilization of the limited road capacities.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eii) Designation and development of parking spaces in any land parcels along the highways, BRT and expressways. The parking should attractive, safe, accessible and affordable in terms of costs to allow individual vehicle owners to park and board public buses in more efficient ways.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eiii) Promotion of public transport as the most effective and efficient means of travel in urban areas and discourage private vehicles particularly in areas prone to acute congestion especially during peak hours. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.2 Theory underpinning the study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1.2.1 Utility theory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe theory advocates utility of drivers and other users shifting from private vehicles/cars to public transport (BRT). The distance from the parking to the riding station, the parking fee, security within the parking lot, time to secure parking space, and the environmental friendliness which include condition and services within the parking lot are among the key factors that influence the decision of mode shifting (Andrejszki et.al, 2015; Madudova \u0026amp; Dávid, 2019).\u0026nbsp;The theory consider social-economic attributes, environmental conditions and services available in the park and ride lot (Zietsman et.al, 2006; Maat et.al., 2005).\u0026nbsp;Distance and parking fee rates are among of the important factors that maximize the utility of park and ride users (Li et.al, 2009), however,\u0026nbsp;quality and condition of parking lot together with safety and security are the contributing factors (Andrejszki et.al, 2015).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs indicated in Figure 2, the utility of the vehicle users in making decision shifting from private car to public transport \u0026nbsp;is influenced by safety and security within the lot, walking distance from the parking to the bus stations, environmental condition and services available including water, lighting, public toilets, and the parking fee rates. (Cornejo, et. El, 2014). Chen and Kim, (2018)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe implementation of the BRT system in Dar es Salaam has been the subject of various studies assessing its impact on urban development and residents' livelihoods. Krüger et al. (2021) conducted a pilot study examining the BRT as a component of critical infrastructure. Their research highlighted improvements in commuting times and access to basic services, contributing to enhanced urban livelihoods. However, the study also identified challenges, including the need for network expansion and vulnerabilities to natural events like flooding. The authors emphasized the importance of considering the BRT within the broader context of urban infrastructure and the necessity for further research into its comprehensive impacts on urban life.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the advancements brought about by the BRT system, operational challenges persist. Mchome and Nzoya (2023) explored setbacks associated with BRT systems in African developing countries, noting issues such as prolonged waiting times, overcrowding during peak hours, and safety concerns. Their study recommended measures including the introduction of passenger information displays, automated fare collection systems, and bus priority signals to enhance efficiency and commuter satisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo complement existing transport infrastructure and bolster network resilience, Henry et al. (2022) examined the potential of on-demand park-and-ride systems. Their research formulated a stochastic facility location problem to optimize the placement of park-and-ride facilities, taking into account users' mode choices and varying traffic conditions. The findings suggested that such systems could capture a considerable proportion of users during disrupted traffic conditions, thereby enhancing overall network resilience. In the context of integrating park-and-ride systems with existing public transportation, Diputra and RakaMandi (2023) proposed a framework for integrated parking planning in Bali's Metropolitan Sarbagita area. Their study focused on physical integration with walking, biking, and park-and-ride options, aiming to provide sustainable mobility and transportation equity. The research emphasized the importance of operational and policy-level integration for successful implementation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOrtega et al. (2020) highlighted the role of park-and-ride systems within Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs) as a strategy to mitigate the adverse effects of private vehicles in Central Business Districts. Their integrated model estimated potential demand for park-and-ride facilities in Cuenca, Ecuador, demonstrating the effectiveness of such systems in sustainable urban planning. Examining the long-term impacts of bus-based park-and-ride schemes, Mills and White (2018) presented a case study of the Chelmsford system in the UK. Despite observing a net increase in passenger car unit-kilometres, the study found an overall economic benefit due to reduced congestion in urban corridors. The research emphasized the importance of evaluating the broader impacts of park-and-ride systems beyond immediate traffic metrics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLooking towards future urban transportation, Ceder (2021) reviewed potential developments, emphasizing the inefficiency of private cars and advocating for public transport modes, including metro, bus, light rail, and ridesharing services. The study proposed a visionary approach to urban mobility, focusing on optimizing connectivity and achieving seamless door-to-door travel experiences. Kane and Whitehead (2017) discussed the challenges and opportunities presented by disruptive technologies in urban transport systems, such as vehicle electrification, autonomous vehicles, and the sharing economy. They stressed the role of urban planners and policymakers in shaping outcomes to avoid non-optimal scenarios and ensure the benefits of these disruptions are realized.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudies provide a comprehensive review of practices in selecting appropriate locations for park-and-ride facilities. For instance, a study by Kar et al. (2023) offers insights into factors influencing the identification of potential sites and the development of commuter behaviour models, aiding planners and policymakers in developing context-specific guidelines. Exploring the impact of Automated Mobility-on-Demand (AMOD) services, Nguyen-Phuoc et al. (2023) utilized agent-based microsimulation to assess their effects on public transport systems. The study found that full automation scenarios could reduce congestion and increase public transport usage, while partial automation might lead to higher travel demand and decreased public transport share. These findings have implications for urban and transport planners considering the integration of AMOD services. Shaheen and Cohen (2020) discussed the transformative effects of technology on mobility, highlighting the rise of shared and on-demand mobility services. They examined the evolving concepts of Mobility on Demand (MOD) and Mobility as a Service (MaaS), exploring their potential to reinvent public transit by enhancing competitiveness with private vehicle ownership through partnerships and automation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe integration of park-and-ride systems with existing public transport infrastructure, as observed in Dar es Salaam's BRT system, presents avenues to improve urban mobility and resilience. However, challenges such as operational inefficiencies, safety concerns, and the necessity for strategic planning remain. Drawing from global experiences and research, it is evident that a multifaceted approach involving infrastructure development, policy integration, and technological innovation is essential for the successful implementation and sustainability of such systems. Therefore, this study evaluated the operational efficiency, capacity utilization, and management challenges of the park-and-ride facilities along the BRT routes in Dar es Salaam. Specifically, the study aimed to evaluate the existing demand and usage patterns of park-and-ride facilities at selected BRT terminals in Dar es Salaam, particularly focusing on Kimara, Kariakoo, Airtel, and Ferry lots across different days of the week. It further examined factors influencing the usefulness of these facilities, such as affordability, security provisions, and proximity to BRT terminals, through a combination of field observations and interviews with key stakeholders. The study also evaluated the extent to which users of park-and-ride facilities proceeded to utilize the BRT system after parking, while identifying patterns of unintended use—such as by nearby workers or residents—that reduced available space for transit users. In addition, operational and infrastructural challenges affecting the efficiency and satisfaction levels of park-and-ride services were investigated, including the condition of physical infrastructure, facility management practices, and coordination with BRT operations. Based on these insights, the study generated practical recommendations aimed at enhancing the functionality, accessibility, and service delivery of park-and-ride lots as an integral component of Dar es Salaam’s sustainable urban transport strategy.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Study areas\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania's rapidly growing economic hub, located at 6\u0026deg;48' S and 39\u0026deg;17' E. Dar es Salaam is a city characterized by rapid population growth and urbanization. According to the 2022 Population Census Report, the city's population has risen significantly, from 4.3\u0026nbsp;million in 2012 to 5.4\u0026nbsp;million in 2022, reflecting an annual growth rate of 5.6%. Car ownership is approximately 35 vehicles per 1,000 people. The city is also home to a well-developed transportation infrastructure, including roads, railways, airports, and harbours, with a total road network covering about 619 kilometres. Of this, 442 kilometres are paved, while 177 kilometres remain unpaved.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn response to the growing transportation needs, Dar es Salaam has implemented the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system, which is planned in three phases. The first phase, completed along Morogoro, Msimbazi, and Kawawa roads, covers 20.9 kilometres. The ongoing second phase involves Kilwa Road, Chang\u0026rsquo;ombe Road, Nyerere Road, and New Bagamoyo Road, which will ultimately cover about 163.1 kilometres. The third phase, planned for completion in peri-urban areas, will connect Bagamoyo, Kisarawe, and Kibaha centres in the Coastal region, covering an additional 142.2 kilometres. The BRT system, which is designed to improve urban mobility, also integrates park-and-ride facilities at major terminals, supporting the convenience of commuters and reducing congestion in the city (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Study design and data collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study utilized a mixed-methods research design, combining both qualitative and quantitative approaches to gather a comprehensive set of data. The qualitative approach aimed to capture descriptive information about the management, operations, and challenges associated with the parking facilities located along the BRT routes. The quantitative component was used to collect numerical data, such as the number of vehicles parked, parking durations, and parking fees, which were crucial for understanding the efficiency of the facilities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeographical Information System (GIS) tools were employed to assess the spatial distribution and physical characteristics of the park-and-ride facilities. GIS allowed for the precise measurement of parking lot sizes, the identification of available amenities, and the analysis of the relationship between parking facilities and the urban environment. Additionally, data on the locations of the parking lots were collected using handheld GPS devices, which enabled the accurate mapping of the parking lots within the city.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study focused on four major park-and-ride terminals within the first phase of the BRT system: Kimara, Kivukoni, Morocco, and Gerezani. The Kivukoni terminal, also known as Ferry, covers 700 square meters and accommodates 86 vehicles. The Kimara terminal, with a parking capacity for 120 vehicles, spans 1,000 square meters. The Morocco terminal, known as Airtel, covers 500 square meters and holds 60 vehicles, while the Gerezani terminal, named Kariakoo, is the largest, with a coverage area of 1,870 square meters and a capacity of 230 vehicles. On average, each vehicle occupies 8.1 square meters of parking space (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition to the GIS analysis, data were collected through interviews with key stakeholders. These included two operators from each of the four parking lots, local ward and sub-ward officials, and representatives from the Dar es Salaam Rapid Transit (DART), the Land Transport Regulatory Authority (LATRA), and the Tanzania National Roads Agency (TANROADS). The interviews aimed to gather insights into the operational challenges, security concerns, and management issues facing the park-and-ride facilities. These qualitative data were supplemented with information on the existing infrastructure, security conditions, and the perceived effectiveness of the current systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStructured open-ended questionnaires were administered to 120 drivers who regularly used the park-and-ride lots. The surveys were conducted at different times of the day to capture variations in parking patterns and demand. Forty questionnaires were distributed in the morning (6:00 AM to 10:00 AM), forty in the noon hours (12:00 PM to 2:00 PM), and forty in the late afternoon (4:00 PM to 6:00 PM). The survey aimed to gather data on vehicle types, parking durations, parking fees, and user satisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data on parking lot usage, including the number of vehicles parked per day and the associated parking fees, were also obtained from the parking registers. This data provided a quantitative assessment of parking lot capacity and utilization rates, which were essential for evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of the park-and-ride facilities in Dar es Salaam. Existing designs and planning documents for the parking lots were reviewed in detail to understand the layout and operational strategies. This was complemented by physical observations and field mapping to assess the conditions of the parking lots, the availability of supporting infrastructure (e.g., lighting, security), and the level of service provided to users. These field observations also allowed for an assessment of how the facilities align with the broader urban mobility framework.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAttribute data for the parking lots, such as parking capacity and the facilities available, were collected using the Open Data Kit (ODK) application. This mobile data collection tool facilitated the systematic gathering of structured information in the field. All data collected through this method were then processed and analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), Microsoft Excel, and Quantum Geographic Information System (QGIS). SPSS was employed for the statistical analysis of survey responses, while QGIS was used to map and analyze the spatial distribution of the parking lots and their surrounding urban context.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results were presented through various formats, including maps, tables, and figures, to provide a clear understanding of the parking system\u0026rsquo;s operational status, usage patterns, and spatial distribution. The analysis also highlighted key areas for improvement in the integration of park-and-ride facilities within the broader BRT network and urban transportation infrastructure of Dar es Salaam. The findings offer valuable insights for policymakers, urban planners, and transportation authorities seeking to enhance the city\u0026rsquo;s public transport system and address the growing demand for efficient and sustainable transportation options.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Park and Ride Service Demand\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe findings from Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e reveal that the demand for park and ride services in Dar es Salaam, particularly along the BRT Phase 1 corridor, is significantly higher than the current capacity of the parking lots provided. On working days (Monday to Friday), all four studied lots\u0026mdash;Kimara, Kariakoo, Airtel, and Ferry\u0026mdash;experience a surge in demand during the early morning hours, often reaching full capacity between 6:30 a.m. and 7:30 a.m. This reflects a heavy reliance on the park and ride system by commuters who use private vehicles from residential areas before transferring to BRT buses for access to the central business district and other destinations.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe situation slightly improves on weekends. On Saturdays, Kimara and Kariakoo lots remain busy but provide slightly more flexibility in terms of parking time\u0026mdash;up to around 7.00 a.m. to 7.30 a.m.\u0026mdash;while Airtel and Ferry lots are less congested and only fill up later in the morning, between 10.00 a.m. and 10.30 a.m. Sundays show even lower usage in Airtel and Ferry lots, where parking spaces remain largely available throughout the day, suggesting a drop in weekday commuting patterns and reduced weekend travel by private vehicles in those areas.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe consistently high demand in Kimara and Kariakoo lots is closely linked to surrounding land use and urban activity. For example, the Kimara lot is adjacent to critical facilities such as religious centers, a police station, a health center, and retail outlets (as depicted in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). These establishments attract people throughout the week, including weekends, thus maintaining steady demand for parking. Similarly, the Kariakoo lot\u0026rsquo;s proximity to one of Dar es Salaam\u0026apos;s busiest commercial hubs ensures that the space remains in high demand.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the relatively lower weekend demand at Airtel and Ferry lots may reflect their locations, which are less commercially active or lacking significant public institutions in the immediate vicinity. Nevertheless, even these lots experience some weekend usage spikes around mid-morning, possibly linked to occasional market visits or social activities. A practical challenge observed is the alternative use of designated park and ride spaces for storing damaged or impounded vehicles, particularly in Kimara (as shown in Plate 1). This dual usage further reduces the number of available parking slots for daily commuters, exacerbating the supply-demand gap in already constrained facilities. The study highlights that while park and ride lots are effectively utilized and play a vital role in urban mobility during working days, the mismatch between demand and capacity, particularly in Kimara and Kariakoo, calls for urgent measures to expand lot capacities and improve parking management. Additionally, weekend usage trends suggest opportunities for adaptive use or revenue generation strategies during off-peak periods.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaximum time to secure a parking space at selected park and ride lots in Dar es Salaam by day of the week\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDays in the week\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaximum time to secure parking space\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKimara\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKariakoo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAirtel\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFerry\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWorking days: Monday-Friday\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.30 a.m.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.30 a.m.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.30 a.m.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.00 a.m.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSaturdays\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.30 a.m.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.00 a.m.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.30 a.m.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.00 a.m.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSundays\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.30 a.m.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.30 a.m.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvailable all the time\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvailable all the time\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Usefulness of park and ride lots\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe effectiveness and frequent use of park and ride lots in Dar es Salaam are influenced by several interrelated factors as reported by parking operators and officers from TANROADS. One of the key factors is the affordability of parking fees. The daily charges across different lots range from 2,000 to 4,000 Tanzanian Shillings (approximately \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e0.87 to \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1.74). Specifically, Kimara charges 2,000 TZS (\u0026asymp; \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e0.87), Airtel 3,000 TZS (\u0026asymp; \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1.30), Ferry 3,500 TZS (\u0026asymp; \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1.52), and Kariakoo 4,000 TZS (\u0026asymp; \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1.74) per day. These charges are generally considered affordable and acceptable by most users. However, Kimara is notably more popular due to its lower rate. Despite the affordability, many drivers expressed a preference for hourly charges instead of the current flat daily rate, as some vehicles are parked for only a few hours yet are charged the full-day fee. The suggestion to adopt an hourly payment model was widely supported among the respondents.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecurity within the parking lots is another major factor influencing usability. All park and ride lots are secured by private firms contracted by the government, providing users with confidence to leave their vehicles for extended periods. The presence of vigilant guards and clear contractual terms\u0026mdash;requiring the firms to compensate for any damages\u0026mdash;have ensured a crime-free environment within the lots. Although there have been no reported cases of theft or vandalism, plans are underway to install CCTV cameras to further strengthen the security infrastructure.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe proximity of parking lots to BRT terminals also contributes significantly to their usefulness. Short walking distances from the lots to the terminals make the system convenient and user-friendly. Kimara is approximately 150 meters from the terminal, Airtel 87 meters, and Ferry 120 meters. The exception is Kariakoo, which is around 450 meters from the Gerezani terminal, representing the longest distance among the four. Nonetheless, the generally short walking distances eliminate the need for additional transport and encourage more people to use the park and ride service.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Operational and infrastructure challenges of park and ride lots in Dar es Salaam\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDespite their intended function as key nodes for modal shift in urban mobility, the park and ride facilities associated with the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in Dar es Salaam face several critical challenges that limit their effectiveness. These challenges are classified into three main categories: inappropriate utilization of parking space, inefficiencies within the BRT service, and infrastructural inadequacies of the parking lots themselves.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3.1 Misuse of parking facilities\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOne of the primary challenges is the mismatch between the intended and actual use of the park and ride lots. The study found that only 44% of vehicle owners using the parking facilities continued their journey using the BRT buses. The remaining 56% consisted of individuals working in nearby establishments\u0026mdash;such as businesses and institutions\u0026mdash;who utilized the lots for general parking rather than for integrating with the BRT system. This deviation undermines the purpose of the park and ride scheme, which is to reduce vehicular congestion in central urban areas through modal transfer. As noted by the operator of the Ferry parking lot: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;It is difficult to determine whether a driver intends to use the BRT system after parking, hence lots are often occupied by unintended users.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e This indiscriminate use reduces availability for legitimate park and ride users and challenges the effectiveness of the service.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3.2 Operational limitations of the BRT system\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe efficiency of park and ride lots is further compromised by service-related issues within the BRT system. Approximately 90% of respondents cited extended waiting times at terminals and severe passenger congestion on buses, especially during peak hours and weekends. Observations during the study indicated waiting times ranging from 15 to 30 minutes during morning and evening rush hours. Plate 2 illustrates the extent of overcrowding in BRT buses, particularly during peak travel times. Such operational inefficiencies discourage potential users from opting for the BRT, thereby reducing the attractiveness and effectiveness of the park and ride model as a sustainable urban transport solution.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3.3 Infrastructural deficiencies within parking lots\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe condition of the physical infrastructure within the parking lots presents a substantial barrier to user satisfaction. All lots assessed in this study were surfaced with either gravel or bare earth, rendering them susceptible to significant deterioration during the rainy season. Users frequently reported challenges such as mud, potholes, and waterlogging, which negatively affect accessibility and convenience. Moreover, the absence of essential amenities such as toilets, water supply, boundary fencing, and car sheds further compromises user comfort and safety. Operators acknowledged these deficiencies and emphasized the need for major improvements, including the installation of protective sheds and secure fencing to enhance the overall quality and usability of the facilities.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhile the park and ride system in Dar es Salaam has significant potential to enhance urban mobility through integrated transport, its current effectiveness is limited by misuse of parking space, inefficiencies in the BRT service, and infrastructural shortfalls. Addressing these challenges is essential for optimizing the role of park and ride facilities in supporting sustainable urban transport strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eUrban transportation systems in rapidly growing cities, particularly in the Global South, face multifaceted challenges that necessitate innovative and context-sensitive solutions. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania\u0026rsquo;s largest city, exemplifies these complexities, grappling with issues of urban sprawl, informal settlements, and inadequate infrastructure. Insights from recent studies reveal a strong interplay between transportation planning, land use, and urban development in the city.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe interrelationship between urban expansion and transportation infrastructure is evident in Dar es Salaam\u0026rsquo;s development trajectory. Mkalawa and Haixiao (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) analyzed the city\u0026rsquo;s growth from 1945 to 2012, demonstrating how transportation demand and infrastructure have evolved alongside population increases. They observed that residential expansion was influenced not only by population growth but also by the availability and accessibility of transport infrastructure, emphasizing the mutual dependency between urban land use and transport systems. This highlights the need for integrated planning strategies that address urban growth while simultaneously enhancing transportation efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne major challenge in Dar es Salaam is the prevalence of informal settlements, which limit the effectiveness of conventional urban mobility systems. Mohamed et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) identified urban sprawl caused by informal housing as a key factor contributing to long travel times and poor accessibility. Although transit-oriented development (TOD) presents a viable solution, its implementation within informal contexts remains limited. The study suggests that current regularization strategies provide partial opportunities for enhancing mobility, but they often fail to align with broader transportation visions. A back-casting approach that anticipates future urban populations and strategically plans new transit corridors could offer a more sustainable framework.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInnovative public transport solutions are increasingly being explored to address these challenges. Liyanage et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), in their study of Melbourne, Australia, showed that on-demand transport services significantly improved travel efficiency. By leveraging smart card data, the study revealed a 30% reduction in average trip times, a rise in vehicle occupancy rates from 8% to over 50%, and a 70% decrease in emissions per passenger compared to traditional fixed-route services. These outcomes suggest that demand-responsive transport systems could offer similar benefits in Dar es Salaam, where congestion and long commute times are prevalent.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe implementation of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) in Dar es Salaam provides an example of a large-scale public transport intervention aimed at improving urban mobility. Kr\u0026uuml;ger et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) found that the BRT system improved commuting experiences by reducing travel time and increasing access to essential services, positively impacting livelihoods. However, the study also pointed out limitations such as the incomplete coverage of the bus network and its vulnerability to natural disasters like flooding. This suggests a need for expanded investment and enhanced resilience planning to maximize the benefits of BRT.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTraffic congestion is another persistent problem in Dar es Salaam and other sub-Saharan African cities. Rwakarehe (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) identified poorly planned infrastructure, disorganized public transport, and weak land-use regulations as key contributors to congestion. Notably, private cars account for only 8% of total transport mode share, indicating that the problem lies more in system inefficiencies than in vehicle numbers. The study recommends integrated land use and transportation planning, alongside measurable benchmarks for road network expansion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInternational experiences further reinforce the importance of aligning land use with transportation. Soria-Lara et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), through a case study in Granada, Spain, demonstrated that spatial metrics could improve the formulation of transport strategies by providing detailed insights into land use patterns such as diversity and connectivity. Similarly, Straatemeier and Bertolini (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) used accessibility indicators in the Netherlands to develop coherent land-use and transportation interventions. Their findings emphasize the potential of data-driven tools in guiding integrated urban development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInstitutional frameworks also shape the success of integrated planning. Duman et al. (2021) illustrated how the evolution of formal and informal institutions in the Helsinki Metropolitan Region affected land use and transportation integration. A historical perspective on institutional dynamics can reveal opportunities and constraints in planning processes. Complementing this, Hersperger et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) proposed a research agenda that differentiates between planning intentions, implementation tools, and external conditions, calling for a clearer understanding of how spatial planning drives urban change.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBeyond passenger mobility, accessibility considerations are equally relevant for freight transport. Larsson and Olsson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) showed that accessibility measures could help implement national freight policies in Sweden, although they cautioned that data limitations and communication challenges need to be addressed for broader application. Their study suggests that freight accessibility should be factored into urban transport strategies in cities like Dar es Salaam, where goods movement is critical to economic vitality.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExternal factors such as weather conditions also play a role in shaping public transport usage. Tao et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) examined how temperature and rainfall affected hourly bus ridership in Brisbane, Australia, finding significant variations in demand across different weather conditions. Such findings highlight the importance of incorporating environmental variables into transit service planning, especially in tropical cities like Dar es Salaam, which experience seasonal rainfall variability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe synthesis of these studies reveals that addressing urban transportation challenges in Dar es Salaam requires a holistic and integrated approach. Solutions must account for the dynamic relationship between urban growth and transport infrastructure, the unique mobility constraints of informal settlements, and the potential of innovative transport systems like BRT and on-demand services. Institutional support, data-driven planning, and responsiveness to environmental factors are equally vital. With coordinated efforts and context-sensitive strategies, Dar es Salaam can move toward a more efficient, equitable, and sustainable urban transport future.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings from this study emphasize the potential of park and ride systems in enhancing urban mobility in Dar es Salaam, particularly along the BRT Phase 1 corridor. However, the demand for parking spaces consistently exceeds available capacity, especially during weekdays, highlighting the need for urgent infrastructural improvements. Kimara and Kariakoo lots, in particular, face overwhelming demand early in the morning, making it difficult for many commuters to access parking. While weekend usage is lower, it is clear that park and ride facilities could be better optimized during off-peak times, particularly in areas like Airtel and Ferry.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo address these challenges, several recommendations emerge. First, expanding the physical capacity of park and ride lots, particularly in high-demand areas such as Kimara and Kariakoo, is essential. This could involve both expanding existing lots and developing new facilities in strategic locations. Second, there is a need for more adaptive use of the parking spaces during off-peak periods, which could include introducing flexible payment systems such as hourly parking fees. This change would address user complaints about flat daily rates that do not align with short-term parking needs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition, improving the BRT system's operational efficiency is critical. Reducing waiting times and alleviating overcrowding on buses would encourage more commuters to use the park and ride system as intended. Infrastructure within the parking lots must also be upgraded. The installation of protective sheds, fencing, water supplies, and better surfacing will enhance user comfort and safety, improving the overall experience. Moreover, effective management practices should be adopted to reduce misuse of parking spaces. Implementing monitoring systems to ensure that spaces are used according to the park and ride model will free up spaces for legitimate users. Additionally, enhancing security through the installation of CCTV cameras and ensuring adequate lighting will further encourage commuters to rely on park and ride facilities, knowing their vehicles are safe.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWGK: has contributed in data collection, analysis, thesis production, and submission\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author declares no competing interests that could have influenced the outcomes or interpretation of this study. The research was conducted independently, fully adhering to ethical guidelines, and no financial or non-financial relationships could have posed a conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAndrejszki, T., Torok, A., \u0026amp; Csete, M. (2015). 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Transportation corridor decision-making with multi-attribute utility theory. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Management and decision making\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e7\u003c/em\u003e(2-3), 254-266.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUnited Republic of Tanzania (2003), National Transport Policy; Government Printers, Dar es Salaam\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Plates","content":"\u003cp\u003ePlates 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-cities","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Cities](https://www.springer.com/journal/44327)","snPcode":"44327","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44327/3","title":"Discover Cities","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Bus Rapid Transit system, Park and ride, Security, Traffic congestion, Urban mobility","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7441762/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7441762/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePark and ride systems play a growing role in urban mobility, particularly in rapidly urbanizing cities including Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. This study assessed the demand, functionality, and operational challenges of park and ride facilities along the BRT corridor. The research aimed to evaluate service utilization, user perceptions and infrastructural adequacy to inform strategies for enhancing integrated transport systems. Data were collected through structured interviews with parking operators, government officials, and park and ride users. Descriptive statistical tools were used to summarize utilization trends, and qualitative analysis contextualize operational challenges. Findings revealed that demand for park and ride services exceeds current capacity, especially on weekdays, lots occupied as early as 6.30 a.m. in contrast to weekends. About 56% of users utilize parking lots without connecting to BRT services. Security, affordability and proximity to terminals influenced user satisfaction. However, deficiencies such as gravel surfaces, lack of amenities, and misuse of space by storage of impounded vehicles, compromised facility performance. Moreover, BRT operational delays and overcrowding during peak periods deterred modal shift behaviour. The potential of park and ride schemes in urban transport call for adaptive management strategies, including flexible fee structures and space monitoring, that enhance system efficiency and promote sustainable mobility transitions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evaluating the role of park and ride facilities in enhancing urban mobility A case study of Dar es Salaam City BRT Phase 1, Tanzania","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-01 10:43:00","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7441762/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-08-27T16:37:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-08-26T14:49:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-08-26T14:49:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Cities","date":"2025-08-23T13:55:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-cities","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Cities](https://www.springer.com/journal/44327)","snPcode":"44327","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/44327/3","title":"Discover Cities","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7fe5c57d-a4ff-442a-8e19-c9316079166b","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 1st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-23T12:10:29+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-01 10:43:00","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7441762","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7441762","identity":"rs-7441762","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}