Carbon storage and fluxes from Sphagnum peatlands of the Bogong High Plains, Australia

Carbon storage and fluxes from Sphagnum peatlands of the Bogong High Plains, Australia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Carbon storage and fluxes from Sphagnum peatlands of the Bogong High Plains, Australia Sarah Treby, Meeruppage Gunawardhana, Samantha Grover, Paul Carnell This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4609071/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Oct, 2024 Read the published version in Environmental Processes → Version 1 posted 11 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Australian alpine peatlands are critically important ecosystems that deliver a range of valuable services. However, our understanding of these services in Australia, particularly peatland carbon cycling, is lacking. Here, we investigated quantified peat soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) concentrations, C:N ratios, and C density in eight Sphagnum -dominated peatlands on the Bogong High Plains, southeastern Australia. Soil C and N concentrations averaged 16.5 ± 13.2% and 0.6 ± 0.4%, respectively. C:N ratios averaged 30.9 ± 20.4, and C density averaged 46.6 ± 20.7 mg C cm − 3 . Our findings suggest that (1) these peatlands are significant C stores; (2) peat biogeochemistry is highly variable between sites, even at small spatial scales; and (3) while not a direct focus of the study, peat depths in this area were relatively shallow, ranging from 30–60 cm, possibly due to previous disturbance. Additionally, we present preliminary data investigating CO 2 and CH 4 fluxes at these sites. We recommend that future research includes (1) age dating peat cores to better understand the role of disturbance in peat accumulation and loss; and (2) long-term C flux studies at multiple peatland sites. Alpine bog carbon emissions soil carbon Sphagnum subalpine Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Peatlands are among the most critical ecosystems in the world for sequestering carbon; the balance between peat carbon accumulation and release influences the global carbon cycle and, in turn, climate change. Peat forms under conditions where waterlogging, low temperatures, and/or low pH prevent decomposition, leading to biomass accumulation that results in significant reservoirs of carbon (Gorham, 1957 ). Intact peatlands sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in plants, which is then retained as soil organic carbon, thus intact peatlands function as net carbon (C) sinks (Moore, 2002 ). Stored carbon can be emitted back to the atmosphere through ecosystem respiration of CO 2 (both heterotrophic and autotrophic) and (microbially-driven) methanogenesis (Hugelius et al., 2020 ; Z. Yu et al., 2010 ). Undisturbed, intact peatlands are maintained under permanently or temporarily water saturated conditions and methanogenic processes are accelerated under favourable anaerobic environments (Wieder & Vitt, 2006 ), making them a substantial source of methane (CH 4 ) to the atmosphere (Frolking et al., 2011 ). A review of natural northern peatlands revealed that they are, on average, a significant source of atmospheric carbon, emitting between 7.6 and 15.7 g C m − 2 yr − 1 (Abdalla et al., 2016 ). Additionally, disturbed and/or degraded peatlands can also lose significant amounts of carbon through fluvial exports of both particulate and dissolved organic carbon (POC and DOC, respectively) (Olefeldt et al., 2012 ). Australian peatlands are predominantly temperate climate alpine, subalpine, or montane ecosystems found at elevations above 750 m (Hope & Nanson, 2014 ). Peatlands in mainland Australia are commonly dominated by Sphagnum moss and shrub communities, fed by groundwater seepage and to a lesser extent, rainfall, and are characteristically low-nutrient and low-pH (Silvester, 2009 ; Wahren et al., 1999 ). Peat depths in Australian Sphagnum peatlands are typically shallow, from 0.9–1.4 m (Hope & Nanson, 2014 ). The Alpine and Subalpine Sphagnum Shrub Bogs and Associated Communities were listed, under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 , for their uniqueness, biodiversity provisioning, and substantial loss and degradation (Threatened Species Scientific Committee, 2009 ). Alpine peatlands in Australia play a critical role in the regulation of water from the highest parts of the country into the Murray-Darling Basin, the most significant catchment in eastern Australia for food production (Murray Darling Basin Authority, 2016 ). In Victoria, Sphagnum bogs occur over a 10,000 km range (Department of Energy Environment and Climate Action, 2019 ), with an estimated 2,700 ha occurring above 1000 m ASL (Lawrence et al., 2009 ), and are found predominantly within the Alpine National Park. The Australian Alps, including peatlands, are highly vulnerable to disturbance, including current and historic grazing (Driscoll et al., 2019 ; Pemberton, 2005 ; Treby & Grover, 2023 ) wildfire (Hope et al., 2005 ; Whinam et al., 2010 ), and climate change (Good et al., 2010 ). To date, there have been very few studies focused on carbon cycling in Australian alpine peatlands. Grover & Baldock ( 2010 , 2012 ) report on the C and N concentrations, CO 2 emissions (ecosystem respiration; ER), and chemical composition of a subalpine peatland of the Wellington Plains, Victoria. Hope and Nanson ( 2014 ) quantified peatland carbon stocks and sequestration in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales. In their state-wide wetland carbon surveys, Carnell et al. ( 2018 ) reported higher carbon storage at Victorian alpine and subalpine wetlands than any other wetland type. Nyberg & Hovenden ( 2020 ) report a 28% increase in soil respiration from a Tasmanian peatland under experimental warming. Recent work by Treby and Grover ( 2023 ) is the first to report carbon fluxes (CO 2 and CH 4 ) from Australian Sphagnum peatlands. Given the vulnerability of alpine peatlands and the uncertainty of peatland resilience to climate change (e.g. Rowland et al., 2023 ), there remains a critical need to better understand variability in peatland carbon storage and emissions in Australia. Baseline data on carbon storage and emissions is essential for determining how peatland carbon cycling is affected by disturbance (i.e., the vulnerability of the peatland carbon reservoir), including in response to: (1) increased atmospheric carbon concentrations and global warming feedback loops arising from peatland loss & degradation, and (2) peatland restoration approaches which aim to maintain or enhance the carbon sequestration capacity and/or minimise carbon loss from peatlands. Furthermore, the opportunities to align peatland conservation and restoration with national and global emission reduction targets and incentive schemes can only be realised when a solid understanding of current carbon emissions from Australian peatlands is gained. In the present study, our primary objective was to understand the carbon cycling function of alpine and subalpine peatlands in Australia, where peatland biogeochemistry research remains in its infancy. Specifically, we investigated eight Sphagnum -dominated peatlands on the Bogong High Plains of Victoria, Australia, sampled in March 2018. We quantified and compared soil C, N, C:N, and fluxes of CO 2 (ecosystem respiration; ER or R eco ) and CH 4 between sites. Additionally, we report ER, gross primary productivity (GPP) and net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CO 2 from the Alpine Peatland eddy covariance (EC) flux tower (TERN OzFlux site AU-APL) over the same sampling period, to (1) provide insight into potential rates of NEE and GPP at the remaining sites, and (2) consider the extrapolative potential of carbon fluxes measured by the EC method at the Alpine Peatland tower (considered a reference peatland in very good condition (Gunawardhana et al., 2021 )) to other peatlands in the region. Methods Study area The Bogong High Plains form part of the Australian Alps and are located within the Alpine National Park in northeast Victoria, Australia. The region encompasses approximately 120 km 2 , at 1650–1850 m ASL (McCartney et al., 2014 ) and is relatively dense in peatlands, which cover 10% of the land area (McDougall, 1982 ). Indeed, almost half of Victoria’s total peatland area (1117 ha of a total 2713 ha) occurs within the Bogong High Plains area (Lawrence et al., 2009 ). Average daily minimum and maximum temperatures in the area range from − 2.9 to 1.2˚C in July (austral winter), and 8.9 to 17.8˚C in January (austral summer), with mean annual precipitation of 1358 mm (Bureau of Meteorology, 2022 ). Most peatlands in Victoria are less than 1 ha in area (Lawrence et al 2009 ), and while they are defined in Australia as Alpine and Subalpine Sphagnum Shrub Bogs and Associated Communities (Threatened Species Scientific Committee), they are actually low-nutrient fens, being fed by groundwater springs with additional water inputs from precipitation. Peatlands on the Bogong High Plains occur at elevations ranging from ~ 1350–1800 m, and mostly occur over underlying Gneiss, Schist, and Granadiorite (Lawrence et al., 2009 ; Morand, 1990 ). Sphagnum peatlands are characterised by microtopography comprised of hummocks, or peat mounds, hollows – flat, waterlogged areas, and lawns – intermediate substrata (Oke & Hager, 2020 ). Vegetation communities are made up of Sphagnum mosses (usually S. cristatum ), interspersed with vascular plants (such as Empodisma minus, Baeckea gunniana , and Dracophyllum continentis ) which provide structure to the peatland and enhance photosynthetic activity while protecting against evaporative drying (Harley et al., 1989 ; McNeil & Waddington, 2003 ; Turetsky et al., 2012a ) Site selection and sampling Sampling was carried out over two days at eight peatland sites on the Bogong High Plains from May 23–24, 2018, in the area northeast of the Rocky Valley Dam (Fig. 1 ). Sites included a range of slope and valley alpine and subalpine Sphagnum shrub bogs (per the definitions in Hope and Nanson ( 2014 )), located at elevations between 1690–1750 m (Table S1 ; Supplementary Material). Soil sampling and characterisation At each site, peat soils were sampled manually, in replicates of three, by hammering 5 cm diameter polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe until resistance indicated the lower limit of the peat profile or the pipe reached the maximum sampling depth possible for intact retrieval (total cores = 24). Peat cores were then extruded using a purpose-built hand winch core extruder then sectioned into 5 cm segments (total segments = 191), oven dried at 60°C until a stable mass was reached, and weighed to calculate dry bulk density (DBD). Samples were homogenised and ground using a RM-200 electric mortar grinder (Retsch, Haan, Germany). Concentrations of peat carbon (C%) and nitrogen (N%) were obtained using a MicroElemental CN analyzer with Callidus v5.1 software (EuroVector, Pavia, Italy). A correction factor was applied to adjust depth and volume calculations affected by peat compaction during sample collection, wherein the difference between the peat depth within and outside of the PVC core was added to the depth of the sample collected. Peat carbon density (mg C cm -3 ) was calculated by multiplying carbon concentration (%) by the corrected dry bulk density for each sample. Molar C:N ratios were calculated by converting carbon and nitrogen concentration values to an arbitrary mass of 1 kg each, dividing each by the atomic mass of the element (12 mmol C per kg; 14 mmol N per kg), then dividing mmol C kg -1 by mmol N kg -1 . Statistical Analysis Four separate generalized linear models (GLM) were performed using the ‘stats’ package in R (R Core Team, 2022 ) to analyse differences in (1) soil C concentration; (2) soil C density; (3) soil N concentration; and (4) soil C:N, with fixed factors site and soil depth . Tukey’s post-hoc pairwise comparisons were used to determine the significance of differences between sites and depths for each of the above parameters. Carbon flux measurement Methods for preliminary measurement of CO 2 and CH 4 fluxes, using both dark chambers and eddy covariance, are presented in the Supplementary Material. Results Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Maximum soil depth of samples varied between sites, ranging from 30 cm (BHP-5) to 60 cm (BHP-3 and BHP-7), and averaging 44.4 ± 10.83 cm across all sites. Soil carbon and nitrogen concentrations and C:N ratios all varied significantly by site and depth, and there was no interactive effective of these two variables (Table 1 ; Figs. 2 and 3 ). Soil carbon density varied significantly by site, but not by depth (Table 1 ; Figs. 2 and 3 ). Values are shown for each soil variable by site and depth in the Supplementary Material, Figs S1 –S4. Table 1 Summary of statistics for soil C and N measured at peatlands on the Bogong High Plains. Where results differed significantly, p-values are in bold type. Response Min Max Mean ± SD Predictor F df p Soil N (%) 0.02 1.87 0.62 ± 0.41 Site 9.2 119 < 0.001 Depth 8.31 < 0.001 Site x Depth 0.95 0.58 Soil C (%) 0.14 43.98 16.52 ± 13.23 Site 7.9 119 < 0.001 Depth 9.45 < 0.001 Site x Depth 0.84 0.76 Soil C:N 6.88 148.89 30.93 ± 20.38 Site 3.8 119 < 0.001 Depth 2.1 0.03 Site x Depth 0.72 0.91 Soil C (mg cm − 3 ) 1.79 93.96 46.57 ± 20.66 Site 7.74 118 < 0.001 Depth 1.07 0.39 Site x Depth 0.95 0.58 Carbon fluxes Results from preliminary CO 2 and CH 4 flux measurement are presented in the Supplementary Material. Discussion Overview We report, for the first time, the C and N storage of Sphagnum peatlands on the Bogong High Plains of Victoria, Australia. Carbon concentrations and C:N ratios were lower than comparable peatlands and on average, peat depths in this area were relatively shallow. We found significant differences in peat C%, N%, and C:N between sites located within less than 3 km of one another. Preliminary flux data showed no significant differences in autumn, daytime C fluxes between sites, although small sample sizes likely contributed to statistical non-significance in these data (see Supplementary Material). We compare these findings to those of similar peatlands and discuss potential implications for peatland management and restoration. Soil Carbon Soil carbon concentrations from these sites were lower than comparable peatlands, particularly those of the northern hemisphere, which average ~ 50% C or higher in the top 1 m of peat (Armentano & Menges, 1986 ; Gorham, 1990 ; Z. C. Yu, 2012 ). However, Australian alpine peatlands, such as those on Victoria’s high plains, are known to be both shallower and lower in organic matter than their northern counterparts (Lawrence et al., 2009 ). Indeed, Whinam & Hope ( 2005 ) define Australian peatlands as “terrestrial sediments more than 30 cm thick, with more than 20% organic matter by dry weight.” If we assume carbon makes up ~ 58% of the total organic matter in these peatlands (e.g. using the commonly used van Bemmelen factor (e.g. Minasny et al. 2020 )), then estimated mean OM of 28.5 ± 22.8% puts them within the range of the Whinam and Hope ( 2005 ) definition, although only within the top 15–20 cm. Higher carbon concentrations of 22–57% have been reported from fibrous and sapric peats of the New South Wales (NSW) Snowy Mountains, varying between the surface layers at 36 ± 6.5% C (moss), 41 ± 8.9% C (fibric-hemic peat) and 33 ± 11.6% C (sapric peat) (Hope and Nanson, 2014 ). Soil carbon concentrations determined here were more similar to the peaty-clay (23 ± 8.4% C) and clayey-sand (10 ± 5.3% C) samples described by Hope and Nanson ( 2014 ), suggesting that many of the samples in the present study are comprised of mixed peats with gravel, clay, and sand, overlain with topogenic moss peat. The appearance of the samples themselves supports the findings of low C concentrations indicating shallow peats; many soil cores showed gravel and sand particles at depth, and/or appeared to have a claylike texture (see Supplementary Material, Fig. S5). Kershaw et al. ( 1997 ) posit that most of the peatlands in the Victorian High Country formed via paludification, whereby lower temperatures and a rising water table has led to peat accumulation over inorganic soils that previously supported drier vegetation communities, influencing current soil chemistry (e.g. Schuster et al., 2022 ) which could explain these findings. In contrast with our results, soil carbon concentrations from an intact subalpine peatland on the Wellington High Plains, Victoria (1500 m ASL, approximately 80 km from our study area) consistently averaged ~ 40–50% C in soils at depths between 0.1 and 2.3 m (Birnbaum et al., 2023 ; Grover & Baldock, 2012 ), and were similar only to the maximum C concentrations we found, i.e., those sampled at the soil surface. Relatively low C concentrations in the sites of the present study may be the result of previous grazing and/or fire disturbance. The area was grazed by cattle from the 1850s until 2005 (Lawrence, 1995 ), with direct negative impacts to Sphagnum peatlands arising from livestock activity (Lawrence, 1995 ; McDougall, 1982 ; Wahren et al., 1999 ). Peatland grazing has been shown to cause peat erosion, compaction, and subsidence (Nieveen et al., 2005 ; Oates et al., 2008 ; Ward et al., 2007 ), leading to loss of carbon stored in peat soils through fluvial export and/or emission to the atmosphere as CO 2 (Allen-Diaz et al., 2004 ; Treby & Grover, 2023 ; Ward et al., 2007 ; Worrall & Clay, 2012 ). The BHP1–8 sites sampled in this study, along a low-gradient valley with current road access (Fig. 1 ), were likely readily accessible to cattle during the periods when livestock grazing was permitted on the Bogong High Plains, and therefore are likely to have been more heavily grazed than peatlands located further from key access routes, including the Alpine Peatland flux tower site. Major fires impacting the peatlands of the Bogong High Plains occurred in 1939 and 2003, the latter burning up to 59% of the state’s alpine peat area (Tolsma, 2020 ). Indeed, evidence of fire, as thick charcoal bands, was visible in some of the soil cores collected in this study (Supplementary Material, Fig. S5). Peatland fire can result in globally significant emissions of carbon which had previously been locked away for millennia, through the combustion of carbon-rich biomass and peat material (Page et al., 2002 ; Van Der Werf et al., 2010 ). In peatlands exposed to both grazing and fire, carbon loss can increase drastically, because where peatland hydrology has been altered (e.g. through channelisation and desiccation), the peat becomes a highly flammable fuel source, where previously it would have been protected from fire by waterlogging (Turetsky et al., 2015 ). The establishment of vehicle tracks for access to this area has also hydrologically disturbed many of these sites; peatlands dissected by roads have impeded inflows and are consequently drained or desiccated downstream (Willier, 2017 ). Soil age dating methods, such as Pb 210 , could be used to investigate discontinuation in peat accumulation over time at these sites, which, if evident, would support the hypothesis of peat removal due to disturbance (Grover et al., 2012). Soil Nitrogen and C:N Nitrogen concentrations in the present study were similar to other Sphagnum peatlands averaging 0.8% N (Limpens et al., 2011 ), including, for example, a low-nitrogen Sphagnum subarctic mire in southern Sweden (0.7–0.81% N; Aerts et al., 2001 ), and an ombrotrophic Sphagnum bog in southern Scotland (0.76–0.91% N; Manninen et al., 2016 ). Sphagnum peat has characteristically low N concentrations (below 1% of dry weight; Clymo & Hayward, 1982 ) and high C:N, particularly in live Sphagnum tissue (Loisel et al., 2014 ). Nitrogen in soils influences peatland carbon storage by impacting rates of decomposition – microbial respiration requires nitrogen and thus, where C:N ratios are lower, decomposition is enhanced (e.g. Averill et al., 2014 ; Limpens et al., 2011 ; Malmer et al., 2003 ). Sphagnum mosses grow in low-nutrient environments, and high N deposition, while prompting Sphagnum growth in the short-term, can ultimately lead to decreased biomass and increased capitulum desiccation (Gunnarsson & Rydin, 2000 ). Decomposition rates of Sphagnum mosses are substantially lower than those of vascular peatland plants, potentially due to the presence of complex phenolic compounds in Sphagnum which have bacteria-deterring properties and inhibit decay (Aerts et al., 1999 , 2001 ; Hobbie, 1996 ; Turetsky et al., 2012). Consistent with our findings, declining N with peat depth has been shown in Scottish peatlands, as well as a strong relationship between N% and C:N down profile, possibly driven by historic hydrological changes that influence N concentrations in the anaerobic catotelm (Anderson, 2002 ). The potential for N loss increases with N-mineralisation, generally driven by drier peat conditions leading to N leaching and/or volatilization of nitrous oxide (N 2 O), N gas (N 2 ), and ammonia (NH 3 ) (Reddy & Patrick, 1984 ). Nitrogen concentrations reported here were also similar to those from the intact area of the Wellington Plains Peatland (~ 0.5–1.6% at 10, 30, and 60 cm depth, ~ 2% at 60–100 cm depth) (Grover and Baldock, 2012 ; Birnbaum et al., 2022). Conversely, surface C:N ratios at Wellington Plains ranged between 70–80, almost two-fold what was measured at the surface in the present study, although subsurface C:N ratios between the two studies are comparable at 20–30 (Grover & Baldock, 2012 ). However, in the present study, N concentrations and C:N decreased with depth, whereas at the Wellington Plains, and in several northern peatlands, these both increased with depth, likely due to anaerobic peat decay causing carbon loss with depth, with no corresponding loss in N (Birnbaum et al., 2023 ; Grover & Baldock, 2010 , 2012 ; Kuhry & Vitt, 1996 ; Vardy et al., 2000 ). This implies that, at the sites in the present study, rates of N-mineralisation or leaching in the anerobic peat layers exceed relative losses of carbon through decomposition. Carbon fluxes (preliminary data) Net CH 4 emissions were, on average, effectively negligible at 0.001 ± 0.06 umol m 2 min -1 . Methanotrophy in Sphagnum mosses has been well documented in many northern hemisphere species, where peatland vegetation composition can comprise dozens of co-occurring Sphagna with associated methanotrophic microbes (Laine et al., 2004 ; Larmola et al., 2010 ), but this is yet to be explored in Australian Sphagnum peatlands. There is a paucity of data on peatland carbon emissions studies from Australia with which to compare our findings (Zhao et al., 2023 ), with only two studies known to us that report CH 4 fluxes. At (horse-free) alpine and subalpine Sphagnum peatlands of southern New South Wales, autumn, daytime CH 4 fluxes averaged 1.6 mmol CH 4 m 2 d -1 (0.74 umol m -2 min -1 ) (Treby & Grover, 2023 ), which, while still low, is markedly higher than what we measured in the present study. Methane emissions from the Heathy Spur peatland, measured using chamber-based sampling within the footprint of the AU-APL flux tower in December 2018, averaged 2.4 g CH 4 -C m 2 yr -1 (0.38 umol m 2 min -1 ), and some measurements showed net CH 4 uptake in hummocks (Gunawardhana, 2023 ). Daytime fluxes of ecosystem respiration (ER) averaged 74.6 ± umol CO 2 m 2 min -1 , i.e., 29–80% lower than ER reported from studies of similar sites in the northern hemisphere (e.g. Bortoluzzi et al., 2006 ; Juszczak et al., 2013 ). From Australian peatlands, there are only two published studies, to our knowledge, which report peatland respiration. At the Wellington Plains peatland, ER from dried and intact peat ranged from approximately 1 to 2.5 g m -2 d -1 (15.8–39.5 umol m 2 min -1 ) over two months of autumn, 2005 (Grover & Baldock, 2010 ) – our values are approximately double those recorded at that site at a comparable time of year. Conversely, our rates of ER were 69–78% lower than soil respiration rates reported from a peaty (organosol) sedgeland in Tasmania in May at 4.0–5.7 umol m 2 s -1 (240–342 umol m 2 min -1 ) (Nyberg & Hovenden, 2022). Rates of ER between the chamber-measured sites (BHP2–8) and the Alpine Peatland EC site varied substantially; on average, ER was 21.2% and 58.7% lower (on May 23 and May 24, respectively) at the BHP sites compared to at the Heathy Spur-I site (AU-APL), at the same times of day. We again emphasise the preliminary nature of the flux data presented here and recommend this research is built upon in future to better understand peatland carbon cycling in Australia. Limitations and Further Study Bulk density values, used to calculate peat carbon densities, may have been overestimated in this study due to (a) the low sample drying temperature of 60°C, and (b) the soil coring method used, which causes some soil compaction. To enhance the accuracy of DBD and C density reporting, bulk density sampling across the full peat profile could be carried out in future, using a method which does not cause compaction (e.g. Treby & Grover, 2023 ). In conjunction with peat depth measurements, this would enable the carbon stock of Victoria’s alpine and subalpine peatlands to be estimated. To avoid overfitting statistical models, we did not consider the influence of factors such as site elevation, or overall peatland morphology (valley or slope) on peatland carbon cycling, however these may be important drivers of biogeochemistry at these sites. We recommend that these factors are disentangled, through increased site replication, in future peatland carbon research in Australia. The daytime, autumn CH 4 and CO 2 data presented here are extremely limited in temporal replication, offering only a snapshot insight into carbon fluxes in these peatlands. However, given the lack of data on carbon cycling in Australian peatlands, these findings make an important baseline contribution to our understanding of these valuable ecosystems and their management. Most notably, the present study highlights the possibility that some Sphagnum peatlands in temperate Australia have a higher methanotrophic capacity than other peatlands around the world. Because CH 4 has 32 times the global warming potential of CO 2 over 100 years (Neubauer & Megonigal, 2015 ), CH 4 emissions can easily outweigh CO 2 uptake, and therefore, peatland restoration could potentially lead to overall negative climate outcomes in the short term. Extensive further research over increased temporal and spatial scales will be critical for understanding the role of Australian peatlands in CH 4 cycling. To build upon our results, we suggest future research priorities for Australian peatlands should include: (1) Annual and inter-annual carbon flux studies, to better understand the influences of seasonality and broader climate cycles (e.g. ENSO) on carbon fluxes; (2) Multi-site studies at broad spatial scales which incorporate peatlands in varying condition, i.e. those disturbed by drainage, wildfire, and grazing/trampling, in addition to intact reference sites; and (3) Investigation of methane-cycling microbial communities in Australian Sphagnum peatlands, to better understand CH 4 uptake potential in these ecosystems. Conclusions This study shows highly variable peat biogeochemistry between sites in over a relatively small spatial scale, indicating that between-site variation in carbon pools and fluxes needs to be better determined before we can understand general trends in Australian peatlands. Likewise, carbon fluxes were highly variable and may show net carbon uptake in peatlands in this area, but broader spatiotemporal replication is required in further study. Our data also suggest that peats from this area of the Bogong High Plains may be both shallower and lower in carbon than other alpine and subalpine Sphagnum bogs in Australia. This raises the possibility that either (a) peat formation in this area is more recent or has been slower than in other alpine regions of Australia, and/or (b) peat has been removed or oxidized as a result of disturbance and degradation. The latter we suggest is more plausible, given that the Bogong High Plains have been heavily impacted by both grazing and fire in recent history. Declarations Funding Declaration Author Contribution ST: Conceptualisation, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Visualisation, Writing – Original Draft, Project Administration. DG: Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing – Review and Editing. SG: Project Administration (AU-APL Flux Tower), Writing – Review and Editing. PC: Methodology, Investigation, Writing – Review and Editing. Acknowledgement We acknowledge the continuing cultural significance of the Bogong High Plains for the Dhudhuroa, Gunai-Kurnai, Taungurung, Waywurru and Jaithmathang peoples over many centuries and pay our respects to their Elders past, present, and future. We thank Sean (Mick) Keenan (Parks Victoria) for help with site access and selection, and Andrew Kromar, Sean Keenan, Elaine Thomas (Parks Victoria), Ewen Silvester (La Trobe University) and Eva van Gorsel, for support establishing and managing the AU-APL flux tower. We thank Vida Maulina and Rebecca Spence (Deakin University) for help processing soil samples in the laboratory. We thank CSIRO for loaning EC equipment and Steve Zegelin for support with data collection, curation, and flux tower maintenance. EC data analysis was supported by Peter Isaac (Central Node, OzFlux, the Australian and New Zealand Flux Network). Field work at sites BHP1–8 was carried out under Permit No 10007689, issued by the Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (DELWP) to PC. The Alpine Peatland flux tower (AU-APL) was established under the provisions of Permit No 10008289, issued by DELWP to Ewen Silvester (La Trobe University). Data Availability Data available from the authors on request References Abdalla M, Hastings A, Truu J, Espenberg M, Mander Ü, Smith P (2016) Emissions of methane from northern peatlands: a review of management impacts and implications for future management options. Ecol Evol 6(19):7080–7102. https://doi.org/10.1002/ECE3.2469 Aerts R, Verhoeven JTA, Whigham ADF (1999) Plant-mediated controls on nutrient cycling in temperate fens and bogs. 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Supplementary Files SupplementaryMaterial.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Oct, 2024 Read the published version in Environmental Processes → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 08 Aug, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Jul, 2024 Reviews received at journal 28 Jun, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 28 Jun, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 26 Jun, 2024 Reviews received at journal 25 Jun, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Jun, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 22 Jun, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 21 Jun, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 21 Jun, 2024 First submitted to journal 20 Jun, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4609071","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":337777079,"identity":"5f1dba67-22d7-4f79-8d1c-ebc31ac3ab13","order_by":0,"name":"Sarah Treby","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJACZjApwcD4AEQCgQExWgxAiplBpARJWtgkGCDW4Nci33724ecChj/5/NI9ZtWVORZ1DOzN2yQYag7j1GJwJt1YegaDgeXMOWfMbp7dBnQYz7EyCYZjeLQwpDFI8zAYGBjcyDG72QjSIpFjBnQkbi3y/c+Yf4O02AO1FIK1yL8BavmHWwvDjTQ2iC1AwxkhtvCYSTC24XHYjWds1jwGxgYSd44VSwK1SLbxpBVbJPal43FYGvNtngo5A/7ZzRs/Nm6r4+dnP7zxxodv1rgdBg0EIOCARAcbiEggoAEK2B8Qp24UjIJRMApGHAAA8xtFFfSUJSkAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"RMIT University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sarah","middleName":"","lastName":"Treby","suffix":""},{"id":337777080,"identity":"a680aadc-931e-4acd-b33e-94524f105643","order_by":1,"name":"Meeruppage Gunawardhana","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"RMIT University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Meeruppage","middleName":"","lastName":"Gunawardhana","suffix":""},{"id":337777081,"identity":"3c43cb38-8a86-4dec-a8f3-0b580be6eaec","order_by":2,"name":"Samantha Grover","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"RMIT University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Samantha","middleName":"","lastName":"Grover","suffix":""},{"id":337777082,"identity":"cde2e241-b5d4-438b-8f67-864645054ad0","order_by":3,"name":"Paul Carnell","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Deakin University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Paul","middleName":"","lastName":"Carnell","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-06-20 04:26:33","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4609071/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4609071/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-024-00736-0","type":"published","date":"2024-10-26T15:58:00+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":62399368,"identity":"f8653be9-b570-43a9-b341-d7192a4565c7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-13 18:24:15","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2717470,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSite map of peatlands sampled in the Bogong High Plains area, northeast of the Rocky Valley Dam and Falls Creek Alpine Resort, Victoria, Australia. APL = Alpine Peatland Flux Tower. Inset: Map of Australia with the study region indicated.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4609071/v1/31edd168739410b7e42f7c9f.jpeg"},{"id":62399370,"identity":"f14e5e4f-1b59-4b2f-92e2-3d5f539ce163","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-13 18:24:15","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":479671,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSoil carbon and nitrogen compared between peatland sites on the Bogong High Plains (pooled by depth), as follows: (a) nitrogen concentration (N%); (b) carbon concentration (C%); (c) carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N); and (d) carbon density. Each box shows the interquartile range, whiskers show 95% confidence intervals, and lines within boxes show median values. Letters above each box show the results of Tukey’s post-hoc pairwise comparisons; sites that share a letter do not differ significantly from one another.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4609071/v1/9535391f2cb1fc3f1df148f9.jpeg"},{"id":62399372,"identity":"93f2f9bf-15a3-4781-b497-c3bab5f42d28","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-13 18:24:15","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":511792,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSoil carbon and nitrogen variation by soil depth from peatland sites on the Bogong High Plains, as follows: (a) nitrogen concentration (N%); (b) carbon concentration (C%); (c) carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N); and (d) carbon density. All values are presented as mean ± standard error of all sites pooled. Depth values represent the upper limit of the 5 cm segment, e.g., ‘0’ is the mean value for soil sectioned from 0-5 cm. Italicised letters beside each mean show the results of Tukey’s post-hoc pairwise comparisons – where means share a letter, they do not differ significantly from one another. \u003cem\u003eNS \u003c/em\u003e= no significant differences between soil depths.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4609071/v1/08ee890ee98bc96d67756b3a.jpeg"},{"id":67682449,"identity":"1cede2c7-d748-49ee-bf6d-757ea9e4d436","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-28 16:14:03","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4265210,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4609071/v1/56e7a40d-0965-4021-96a5-05f49b7bf1d5.pdf"},{"id":62399371,"identity":"2cdb6e4f-4db3-4657-8c3a-81318fdd7ed8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-13 18:24:15","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":360251,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryMaterial.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4609071/v1/31a4ab1c9f711c4bc4990f0a.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Carbon storage and fluxes from Sphagnum peatlands of the Bogong High Plains, Australia","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePeatlands are among the most critical ecosystems in the world for sequestering carbon; the balance between peat carbon accumulation and release influences the global carbon cycle and, in turn, climate change. Peat forms under conditions where waterlogging, low temperatures, and/or low pH prevent decomposition, leading to biomass accumulation that results in significant reservoirs of carbon (Gorham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1957\u003c/span\u003e). Intact peatlands sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) in plants, which is then retained as soil organic carbon, thus intact peatlands function as net carbon (C) sinks (Moore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Stored carbon can be emitted back to the atmosphere through ecosystem respiration of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (both heterotrophic and autotrophic) and (microbially-driven) methanogenesis (Hugelius et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Z. Yu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Undisturbed, intact peatlands are maintained under permanently or temporarily water saturated conditions and methanogenic processes are accelerated under favourable anaerobic environments (Wieder \u0026amp; Vitt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), making them a substantial source of methane (CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) to the atmosphere (Frolking et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). A review of natural northern peatlands revealed that they are, on average, a significant source of atmospheric carbon, emitting between 7.6 and 15.7 g C m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2\u003c/sup\u003e yr\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (Abdalla et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, disturbed and/or degraded peatlands can also lose significant amounts of carbon through fluvial exports of both particulate and dissolved organic carbon (POC and DOC, respectively) (Olefeldt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAustralian peatlands are predominantly temperate climate alpine, subalpine, or montane ecosystems found at elevations above 750 m (Hope \u0026amp; Nanson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Peatlands in mainland Australia are commonly dominated by \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e moss and shrub communities, fed by groundwater seepage and to a lesser extent, rainfall, and are characteristically low-nutrient and low-pH (Silvester, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Wahren et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). Peat depths in Australian \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e peatlands are typically shallow, from 0.9\u0026ndash;1.4 m (Hope \u0026amp; Nanson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The \u003cem\u003eAlpine and Subalpine Sphagnum Shrub Bogs and Associated Communities\u003c/em\u003e were listed, under the \u003cem\u003eEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999\u003c/em\u003e, for their uniqueness, biodiversity provisioning, and substantial loss and degradation (Threatened Species Scientific Committee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Alpine peatlands in Australia play a critical role in the regulation of water from the highest parts of the country into the Murray-Darling Basin, the most significant catchment in eastern Australia for food production (Murray Darling Basin Authority, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). In Victoria, \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e bogs occur over a 10,000 km range (Department of Energy Environment and Climate Action, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), with an estimated 2,700 ha occurring above 1000 m ASL (Lawrence et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), and are found predominantly within the Alpine National Park. The Australian Alps, including peatlands, are highly vulnerable to disturbance, including current and historic grazing (Driscoll et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Pemberton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Treby \u0026amp; Grover, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) wildfire (Hope et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Whinam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), and climate change (Good et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo date, there have been very few studies focused on carbon cycling in Australian alpine peatlands. Grover \u0026amp; Baldock (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) report on the C and N concentrations, CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emissions (ecosystem respiration; ER), and chemical composition of a subalpine peatland of the Wellington Plains, Victoria. Hope and Nanson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) quantified peatland carbon stocks and sequestration in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales. In their state-wide wetland carbon surveys, Carnell et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) reported higher carbon storage at Victorian alpine and subalpine wetlands than any other wetland type. Nyberg \u0026amp; Hovenden (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) report a 28% increase in soil respiration from a Tasmanian peatland under experimental warming. Recent work by Treby and Grover (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) is the first to report carbon fluxes (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) from Australian \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e peatlands. Given the vulnerability of alpine peatlands and the uncertainty of peatland resilience to climate change (e.g. Rowland et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), there remains a critical need to better understand variability in peatland carbon storage and emissions in Australia. Baseline data on carbon storage and emissions is essential for determining how peatland carbon cycling is affected by disturbance (i.e., the vulnerability of the peatland carbon reservoir), including in response to: (1) increased atmospheric carbon concentrations and global warming feedback loops arising from peatland loss \u0026amp; degradation, and (2) peatland restoration approaches which aim to maintain or enhance the carbon sequestration capacity and/or minimise carbon loss from peatlands. Furthermore, the opportunities to align peatland conservation and restoration with national and global emission reduction targets and incentive schemes can only be realised when a solid understanding of current carbon emissions from Australian peatlands is gained.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the present study, our primary objective was to understand the carbon cycling function of alpine and subalpine peatlands in Australia, where peatland biogeochemistry research remains in its infancy. Specifically, we investigated eight \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e-dominated peatlands on the Bogong High Plains of Victoria, Australia, sampled in March 2018. We quantified and compared soil C, N, C:N, and fluxes of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (ecosystem respiration; ER or \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eeco\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e) and CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e between sites. Additionally, we report ER, gross primary productivity (GPP) and net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e from the Alpine Peatland eddy covariance (EC) flux tower (TERN OzFlux site AU-APL) over the same sampling period, to (1) provide insight into potential rates of NEE and GPP at the remaining sites, and (2) consider the extrapolative potential of carbon fluxes measured by the EC method at the Alpine Peatland tower (considered a reference peatland in very good condition (Gunawardhana et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)) to other peatlands in the region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Bogong High Plains form part of the Australian Alps and are located within the Alpine National Park in northeast Victoria, Australia. The region encompasses approximately 120 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, at 1650\u0026ndash;1850 m ASL (McCartney et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and is relatively dense in peatlands, which cover 10% of the land area (McDougall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e). Indeed, almost half of Victoria\u0026rsquo;s total peatland area (1117 ha of a total 2713 ha) occurs within the Bogong High Plains area (Lawrence et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Average daily minimum and maximum temperatures in the area range from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.9 to 1.2˚C in July (austral winter), and 8.9 to 17.8˚C in January (austral summer), with mean annual precipitation of 1358 mm (Bureau of Meteorology, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Most peatlands in Victoria are less than 1 ha in area (Lawrence et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), and while they are defined in Australia as \u003cem\u003eAlpine and Subalpine Sphagnum Shrub Bogs and Associated Communities\u003c/em\u003e (Threatened Species Scientific Committee), they are actually low-nutrient fens, being fed by groundwater springs with additional water inputs from precipitation. Peatlands on the Bogong High Plains occur at elevations ranging from ~\u0026thinsp;1350\u0026ndash;1800 m, and mostly occur over underlying Gneiss, Schist, and Granadiorite (Lawrence et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Morand, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e peatlands are characterised by microtopography comprised of hummocks, or peat mounds, hollows \u0026ndash; flat, waterlogged areas, and lawns \u0026ndash; intermediate substrata (Oke \u0026amp; Hager, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Vegetation communities are made up of \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e mosses (usually \u003cem\u003eS. cristatum\u003c/em\u003e), interspersed with vascular plants (such as \u003cem\u003eEmpodisma minus, Baeckea gunniana\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eDracophyllum continentis\u003c/em\u003e) which provide structure to the peatland and enhance photosynthetic activity while protecting against evaporative drying (Harley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; McNeil \u0026amp; Waddington, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Turetsky et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012a\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSite selection and sampling\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSampling was carried out over two days at eight peatland sites on the Bogong High Plains from May 23\u0026ndash;24, 2018, in the area northeast of the Rocky Valley Dam (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Sites included a range of slope and valley alpine and subalpine \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e shrub bogs (per the definitions in Hope and Nanson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e)), located at elevations between 1690\u0026ndash;1750 m (Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e; Supplementary Material).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil sampling and characterisation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt each site, peat soils were sampled manually, in replicates of three, by hammering 5 cm diameter polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe until resistance indicated the lower limit of the peat profile or the pipe reached the maximum sampling depth possible for intact retrieval (total cores\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24). Peat cores were then extruded using a purpose-built hand winch core extruder then sectioned into 5 cm segments (total segments\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;191), oven dried at 60\u0026deg;C until a stable mass was reached, and weighed to calculate dry bulk density (DBD). Samples were homogenised and ground using a RM-200 electric mortar grinder (Retsch, Haan, Germany). Concentrations of peat carbon (C%) and nitrogen (N%) were obtained using a MicroElemental CN analyzer with Callidus v5.1 software (EuroVector, Pavia, Italy). A correction factor was applied to adjust depth and volume calculations affected by peat compaction during sample collection, wherein the difference between the peat depth within and outside of the PVC core was added to the depth of the sample collected. Peat carbon density (mg C cm\u003csup\u003e-3\u003c/sup\u003e) was calculated by multiplying carbon concentration (%) by the corrected dry bulk density for each sample. Molar C:N ratios were calculated by converting carbon and nitrogen concentration values to an arbitrary mass of 1 kg each, dividing each by the atomic mass of the element (12 mmol C per kg; 14 mmol N per kg), then dividing mmol C kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e by mmol N kg\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour separate generalized linear models (GLM) were performed using the \u0026lsquo;stats\u0026rsquo; package in R (R Core Team, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) to analyse differences in (1) soil C concentration; (2) soil C density; (3) soil N concentration; and (4) soil C:N, with fixed factors \u003cem\u003esite\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003esoil depth\u003c/em\u003e. Tukey\u0026rsquo;s post-hoc pairwise comparisons were used to determine the significance of differences between sites and depths for each of the above parameters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCarbon flux measurement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethods for preliminary measurement of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e fluxes, using both dark chambers and eddy covariance, are presented in the Supplementary Material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil Carbon and Nitrogen\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaximum soil depth of samples varied between sites, ranging from 30 cm (BHP-5) to 60 cm (BHP-3 and BHP-7), and averaging 44.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.83 cm across all sites. Soil carbon and nitrogen concentrations and C:N ratios all varied significantly by site and depth, and there was no interactive effective of these two variables (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e; Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Soil carbon density varied significantly by site, but not by depth (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e; Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Values are shown for each soil variable by site and depth in the Supplementary Material, Figs \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;S4.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of statistics for soil C and N measured at peatlands on the Bogong High Plains. Where results differed significantly, p-values are in bold type.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePredictor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil N (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e119\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite x Depth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil C (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e119\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite x Depth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil C:N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e148.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e119\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.03\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite x Depth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil C (mg cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSite x Depth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCarbon fluxes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults from preliminary CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e flux measurement are presented in the Supplementary Material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eOverview\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe report, for the first time, the C and N storage of \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e peatlands on the Bogong High Plains of Victoria, Australia. Carbon concentrations and C:N ratios were lower than comparable peatlands and on average, peat depths in this area were relatively shallow. We found significant differences in peat C%, N%, and C:N between sites located within less than 3 km of one another. Preliminary flux data showed no significant differences in autumn, daytime C fluxes between sites, although small sample sizes likely contributed to statistical non-significance in these data (see Supplementary Material). We compare these findings to those of similar peatlands and discuss potential implications for peatland management and restoration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil Carbon\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil carbon concentrations from these sites were lower than comparable peatlands, particularly those of the northern hemisphere, which average\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;50% C or higher in the top 1 m of peat (Armentano \u0026amp; Menges, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Gorham, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Z. C. Yu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). However, Australian alpine peatlands, such as those on Victoria\u0026rsquo;s high plains, are known to be both shallower and lower in organic matter than their northern counterparts (Lawrence et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Indeed, Whinam \u0026amp; Hope (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) define Australian peatlands as \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;terrestrial sediments more than 30 cm thick, with more than 20% organic matter by dry weight.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e If we assume carbon makes up ~\u0026thinsp;58% of the total organic matter in these peatlands (e.g. using the commonly used van Bemmelen factor (e.g. Minasny et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)), then estimated mean OM of 28.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;22.8% puts them within the range of the Whinam and Hope (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) definition, although only within the top 15\u0026ndash;20 cm. Higher carbon concentrations of 22\u0026ndash;57% have been reported from fibrous and sapric peats of the New South Wales (NSW) Snowy Mountains, varying between the surface layers at 36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.5% C (moss), 41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.9% C (fibric-hemic peat) and 33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.6% C (sapric peat) (Hope and Nanson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Soil carbon concentrations determined here were more similar to the peaty-clay (23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.4% C) and clayey-sand (10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.3% C) samples described by Hope and Nanson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting that many of the samples in the present study are comprised of mixed peats with gravel, clay, and sand, overlain with topogenic moss peat. The appearance of the samples themselves supports the findings of low C concentrations indicating shallow peats; many soil cores showed gravel and sand particles at depth, and/or appeared to have a claylike texture (see Supplementary Material, Fig. S5). Kershaw et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e) posit that most of the peatlands in the Victorian High Country formed via paludification, whereby lower temperatures and a rising water table has led to peat accumulation over inorganic soils that previously supported drier vegetation communities, influencing current soil chemistry (e.g. Schuster et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) which could explain these findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast with our results, soil carbon concentrations from an intact subalpine peatland on the Wellington High Plains, Victoria (1500 m ASL, approximately 80 km from our study area) consistently averaged\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;40\u0026ndash;50% C in soils at depths between 0.1 and 2.3 m (Birnbaum et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Grover \u0026amp; Baldock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), and were similar only to the maximum C concentrations we found, i.e., those sampled at the soil surface. Relatively low C concentrations in the sites of the present study may be the result of previous grazing and/or fire disturbance. The area was grazed by cattle from the 1850s until 2005 (Lawrence, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e), with direct negative impacts to \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e peatlands arising from livestock activity (Lawrence, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; McDougall, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e; Wahren et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). Peatland grazing has been shown to cause peat erosion, compaction, and subsidence (Nieveen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Oates et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Ward et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), leading to loss of carbon stored in peat soils through fluvial export and/or emission to the atmosphere as CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (Allen-Diaz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Treby \u0026amp; Grover, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Ward et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Worrall \u0026amp; Clay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The BHP1\u0026ndash;8 sites sampled in this study, along a low-gradient valley with current road access (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), were likely readily accessible to cattle during the periods when livestock grazing was permitted on the Bogong High Plains, and therefore are likely to have been more heavily grazed than peatlands located further from key access routes, including the Alpine Peatland flux tower site. Major fires impacting the peatlands of the Bogong High Plains occurred in 1939 and 2003, the latter burning up to 59% of the state\u0026rsquo;s alpine peat area (Tolsma, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Indeed, evidence of fire, as thick charcoal bands, was visible in some of the soil cores collected in this study (Supplementary Material, Fig. S5). Peatland fire can result in globally significant emissions of carbon which had previously been locked away for millennia, through the combustion of carbon-rich biomass and peat material (Page et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Van Der Werf et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). In peatlands exposed to both grazing and fire, carbon loss can increase drastically, because where peatland hydrology has been altered (e.g. through channelisation and desiccation), the peat becomes a highly flammable fuel source, where previously it would have been protected from fire by waterlogging (Turetsky et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The establishment of vehicle tracks for access to this area has also hydrologically disturbed many of these sites; peatlands dissected by roads have impeded inflows and are consequently drained or desiccated downstream (Willier, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Soil age dating methods, such as Pb\u003csub\u003e210\u003c/sub\u003e, could be used to investigate discontinuation in peat accumulation over time at these sites, which, if evident, would support the hypothesis of peat removal due to disturbance (Grover et al., 2012).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil Nitrogen and C:N\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNitrogen concentrations in the present study were similar to other \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e peatlands averaging 0.8% N (Limpens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), including, for example, a low-nitrogen \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e subarctic mire in southern Sweden (0.7\u0026ndash;0.81% N; Aerts et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e), and an ombrotrophic \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e bog in southern Scotland (0.76\u0026ndash;0.91% N; Manninen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e peat has characteristically low N concentrations (below 1% of dry weight; Clymo \u0026amp; Hayward, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e) and high C:N, particularly in live \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e tissue (Loisel et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Nitrogen in soils influences peatland carbon storage by impacting rates of decomposition \u0026ndash; microbial respiration requires nitrogen and thus, where C:N ratios are lower, decomposition is enhanced (e.g. Averill et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Limpens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Malmer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e mosses grow in low-nutrient environments, and high N deposition, while prompting \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e growth in the short-term, can ultimately lead to decreased biomass and increased capitulum desiccation (Gunnarsson \u0026amp; Rydin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Decomposition rates of \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e mosses are substantially lower than those of vascular peatland plants, potentially due to the presence of complex phenolic compounds in \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e which have bacteria-deterring properties and inhibit decay (Aerts et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Hobbie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Turetsky et al., 2012).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistent with our findings, declining N with peat depth has been shown in Scottish peatlands, as well as a strong relationship between N% and C:N down profile, possibly driven by historic hydrological changes that influence N concentrations in the anaerobic catotelm (Anderson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The potential for N loss increases with N-mineralisation, generally driven by drier peat conditions leading to N leaching and/or volatilization of nitrous oxide (N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO), N gas (N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), and ammonia (NH\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e) (Reddy \u0026amp; Patrick, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e). Nitrogen concentrations reported here were also similar to those from the intact area of the Wellington Plains Peatland (~\u0026thinsp;0.5\u0026ndash;1.6% at 10, 30, and 60 cm depth, ~\u0026thinsp;2% at 60\u0026ndash;100 cm depth) (Grover and Baldock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Birnbaum et al., 2022). Conversely, surface C:N ratios at Wellington Plains ranged between 70\u0026ndash;80, almost two-fold what was measured at the surface in the present study, although subsurface C:N ratios between the two studies are comparable at 20\u0026ndash;30 (Grover \u0026amp; Baldock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). However, in the present study, N concentrations and C:N \u003cem\u003edecreased\u003c/em\u003e with depth, whereas at the Wellington Plains, and in several northern peatlands, these both \u003cem\u003eincreased\u003c/em\u003e with depth, likely due to anaerobic peat decay causing carbon loss with depth, with no corresponding loss in N (Birnbaum et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Grover \u0026amp; Baldock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Kuhry \u0026amp; Vitt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Vardy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). This implies that, at the sites in the present study, rates of N-mineralisation or leaching in the anerobic peat layers exceed relative losses of carbon through decomposition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCarbon fluxes (preliminary data)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNet CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e emissions were, on average, effectively negligible at 0.001\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06 umol m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e min\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e. Methanotrophy in \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e mosses has been well documented in many northern hemisphere species, where peatland vegetation composition can comprise dozens of co-occurring Sphagna with associated methanotrophic microbes (Laine et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Larmola et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), but this is yet to be explored in Australian \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e peatlands. There is a paucity of data on peatland carbon emissions studies from Australia with which to compare our findings (Zhao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), with only two studies known to us that report CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e fluxes. At (horse-free) alpine and subalpine \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e peatlands of southern New South Wales, autumn, daytime CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e fluxes averaged 1.6 mmol CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e d\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e (0.74 umol m\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e min\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) (Treby \u0026amp; Grover, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), which, while still low, is markedly higher than what we measured in the present study. Methane emissions from the Heathy Spur peatland, measured using chamber-based sampling within the footprint of the AU-APL flux tower in December 2018, averaged 2.4 g CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e-C m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e yr\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e (0.38 umol m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e min\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e), and some measurements showed net CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e uptake in hummocks (Gunawardhana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Daytime fluxes of ecosystem respiration (ER) averaged 74.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;umol CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e min\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e, i.e., 29\u0026ndash;80% lower than ER reported from studies of similar sites in the northern hemisphere (e.g. Bortoluzzi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Juszczak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). From Australian peatlands, there are only two published studies, to our knowledge, which report peatland respiration. At the Wellington Plains peatland, ER from dried and intact peat ranged from approximately 1 to 2.5 g m\u003csup\u003e-2\u003c/sup\u003e d\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e (15.8\u0026ndash;39.5 umol m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e min\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) over two months of autumn, 2005 (Grover \u0026amp; Baldock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) \u0026ndash; our values are approximately double those recorded at that site at a comparable time of year. Conversely, our rates of ER were 69\u0026ndash;78% lower than soil respiration rates reported from a peaty (organosol) sedgeland in Tasmania in May at 4.0\u0026ndash;5.7 umol m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e s\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e (240\u0026ndash;342 umol m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e min\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) (Nyberg \u0026amp; Hovenden, 2022). Rates of ER between the chamber-measured sites (BHP2\u0026ndash;8) and the Alpine Peatland EC site varied substantially; on average, ER was 21.2% and 58.7% lower (on May 23 and May 24, respectively) at the BHP sites compared to at the Heathy Spur-I site (AU-APL), at the same times of day. We again emphasise the preliminary nature of the flux data presented here and recommend this research is built upon in future to better understand peatland carbon cycling in Australia.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations and Further Study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBulk density values, used to calculate peat carbon densities, may have been overestimated in this study due to (a) the low sample drying temperature of 60\u0026deg;C, and (b) the soil coring method used, which causes some soil compaction. To enhance the accuracy of DBD and C density reporting, bulk density sampling across the full peat profile could be carried out in future, using a method which does not cause compaction (e.g. Treby \u0026amp; Grover, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In conjunction with peat depth measurements, this would enable the carbon stock of Victoria\u0026rsquo;s alpine and subalpine peatlands to be estimated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo avoid overfitting statistical models, we did not consider the influence of factors such as site elevation, or overall peatland morphology (valley or slope) on peatland carbon cycling, however these may be important drivers of biogeochemistry at these sites. We recommend that these factors are disentangled, through increased site replication, in future peatland carbon research in Australia.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe daytime, autumn CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e and CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e data presented here are extremely limited in temporal replication, offering only a snapshot insight into carbon fluxes in these peatlands. However, given the lack of data on carbon cycling in Australian peatlands, these findings make an important baseline contribution to our understanding of these valuable ecosystems and their management. Most notably, the present study highlights the possibility that some \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e peatlands in temperate Australia have a higher methanotrophic capacity than other peatlands around the world. Because CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e has 32 times the global warming potential of CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e over 100 years (Neubauer \u0026amp; Megonigal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e emissions can easily outweigh CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e uptake, and therefore, peatland restoration could potentially lead to overall negative climate outcomes in the short term. Extensive further research over increased temporal and spatial scales will be critical for understanding the role of Australian peatlands in CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e cycling.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo build upon our results, we suggest future research priorities for Australian peatlands should include: (1) Annual and inter-annual carbon flux studies, to better understand the influences of seasonality and broader climate cycles (e.g. ENSO) on carbon fluxes; (2) Multi-site studies at broad spatial scales which incorporate peatlands in varying condition, i.e. those disturbed by drainage, wildfire, and grazing/trampling, in addition to intact reference sites; and (3) Investigation of methane-cycling microbial communities in Australian \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e peatlands, to better understand CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e uptake potential in these ecosystems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study shows highly variable peat biogeochemistry between sites in over a relatively small spatial scale, indicating that between-site variation in carbon pools and fluxes needs to be better determined before we can understand general trends in Australian peatlands. Likewise, carbon fluxes were highly variable and may show net carbon uptake in peatlands in this area, but broader spatiotemporal replication is required in further study. Our data also suggest that peats from this area of the Bogong High Plains may be both shallower and lower in carbon than other alpine and subalpine \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e bogs in Australia. This raises the possibility that either (a) peat formation in this area is more recent or has been slower than in other alpine regions of Australia, and/or (b) peat has been removed or oxidized as a result of disturbance and degradation. The latter we suggest is more plausible, given that the Bogong High Plains have been heavily impacted by both grazing and fire in recent history.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeclaration\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eST: Conceptualisation, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Visualisation, Writing \u0026ndash; Original Draft, Project Administration. DG: Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing \u0026ndash; Review and Editing. SG: Project Administration (AU-APL Flux Tower), Writing \u0026ndash; Review and Editing. PC: Methodology, Investigation, Writing \u0026ndash; Review and Editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe acknowledge the continuing cultural significance of the Bogong High Plains for the Dhudhuroa, Gunai-Kurnai, Taungurung, Waywurru and Jaithmathang peoples over many centuries and pay our respects to their Elders past, present, and future. We thank Sean (Mick) Keenan (Parks Victoria) for help with site access and selection, and Andrew Kromar, Sean Keenan, Elaine Thomas (Parks Victoria), Ewen Silvester (La Trobe University) and Eva van Gorsel, for support establishing and managing the AU-APL flux tower. We thank Vida Maulina and Rebecca Spence (Deakin University) for help processing soil samples in the laboratory. We thank CSIRO for loaning EC equipment and Steve Zegelin for support with data collection, curation, and flux tower maintenance. EC data analysis was supported by Peter Isaac (Central Node, OzFlux, the Australian and New Zealand Flux Network). Field work at sites BHP1\u0026ndash;8 was carried out under Permit No 10007689, issued by the Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning (DELWP) to PC. The Alpine Peatland flux tower (AU-APL) was established under the provisions of Permit No 10008289, issued by DELWP to Ewen Silvester (La Trobe University).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData available from the authors on request\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdalla M, Hastings A, Truu J, Espenberg M, Mander \u0026Uuml;, Smith P (2016) Emissions of methane from northern peatlands: a review of management impacts and implications for future management options. 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Geophys Res Lett 37:L13402\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhao J, Weldon S, Barthelmes A, Swails E, Hergoualc\u0026rsquo;h K, Mander \u0026Uuml;, Qiu C, Connolly J, Silver WL, Campbell DI (2023) Global observation gaps of peatland greenhouse gas balances: needs and obstacles. \u003cem\u003eBiogeochemistry\u003c/em\u003e, 1\u0026ndash;16. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/S10533-023-01091-2/FIGURES/6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/S10533-023-01091-2/FIGURES/6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-processes","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"enpr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Processes](https://www.springer.com/journal/40710)","snPcode":"40710","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40710/3","title":"Environmental Processes","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Alpine, bog, carbon emissions, soil carbon, Sphagnum, subalpine","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4609071/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4609071/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAustralian alpine peatlands are critically important ecosystems that deliver a range of valuable services. However, our understanding of these services in Australia, particularly peatland carbon cycling, is lacking. Here, we investigated quantified peat soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) concentrations, C:N ratios, and C density in eight \u003cem\u003eSphagnum\u003c/em\u003e-dominated peatlands on the Bogong High Plains, southeastern Australia. Soil C and N concentrations averaged 16.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.2% and 0.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4%, respectively. C:N ratios averaged 30.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.4, and C density averaged 46.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.7 mg C cm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e. Our findings suggest that (1) these peatlands are significant C stores; (2) peat biogeochemistry is highly variable between sites, even at small spatial scales; and (3) while not a direct focus of the study, peat depths in this area were relatively shallow, ranging from 30\u0026ndash;60 cm, possibly due to previous disturbance. Additionally, we present preliminary data investigating CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e fluxes at these sites. We recommend that future research includes (1) age dating peat cores to better understand the role of disturbance in peat accumulation and loss; and (2) long-term C flux studies at multiple peatland sites.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Carbon storage and fluxes from Sphagnum peatlands of the Bogong High Plains, Australia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-08-13 18:24:10","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4609071/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-08-08T15:30:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"206872777541262148731620900142250138613","date":"2024-07-03T11:52:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-06-28T16:43:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"248176891717460106380815557906116367880","date":"2024-06-28T13:52:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"11040382054626548612205091129512642495","date":"2024-06-26T12:46:08+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-06-25T18:34:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"188777538891598196559145159105746341525","date":"2024-06-25T11:00:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-06-22T17:38:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-06-21T12:20:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-06-21T05:04:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Environmental Processes","date":"2024-06-20T04:25:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"environmental-processes","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"enpr","sideBox":"Learn more about [Environmental Processes](https://www.springer.com/journal/40710)","snPcode":"40710","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40710/3","title":"Environmental Processes","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b44bb693-d52c-4653-9546-22dc5085ee3c","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 13th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-10-28T16:09:20+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4609071","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-024-00736-0","journal":{"identity":"environmental-processes","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Environmental Processes"},"publishedOn":"2024-10-26 15:58:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"October 26th, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-08-13 18:24:10","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s40710-024-00736-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-024-00736-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4609071","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4609071","identity":"rs-4609071","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}