Diverse life histories and childhood socialization during the middle and late Dawenkou period: Incremental dentin isotope evidence from the Jiaojia site, China

Diverse life histories and childhood socialization during the middle and late Dawenkou period: Incremental dentin isotope evidence from the Jiaojia site, China | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Diverse life histories and childhood socialization during the middle and late Dawenkou period: Incremental dentin isotope evidence from the Jiaojia site, China Meng Liu, Zhongming Tang, Yongsheng Zhao, Hao Wu, Shuai Yao, Yu Dong, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8504291/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Investigating childhood socialization can enhance our comprehensions of families and the overall society in the past. Previous studies paid little attention to subadults, and the evidence on the intergenerational inheritance of wealth and status is still lacking. Stable isotope analysis of incremental dentin and bones enables the reconstruction of individual life histories and provides a new dimension to the study of social stratification and childhood socialization. We conducted stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis on incremental dentin, limb bones, and ribs of individuals from the middle and late Dawenkou period, the Jiaojia site. Results indicate that Jiaojia people have diverse weaning patterns and individual life histories. The 22 individuals in this study were divided into four groups: “typical” weaning, millet weaning, “stress”, and non-local groups. Comparisons among groups of different burial lavishness indicated that the elites consistently consumed more high-protein C 3 foods, from childhood to adulthood, while the ordinary people maintained a C 4 -dominant diet. The dietary differentiation was related to the development of privatization of family wealth and social stratification. Both dietary and mortuary practices showed there are observable differences within the group of subadults, and indicated the diversity and complexity of childhood socialization. This study demonstrates that multidimensional investigations including diet, health, and mortuary practices could provide critical evidence on the process of prehistoric social stratification and childhood socialization. Only by studying both subadults and adults can we piece together the whole picture of complex ancient societies. Stable isotopes incremental dentin weaning childhood socialization social stratification Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1. Introduction Social stratification has attracted sustained scholarly interest in archaeology; the primary methodology was the examination of mortuary contexts, domestic architecture, and household goods to discern disparities in socioeconomic status among individuals (Binford, 1971 ; Costin and Earle, 1989 ; Hirth, 1989 ; Kamp, 1998 ; Pearson, 1988 ; Smith, 1987 ). During the middle and late Dawenkou period (3500–2400 cal. BC), the appearance of obvious differences in burial lavishness indicated the inequality of socioeconomic status among different social groups (Luan, 2013 ; Underhill, 2000 ). Some scholars believe that there was already an incipient social stratification (Liu, 2004 ; Shao, 2000 ). However, some are more skeptical and argued that mortuary data alone do not necessarily provide an accurate reflection of social stratification (Allard, 2001 ; Fung, 2000 ; Pearson, 1993 ; Underhill, 2002 ). Stable isotope analysis of incremental dentin collagen, a relatively new method in bioarchaeology developed in the past decade or so, enables the acquisition of high temporal resolution data from horizontal sections of dentin to trace information during one’s childhood, such as breastfeeding, weaning, dietary strategies, and stress (Beaumont et al., 2013 , 2015 ; Eerkens et al., 2011 ; Fuller et al., 2003 ; Tsutaya and Yoneda, 2015 ). This kind of analysis carried out on adults’ teeth, combined with isotope analysis of bone collagen, can reconstruct an individual’s life history from birth to death, thereby effectively circumventing the problem of “osteological paradox” concerning the representation of non-survivors (Reynard and Tuross, 2015 ; Sandberg et al., 2014 ; Wood et al., 1992 ). It provides a new perspective for discussing the associations among dietary practices, childhood socialization, and social stratification. Studies have shown that weaning and dietary practices of childhood can be influenced by factors such as chronology, gender, culture, and social status (Eerkens et al., 2024 ; Fournier et al., 2022 ; Herrscher et al., 2024 ; Miller et al., 2020 ; Yi et al., 2021 ). Studies have been conducted to reveal the development of gender and social age and subadult’s participation in childhood socialization by examining sex differences and age-related variations in childhood diets (Herrscher et al., 2024 ; Miller et al., 2020 ; Wang et al., 2022 ). However, the association between socioeconomic status and childhood dietary practices has rarely been discussed (Darmon and Drewnowski, 2008 ; Gugora et al., 2016 ; Stantis et al., 2021 ). Differences in access to food resources based on socioeconomic status have persisted throughout human history (Darmon and Drewnowski, 2008 ; Hayden, 2014 ; Twiss, 2012 ). This is supported by studies of mortuary and dietary practices of some sites from the Dawenkou culture, as elites with higher socioeconomic status usually consumed more specialized or preferred foods during the late Dawenkou period, although males and females generally had similar diets (Chen et al., 2019 ; Dong et al., 2019 , 2021; Liu et al., 2024 ). Previous studies have usually examined social stratification through mortuary and dietary practices from an adult dimension, the evidence on possible intergenerational transmission of socioeconomic status is still lacking, which is critical in understanding incipient social stratification (Bowles and Fochesato, 2024 ). Some studies found that while economic status is associated with dietary differences in adulthood, i. e., wealthier males have consumed more high trophic level foods, there are no significant differences in childhood, which suggests that people may have shared diets during childhood (Kinaston et al., 2013 ; Stantis et al., 2021 ). The current study builds upon mortuary research by integrating perspectives on dietary practices and childhood socialization to conduct a multifaceted examination of social stratification. We focus on the following questions: Does dietary differentiation based on socioeconomic status emerge during childhood? How do mortuary and dietary practices reflect family constructions of subadult’s identities in the process of childhood socialization? Therefore, we carried out stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of incremental dentin, limb bones, and ribs from burials dated to the middle and late Dawenkou period at the Jiaojia site (Department of Archaeology and Museology, Shandong University [DAMSU] and Longshan Culture Museum [LCM], 2019a; 2019b; 2019c). We examined weaning patterns and life histories across the population and then compared isotope results of incremental dentin among social groups to explore whether dietary differences developed in childhood between elites and ordinary people and whether there were any differences in their weaning patterns. 2. Archaeological background The Jiaojia site is located at Zhangqiu District of Jinan City, Shandong Province, China. It is situated on the piedmont alluvial plain to the north of Tai Mountain in the lower Yellow River region (Fig. 1 ). Discovered in 1987 and first excavated in the 1990s (Zhangqiu Museum [ZM], 1998), continuous and systematic excavations have been conducted at the site from 2016 to 2024. The site covers more than 1 million square meters, with approximately 5,200 square meters excavated to date. A total of 175 houses, 514 burials, 2,262 pits, 35 ditches, etc., have been uncovered, predominantly dated to the middle and late Dawenkou period. In addition, the discovery of rammed-earth walls and moats dated to the middle Dawenkou period, enclosing a core area of 122,500 square meters, marks it one of the earliest central settlements in the lower Yellow River region (DAMSU and LCM, 2019a; 2019b; 2019c). Based on stratigraphy and pottery typology, the burials from Jiaojia have been divided into the early and late phases. Radiocarbon dating results indicate that the early and late phases date to 2920 to 2700 cal. BC and 2870 to 2490 cal. BC, respectively (95.4% confidence interval) (Liu et al., 2024 ; Wang et al., 2020 ). These burials have been categorized into three lavishness levels: elaborate, moderate, and simple (DAMSU and LCM, 2019a; 2019c; Liu et al., 2024 ), and they differed significantly in terms of the size of burials, the number of coffins, and the quantity and quality of grave goods (Fig. 2 a– 2 c). Since the definition of childhood is culturally specific and there are no standardized age stages, we combined the methods of evolutionary anthropology and bioarchaeology to generally divide childhood into three stages: infancy (0–3 years old), early childhood (3–7 years old), and juvenile stage (7–15 years old) (Halcrow and Tayles, 2008b ). The number of subadult’s burials excavated at Jiaojia in the 2016–2017 seasons in each age group are listed in Table 1 , and we counted the number of burials with both coffins and grave goods, those with only coffins, only grave goods, and with none at all. From a total of 215 burials, there were 35 subadult’s burials, 29 of which had coffins or grave goods, most of them are juveniles (7–15 years old). Table 1 Summary on the number of subadult’s burials at Jiaojia site, with both coffins and grave goods, with only coffins, only grave goods, and with none at all (from the 2016–2017 seasons). Age group Both coffin and grave goods Only coffin Only grave goods None Total Infancy (0–3 yrs) 1 2 4 3 10 Early childhood (3–7 yrs) 0 2 4 1 7 Juvenile (7–15 yrs) 12 0 4 2 18 Total 13 4 12 6 35 Interestingly, there were both well and badly treated subadult burials in the cemetery. For example, as shown in Fig. 2 , the individuals M124, M133, and M167 were similar in age (ca. 10–15 years old) but with significant differences in burial lavishness. In addition, individuals M45 and H1201 were both infants, but their mortuary treatment was also very different (Fig. 2 d, 2 e). These phenomena were tentatively attributed to the development of social stratification during the Dawenkou period, and will be further examined and discussed in current study. There are relatively few discoveries and studies on prehistoric subadult’s burials in China, probably because they were buried in areas separate from the adults. Among these, research on jar burials of subadult is somewhat more extensive. Most of the jar coffins had perforations symbolizing the entry and exit of the soul; some were intricately painted or carved with special symbols; and some contained additional grave goods. Studies indicate that jar burials may have originated in multiple areas and are found worldwide, most scholars believe that this burial practice reflects a universal human sentiment of deep sorrow and special care for prematurely dead subadults (Wang, 2018 ; Xu, 1989 ). In addition, scholars have paid considerable attention to the findings of elaborate burials of subadults. In addition to the Jiaojia site in the current study, the elaborate burials of subadults have also been found at other sites, such as the burial M117 and M2007 from the Tai’an Dawenkou site (Dawenkou period, 3800 to 2400 BCE), both of which have wooden coffin and over 30 grave goods (Underhill, 2000 ). Another example is the burial M152 from the Banpo site (early Yangshao period, 4800 to 4300 BCE), which have wooden coffin, 6 pottery vessels, 1 jade earring, and ornaments consisting of over 70 stone beads. Scholars argued that it owned by a little girl and that the society at the time was matriarchal, hence the girl received a lavish burial (Zhang, 2013 ). Most scholars argued that these elaborate subadult’s burials represent the development of social stratification and the emergence of hierarchy and power inheritance (Luan, 2015 ). In contrast, more subadults were buried plainly during prehistoric period, and some were even possibly buried abnormally as sacrifices. For example, the burial pit AH1 from the Wuzhuangguoliang site (late Yangshao period, 3500 to 2600 BCE) included 17 subadults buried in a particular order that was believed to be related to sacrificial rituals. Some infants were found in the building foundations and rammed-earth layers at the Xishan site (late Yangshao period, 3500 to 2600 BCE), which were thought to be related to foundation rituals. Studies indicate that the majority of sacrifices in foundation rituals were subadults, while only a few adults were sacrificed (Li, 2017 ; Li, 2015 ). These phenomena showed the different roles that subadults were shaped into during childhood socialization at that period. 3. Materials and methods 3.1. Materials More than five hundred burials dated to the middle and late Dawenkou period have been excavated at the Jiaojia site. The human bone and tooth samples of the current study are drawn from seasons 2016 to 2017. These skeletons have been osteologically assessed for sex and age, and their archaeological context and locations within the cemetery have been briefly described and published (DAMSU and LCM, 2019c; Niu, 2020 ; Zhang, 2017 ). We selected teeth, limb bones, and ribs from 22 individuals for stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis, and detailed information of all samples is shown in Table 2 . Good preservation condition is the most important criteria for sampling, balanced groups in terms of phase, sex, and burial lavishness are also considered. These sampled individuals can be grouped by pottery phase into the early (n = 9) and late (n = 13) phases; by sex, males (n = 7), females (n = 7), and unknown sex (n = 8); and by burial lavishness, including elaborate burials (n = 6), moderate burials (n = 10), and simple burials (n = 6). The selection of tooth was prioritized based on the developmental chronology, ideally one that would cover the entire childhood: first permanent molars (M1) received first priority as they were formed from neonatal months to ca. 10 years; permanent canines (C) served as the secondary choice, capturing from ca. 7 months to ca. 14 years; first permanent incisors (I1) are the third alternative, developed from ca. 6 months to ca. 9 years (AlQahtani et al., 2010 ; Beaumont and Montgomery, 2015 ). Table 2 Archaeological context and sampling information of human bone and dentin samples from the Jiaojia site. Sample ID Pottery phase Sex Age at death (yrs) Lavishness Coffin type Number of grave goods Bone element sampled Tooth sampled Number of dentin sections M57 Early Male 35–40 Elaborate Outer and inner 51 Ulna; Rib Upper left first molar (ULM1) 12 M98 Early Unknown 16–20 Elaborate Inner 69 Radius; Rib Upper right canine (URC) 13 M124 Early Unknown 13–15 Elaborate Inner 60 Ulna; Rib Upper left first molar (ULM1) 12 M10 Early Male 30–35 Moderate Inner 18 Radius; Rib Upper left first incisor (ULI1) 13 M78 Early Male 18–20 Moderate Inner 26 Fibula; Rib Upper right canine (URC) 14 M127 Early Male 23–27 Moderate Inner 29 Radius; Rib Upper left canine (ULC) 14 M130 Early Female 35–40 Moderate Inner 3 Radius; Rib Lower left first molar (LLM1) 12 M133 Early Unknown 8–10 Moderate Inner 1 Ulna; Rib Upper left first molar (ULM1) 12 M191 Early Unknown 13–15 Moderate Inner 21 Ulna; Rib Upper right canine (URC) 13 M20 Late Male 40–50 Elaborate Outer and inner 20 Radius; Rib Lower left first molar (LLM1) 12 M173 Late Female 30–35 Elaborate Outer and inner 21 Radius; Rib Upper left first molar (ULM1) 12 M206 Late Female 45–50 Elaborate Outer and inner 24 Ulna; Rib Lower left first molar (LLM1) 11 M22 Late Female 35–40 Moderate Inner 2 Radius; Rib Lower right first molar (LRM1) 11 M25 Late Female 35–40 Moderate Inner 28 Fibula; Rib Upper left canine (ULC) 13 M168 Late Unknown 13–15 Moderate Inner 3 Radius; Rib Lower left first molar (LLM1) 7 M175 Late Male 40–45 Moderate Inner 8 Radius; Rib Lower right canine (LRC) 13 M2 Late Unknown 9–11 Simple None 2 Ulna; Rib Upper right first molar (URM1) 11 M63 Late Unknown 14–17 Simple None 0 Ulna; Rib Upper left first molar (ULM1) 11 M67 Late Female 40± Simple None 1 Ulna; Rib Upper left first molar (ULM1) 11 M118 Late Female 50± Simple None 1 Ulna; Rib Upper right first molar (URM1) 12 M163 Late Male 40–50 Simple None 0 Ulna; Rib Lower left canine (LLC) 12 M167 Late Unknown 10–11 Simple None 0 Fibula; Rib Upper left first molar (ULM1) 11 3.2. Stable isotope analysis of bone and incremental dentin collagen 3.2.1. Methodological principles Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis has become a well-established method for reconstructing human diet, and its key principles have been systematically reviewed in many studies (Ambrose and Krigbaum, 2003 ; Kohn, 1999 ; Lee-Thorp, 2008 ; Makarewicz and Sealy, 2015 ; Schoeninger, 2014 ). Briefly, the δ 13 C values of bone collagen permit differentiating dietary contributions of C 3 and C 4 foods (DeNiro and Epstein, 1978 ; van der Merwe and Vogel, 1978 ), while the δ 15 N values facilitate the evaluation of aquatic vs. terrestrial contributions and animal protein consumption (Deniro and Epstein, 1981 ; Hedges and Reynard, 2007 ). However, interpretations of human diet should be made cautiously, ideally supported by localized isotope baselines of contemporaneous flora and fauna (Ambrose, 1991 ). Additionally, the δ 13 C and δ 15 N values of collagen predominantly reflect the protein component of diets, potentially obscuring isotope signals from carbohydrates, lipids, and other dietary constituents (Jim et al., 2004 ). Bones and teeth are the most commonly used human tissues for stable isotope analysis in archaeology. Bone tissue continues to remodel throughout adulthood, although at reduced rates, so isotope values of bone collagen reflect the average diet over a relatively long period before death. There are some differences in the rate of remodeling among different skeletal elements: isotope values of limb bones reflect an individual’s average diet of approximately 10–20 years before death, whereas those of ribs reflect the average diet of approximately 2–5 years before death (Hedges et al., 2007 ; Manolagas, 2000 ). In contrast, dental tissues, which ceased remodeling after adolescent development, preserve dietary information during their formative period (Goldberg et al., 2011 ). Additionally, dentin was laid down chronologically. When the dentin is sectioned in serial increments, each increment corresponds to a specific period during its formation. Therefore, the isotope values of incremental dentin can reflect dietary changes of individuals from birth to puberty with high temporal resolution (< 1 year) (Beaumont et al., 2013 ; Beaumont and Montgomery, 2015 ). Integrated isotope analysis of incremental dentin, limb bones, and ribs allows for the reconstruction of relatively complete life histories from birth to death, including breastfeeding, weaning, maturing, adulthood, aging, and it will also help elucidating how different life phases were influenced by socio-environmental factors (e.g., ecological constraints, economic systems, cultural norms, political structures, and individual roles/status) (Beaumont et al., 2015 ; Craig-Atkins et al., 2018 ; Herrscher et al., 2024 ; Charlotte L. King et al., 2018 ; Miller et al., 2020 ; Stantis et al., 2021 ; Yi et al., 2021 ). Studies on modern human breastfeeding and weaning processes reveal that the δ 15 N and δ 13 C values of exclusively breastfed infants are higher in their tissues compared to adults (Fuller et al., 2006 ). During weaning initiation and the introduction of complementary foods, δ 15 N values demonstrate a gradual decline, stabilizing to adult-equivalent levels upon complete weaning cessation (ca. 2–3‰ drop). Thus, δ 15 N value can serve as a robust indicator for reconstructing the onset, duration, and ending of weaning (Stantis et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, the magnitude of variation in δ 13 C and δ 15 N values can provide critical insights into the composition and type of weaning foods (e.g., C 3 vs. C 4 foods) (Chryssi Bourbou et al., 2013 ; C. L. King et al., 2018 ; Stantis et al., 2021 ). The δ 15 N values can also be used to assess physiological stress, it tends to increase (ca. 1–3‰) suddenly in human tissues under stresses including malnutrition, disease, and metabolic disorders, and then decrease when the body recovers (D’Ortenzio et al., 2015 ; Fuller et al., 2005 ). The response mechanism of δ 13 C values to stress is still controversial including a decrease (Ganiatsou et al., 2023 ; Mekota et al., 2006 ), no significant change (Fuller et al., 2005 ; Hatch et al., 2006 ), or a slight increase (Canterbury et al., 2020 ; Crowder et al., 2019 ). Taken together, the sudden abnormal increase of δ 15 N values is a good indicator of stress, while changes in δ 13 C values can only be used as secondary evidence. Nevertheless, comprehensive interpretation is ideally supported with other evidences, such as stress markers from paleopathological analysis (e.g., linear enamel hypoplasia, porotic hyperostosis, and cribra orbitalia ) or premature mortality (Halcrow and Tayles, 2008a ; Reitsema and McIlvaine, 2014 ). 3.2.2. Experimental procedures and analysis methods The extraction of dentin collagen followed methods by Beaumont et al. ( 2013 ) with small modifications. After enamel removal, the entire dentin was demineralized in 0.5 M HCl at 4°C, with the acid replaced every 24 hrs. Once the dentin had become fully softened while retaining its original morphology, the crown portion was sectioned into 1 mm increments, while the root portion was sectioned into 2 mm increments, considering that the isotope ratios of the root incremental dentin are generally stable (Beaumont et al., 2015 ; Eerkens et al., 2011 ). These sections underwent further demineralization in 0.5 M HCl. Following thorough rinsing to neutrality, samples were gelatinized in 0.001 M HCl at 75°C for 24 hrs, then freeze dried. The extraction of bone collagen followed Ambrose ( 1990 ) with small modifications. After sequential treatment with 0.2 M HCl and 0.125 M NaOH, and rinsed to neutral, the samples were gelatinized in 0.001 M HCl at 70°C for 20 hrs. After that, samples were filtered and freeze dried. Extracted collagen samples were analyzed for the C and N contents (%) and the δ 13 C and δ 15 N values (‰) using an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (Delta V Advantage, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc., USA). The δ 13 C and δ 15 N values are reported relative to Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite (VPDB) and Ambient Inhalable Reservoir (AIR), respectively. The analytic precision is ± 0.1‰ for δ 13 C and ± 0.2‰ for δ 15 N, respectively. The estimation of ages of serial dentin increments followed Beaumont and Montgomery ( 2015 ), based on the developmental timelines from the London Atlas of Human Tooth Development and Eruption (AlQahtani et al., 2010 ). Estimated age ranges for each dentin increment were assigned according to the initiation and completion ages of crown and root formation, with subsequent calculation of median ages ( Table S1 ) . Notably, some teeth have age gaps due to crown wear or root loss. Furthermore, given the non-horizontal deposition pattern of dentin matrix, the isotope values of a single incremental dentin section represent an average shift over a brief period rather than an age point (Beaumont et al., 2013 ). Statistical analysis and plotting were done using OriginPro 2024 (OriginLab Corp., USA). Non-parametric tests were used for inter-group comparisons due to small sample sizes: Wilcoxon signed rank test for paired sample groups; Mann-Whitney U test for unpaired sample groups. The significance level is 0.05, with p ≤ 0.05 indicating a statistically significant difference and p ≤ 0.01 indicating a highly significant difference. 4. Results Diagenesis of the samples was assessed according to the collagen yield (> 0.5%), C (> 13%) and N (> 4.8%) content, and atomic C: N ratio (2.9–3.6) (Ambrose, 1990 ; DeNiro, 1985 ; van Klinken, 1999 ). The human bone samples from the Jiaojia site fulfilled all these criteria, and most incremental dentin samples met the criteria, except for a few samples of very small mass. In total, the δ 13 C and δ 15 N values of 22 limb bones, 22 ribs, and 257 incremental dentin samples could be used for further analysis and discussion ( Table S1 ). The isotope results of the limb bones, ribs, and incremental dentin samples in this current study are shown in Fig. 3 and were compared to those of Jiaojia human (n = 115) and pig (n = 6) bone samples reported in the previous study (Liu et al., 2024 ). Isotope data of plants and animals from other contemporary sites in the neighboring regions (Tai’an Dawenkou, Liangwangcheng, and Dahecun) were referenced to establish isotope baselines (Chen et al., 2019 ; Dong et al., 2019 ; Tao et al., 2022a , b ) ( Table S2 ). In the current study, the δ 13 C and δ 15 N values of human limb bones from the Jiaojia site ranged from − 11.5‰ to − 7.1‰ (mean = − 8.9 ± 1.1‰, n = 22) and 6.8‰ to 10.4‰ (mean = 9.2 ± 0.9‰, n = 22), respectively; those of ribs ranged from − 11.8‰ to − 7.0‰ (mean = − 8.7 ± 1.2‰, n = 22) and 7.8‰ to 10.3‰ (mean = 9.3 ± 0.6‰, n = 22), respectively; and those of incremental dentin ranged from − 18.4‰ to − 5.7‰ (mean = − 10.0 ± 2.6‰, n = 257) and 8.4‰ to 15.2‰ (mean = 10.8 ± 1.2‰, n = 257), respectively ( Table S1 ; Table S2 ). As shown in Fig. 3 , the ranges of δ 13 C and δ 15 N values of limb bones and ribs were similar to previously reported data of human bones. This further supports that the diet of Jiaojia humans was composed primarily of C 4 foods, including foxtail and broomcorn millets and pigs that fed on C 4 foods, supplemented with C 3 wild animals and plants (Liu et al., 2024 ). It is worth noting that both the δ 13 C and δ 15 N values of incremental dentin have a wider range. Some of the dentin increments had significantly higher δ 15 N values (Fig. 3 ), which is probably influenced by breastfeeding. Meanwhile, lower δ 13 C values of dentin increments were found in two individuals (M67, M163) (Fig. 3 ), suggesting that these two individuals had more C 3 plants and terrestrial/freshwater animals in their diet during childhood. 5. Discussion 5.1. Weaning age The serial incremental dentin isotope profiles of all individuals (n = 22) show that the δ 15 N values of the first several dentin increments were significantly higher than those of limb bones and ribs (Fig. 4 ), suggesting the ubiquity of breastfeeding in early childhood. After a subsequent decrease (ca. 0.4–4.4‰), the δ 15 N values of most individuals generally stabilized after weaning was completed (except for M2, M167, and M168). The isotope profiles also show a decrease (ca. 0.7–3.3‰) or increase (ca. 0.9–2.4‰) in δ 13 C values after the first several dentin increments (Fig. 4 ), indicating the introduction of different kinds of complementary weaning foods from C3/C4 sources in early childhood. Therefore, we estimated the age of the completion of weaning primarily based on the inflection point of the trend of δ 15 N values. The weaning ages were estimated for 10 out of 22 individuals, the others did not show a clear inflection point, hence their weaning ages were not determined. The final estimated weaning ages ranged from 3.2 to 5.1 years old, with the median age at 3.8 years old and the average age at 3.9 ± 0.7 years old (n = 10) (Table 3 ; Fig. 4 ). This weaning age is slightly older than that previously reported of prehistoric agricultural populations from the Yangshao culture (mean = 3.1 years old, n = 15) in the Central Plain (Lei et al., 2023 ) and the Baodun culture (mean = 3.5 years old, n = 12) in the Chengdu Plain (Yi et al., 2018 , 2021 ), China. However, this weaning age may not be representative of the whole population due to the small number of individuals that can be estimated. Moreover, we argue that the Jiaojia people probably did not have a universal weaning age, as shown by the large variations among individuals. Table 3 Summary of estimated weaning age, the average carbon and nitrogen isotope values of dentin after 5 years old, and the isotope values of bone samples from Jiaojia humans sampled in the current study. Sample ID Estimated weaning age (yrs) Average δ 13 C values of dentin (post 5 years old; ‰) Average δ 15 N values of dentin (post 5 years old; ‰) δ 13 C values of limb bone collagen (‰) δ 15 N values of limb bone collagen (‰) δ 13 C values of rib collagen (‰) δ 15 N values of rib collagen (‰) M57 3.2 −10.0 10.6 −9.2 10.1 −8.8 10.0 M98 −11.8 11.1 −10.1 10.4 −11.1 10.3 M124 3.8 −11.7 10.9 −11.5 10.4 −11.8 8.8 M10 −8.5 9.9 −8.6 6.8 −8.8 9.1 M78 5.1 −10.0 10.4 −8.7 10.1 −9.1 8.8 M127 −7.6 9.6 −8.1 8.8 −9.3 9.5 M130 3.8 −11.0 9.7 −9.5 8.9 −9.6 10.0 M133 3.2 −10.1 9.0 −9.0 8.3 −9.3 8.7 M191 −9.2 10.6 −9.2 8.9 −10.0 8.5 M20 4.5 −9.5 10.5 −8.3 9.4 −7.7 9.6 M173 3.2 −11.0 10.7 −9.0 9.5 −8.1 9.8 M206 5.0 −10.0 10.1 −8.9 9.4 −8.9 9.6 M22 −8.4 11.0 −7.8 9.2 −7.6 9.5 M25 −7.8 9.5 −7.8 8.5 −8.3 8.9 M168 −7.6 9.3 −7.5 9.6 M175 −7.6 10.5 −8.4 9.2 −7.0 9.2 M2 3.8 −7.6 10.3 −7.1 8.1 −7.5 7.8 M63 −7.5 10.1 −7.4 8.9 −7.3 9.1 M67 −17.0 11.7 −11.5 10.1 −7.9 9.4 M118 3.8 −9.9 9.3 −9.2 8.0 −8.9 8.9 M163 −17.5 10.9 −9.9 9.8 −8.8 10.1 M167 −9.4 10.3 −9.0 9.5 −9.0 9.5 5.2. Diverse weaning patterns and individual life histories The isotope profiles showed diverse weaning patterns and individual life histories. According to the trends of δ 13 C and δ 15 N values of incremental dentin, we divided the 22 individuals of current study into four groups (Fig. 4 ). We calculated the magnitude of change in δ 13 C and δ 15 N values during weaning to examine the types of weaning foods, and for individuals without an estimated weaning age, we calculated the magnitude of change before 5 years old. The trend in δ 15 N values (decreased ca. 2.5–3.7‰) of individuals from group A (n = 7) followed the “typical weaning curve”, with a ca. 2–3‰ decrease in δ 15 N values and a concurrent decrease in δ 13 C values which then generally flattens out (Eerkens et al., 2011 ; Fuller et al., 2006 ; Tsutaya, 2017 ). However, these individuals in current study had a considerable decrease (ca. 1.4–3.3‰) in δ 13 C values, suggesting that they consumed more C 3 -based solid foods during the weaning period (Fig. 4 ). Large number of deer, fish, and shellfish remains were found at the Jiaojia site (Wang et al., 2024 ; Wang, 2019 ), which were potential sources of C 3 -based weaning foods for this group. Shellfish is an allergenic food, which may cause severe allergies in infants (Fleischer et al., 2021 ). Hence, the weaning foods for this group of individuals probably included meat porridge (deer or fish). Furthermore, we found that these individuals had a general increase in δ 13 C values after weaning (Fig. 4 ), suggesting that the proportion of C 4 foods (e.g., foxtail millet, broomcorn millet) in their diet increased during late childhood. The δ 15 N values of individuals from group B (n = 6) also decreased in the first few years (ca. 0.4–2.5‰), though not significant, and no clear inflection point was observed. The δ 13 C values showed an increase (ca. 0.6–2.4‰) (Fig. 4 ). This indicates that these individuals probably consumed more C 4 foods with higher δ 15 N values during the weaning period. Moreover, the δ 13 C values of these individuals continued to increase after 5 years old, indicating a growing reliance on C 4 foods in their diets. Studies have indicated that manuring could lead to higher δ 15 N values of crops (Dong et al., 2022 ). For example, millets from the contemporary Dahecun site have relatively high δ 15 N values (Fig. 3 ), which are arguably associated with manuring (Tao et al., 2022b ). Millet porridge is one of the common weaning foods in northern China nowadays as it is readily digestible (Lei et al., 2023 ; Wang et al., 2022 ), so Jiaojia people may also use manured millet as weaning food. This hypothesis needs to be validated by further isotope analysis of charred crop remains from Jiaojia. The individuals from group C (n = 7) probably experienced physiological stress during their childhood. Both their δ 13 C and δ 15 N values had abnormal fluctuations, especially the δ 15 N values that increased abnormally (ca. 1–3‰) over a short time (Fig. 4 : M98, M130, M133, M191) or continued rapid decrease during the weaning period (Fig. 4 : M2, M167, M168). The individual M98 showed a rapid increase in δ 13 C and δ 15 N values (ca. 4.1‰ and ca. 1.6‰, respectively) from 2.7 to 3.5 years old, suggesting a physiological stress possibly related to the maladaptive weaning process. After that, the δ 13 C and δ 15 N values of this individual gradually decreased, suggesting a recovery after care. But then the δ 15 N values increased (ca. 0.6‰) again from 12.6 to 13.9 years old, along with a decrease (ca. 2‰) in δ 13 C values, suggesting that he/she probably faced a new stress during puberty. Eventually, this individual died at 16–20 years old. Individual M130 showed a rapid increase (ca. 3‰) and then a decrease (ca. 2‰) in δ 15 N values from 7.5 to 9.5 years old, while the δ 13 C values decreased ca. 1.2‰ and then increased ca. 1.7‰, suggesting that this individual experienced a short period of stress. Eventually, this individual died at 35–40 years old. Individual M133 showed a rapid increase (ca. 1.4‰) and then a decrease (ca. 1.4‰) in δ 15 N values from 4.5 to 6.3 years old, while the δ 13 C values decreased ca. 1.9‰ and then increased ca. 1.1‰, but this was followed by a gradual increase in δ 15 N values, suggesting that this individual recovered from a stress, but then experienced a long-lasting stress during late childhood, and eventually died at 8–10 years old. Individual M191 showed an increase (ca. 1‰) in δ 15 N values from 11.3 to 12.6 years old, along with an increase (ca. 2.2‰) in δ 13 C values, suggesting that this individual probably experienced stress and dietary changes during puberty, and eventually died at 13–15 years old. Individuals M2, M167, and M168 from group C showed larger decreases in δ 15 N values (ca. 3.8–4.4‰, compared to “normal” weaning group of a drop of about 3‰) before 5 years old. It suggests that these individuals consumed more solid foods with low δ 15 N values during the weaning period, which probably led to malnutritional stress and eventually to premature deaths (all three died at 9–15 years old). Taken together, the current study found that 7 out of 22 individuals probably experienced physiological stress during childhood, which is possibly related to illness, malnutrition, or maladaptive weaning patterns (Beaumont and Montgomery, 2016 ; Crowder et al., 2019 ; Charlotte L. King et al., 2018 ). This is consistent with previous paleopathologic studies, which have found a relatively high prevalence (ca. 51.2%) of linear enamel hypoplasia among Jiaojia humans, suggesting that many individuals possibly experienced stress during childhood (Zhang, 2017 ). Moreover, 5 out of the 7 individuals from group C died before turning adulthood; while all other studied individuals in current study survived into adulthood (except M124). It suggests that physiological stress during childhood is an important factor for health and lifespan (Fernández-Crespo et al., 2022 ; Schroeder and Brown, 1994 ). The δ 13 C values of individuals from group D (n = 2) were significantly lower than those of the other individuals and also lower than those of their own limb bones and ribs (Table 3 ; Fig. 4 ). This indicates that their diets in childhood included significant amount of C 3 foods, however, their diets during adulthood were similar to those of the other individuals, mainly C 4 foods. Both individuals are from simple burials with no coffins and almost no grave goods (Table 2 ). Individual M67 was buried with her head to the south, while the majorities at Jiaojia were buried with their heads to the east. Previous studies have shown that Neolithic populations in Shandong were generally buried with their heads to the east, some to the north, but very few to the south (Luan, 2021 ). Strontium isotope analysis of human bones from Jiaojia identified a few non-locals (Fang, 2018 ), some of whom were buried with unusual head orientations, so we believe that the individual M67 was non-local. The individual M163 has a normal burial orientation (the east). Nonetheless, we argue that he may also be non-local because of his special diet during his childhood. These two non-locals lived in their hometown during childhood and consumed more C 3 foods; after coming to Jiaojia in adulthood, their diets changed to predominantly C 4 foods. They lived at Jiaojia for a long time (10–20 years) until they died in the age of 40s. Further strontium isotope analysis of individuals with special diets or burial head orientations from Jiaojia will help identify whether they were non-locals, as well as their potential birthplaces. 5.3. Dietary changes over the life course of the Jiaojia people For most individuals in current study, the δ 13 C and δ 15 N values of incremental dentin were no longer affected by the breast-feeding effect after approximately 5 years old and remained relatively stable (Fig. 4 ). Therefore, we calculated the average isotope values of post-5-year-old dentin increments to examine the post-weaning diet of Jiaojia people (Table 3 ). They are then compared to limb bones and ribs to explore how people’s diet changes over their life course (Fig. 5 ). M168 was excluded because of the loss of post-5-year-old dentin increments, while M67 and M163 were also removed because they are outliers. The mean δ 13 C values of post-5-year-old dentin, limb bones, and ribs were − 9.4 ± 1.4‰, − 8.8 ± 1.0‰, and − 8.8 ± 1.2‰ (n = 19), respectively. The mean δ 15 N values of post-5-year-old dentin, limb bones, and ribs were 10.2 ± 0.6‰, 9.1 ± 0.9‰, and 9.2 ± 0.6‰ (n = 19), respectively. The δ 13 C values of dentin were lower ( p < 0.05, Wilcoxon signed rank test) than those of limb bones and ribs. The δ 15 N values of dentin were significantly higher ( p < 0.01, Wilcoxon signed rank test) than those of limb bones and ribs (Fig. 5 ). It suggests that the Jiaojia people consumed more C 3 foods with higher δ 15 N values, possibly meat (deer or fish), during post-weaning childhood compared to adulthood and pre-death. We argue that this may indicate that Jiaojia people provided extra care and investment for subadults through dietary practices. Furthermore, there were no significant differences for both δ 13 C ( p = 0.53, Wilcoxon signed rank test) and δ 15 N ( p = 0.23, Wilcoxon signed rank test) values between limb bones and ribs (Fig. 5 ). It suggests that Jiaojia people had a relatively stable diet from adulthood to death. However, this observation may be biased due to the young age of some analyzed individuals, i.e. young people’s limb bones and ribs reflected the diet during the similar period. Future analysis of larger number of older individuals can help assess this hypothesis. 5.4. Weaning and dietary practices of childhood among different social groups To examine the weaning patterns and dietary practices during childhood among different social groups, we plotted the mean curves of incremental dentin of δ 13 C and δ 15 N values and calculated the average isotope values of post-5-year-old dentin increments (Table 4 ; Fig. 6 ; Fig. S1 ; Fig. S2 ). M168 was excluded from the comparisons because of the loss of post-5-year-old dentin increments, M67 and M163 were also removed because they were outliers. We did not remove individuals who probably experienced stress due to sample size limitation. Comparison between the early and late phase groups showed diachronic changes in the weaning diet of Jiaojia people, with the increased consumption of C 4 weaning foods during the late phase, which indicates an increase in the contribution of millet agriculture (Table 4 ; Fig. S1 ). Comparisons among different sex groups showed dietary similarities between adult males and females can be dated back to childhood (Table 4 ; Fig. S2 ). Since these results are generally consistent with the previous study (Liu et al., 2024 ), they are not discussed in detail in the text of the current study, but rather in the Supplementary discussion . Previous isotope analysis of human bones from Jiaojia found that the elites of higher socioeconomic status developed a significant dietary disparity from the ordinary people and that they consumed more high-protein C 3 foods during the late Dawenkou period (Liu et al., 2024 ). In the current study, we divided the dentin isotope profiles of 22 individuals into four groups based on differences of weaning patterns (Fig. 4 ) . After examining the burial context, we find that most individuals in group A (the “typical” weaning group) are from elaborate burials (5/7), and all but one individual in group B (the millet weaning group) and group C (the “stress” group) are from moderate or simple burials (Table 2 ; Fig. 4 ) . The differences of dentin isotope profiles among these groups suggest that the elites represented by elaborate burials may have had access to different weaning food and are more likely to pass their childhood smoothly. Jiaojia elites preferred C 3 -based weaning foods possibly because these foods are more diverse and contribute to the nutritional balance of infants. To further examine whether the dietary disparity can be traced back to the whole childhood between elites and ordinary people, we compared the δ 13 C and δ 15 N values of incremental dentin among elaborate (n = 6), moderate (n = 9), and simple (n = 4) burials (Table 4 ; Fig. 6 ). Table 4 Statistical summary of carbon and nitrogen isotope values of dentin (post 5 years old) from groups of different phases, sexes, and burial lavishness (samples M67, M163, and M168 removed), the Jiaojia site. Category n δ 13 C (‰) δ 15 N (‰) Min Max Median Mean ± SD Min Max Median Mean ± SD Phase Early 9 −11.8 −7.6 −10.0 −10.0 ± 1.4 9.0 11.1 10.4 10.2 ± 0.7 Late 10 −11.0 −7.5 −8.9 −8.9 ± 1.2 9.3 11.0 10.3 10.2 ± 0.5 Sex Female 6 −11.0 −7.8 −10.0 −9.7 ± 1.3 9.3 11.0 9.9 10.1 ± 0.7 Male 6 −10.0 −7.6 −9.0 −8.9 ± 1.1 9.6 10.6 10.5 10.3 ± 0.4 Unknown 7 −11.8 −7.5 −9.4 −9.6 ± 1.7 9.0 11.1 10.3 10.3 ± 0.7 Lavishness Elaborate 6 −11.8 −9.5 −10.5 −10.7 ± 1.0 10.1 11.1 10.7 10.7 ± 0.3 Moderate 9 −11.0 −7.6 −8.5 −8.9 ± 1.2 9.0 11.0 9.9 10.0 ± 0.6 Simple 4 −9.9 −7.5 −8.5 −8.6 ± 1.2 9.3 10.3 10.2 10.0 ± 0.5 Total 19 −11.8 −7.5 −9.5 −9.4 ± 1.4 9.0 11.1 10.3 10.2 ± 0.6 The mean curves of δ 13 C values of incremental dentin showed that the δ 13 C values of individuals from elaborate burials were generally lower than those from other groups and they had larger decreases of δ 13 C values during weaning period (Fig. 6 a). The mean δ 13 C values of post-5-year-old dentin increments of individuals from elaborate burials were also significantly lower than those from moderate (ca. 1.8‰; p = 0.03, Mann-Whitney U) and simple burials (ca. 2.1‰; p = 0.02, Mann-Whitney U). While there was little difference of δ 13 C values between moderate and simple burials (ca. 0.3‰; p = 0.50, Mann-Whitney U) (Table 4 ; Fig. 6 b). On the other hand, the mean curves of δ 15 N values of incremental dentin showed that the δ 15 N values of individuals from elaborate burials were generally higher than those from other groups, while there were little differences in both magnitude of decreases and the timing of weaning among groups of different lavishness (Fig. 6 c). The mean δ 15 N values of post-5-year-old dentin increments of individuals from elaborate burials were also significantly higher than those from moderate (ca. 0.7‰; p = 0.05, Mann-Whitney U) and simple burials (ca. 0.7‰; p = 0.05, Mann-Whitney U). While there was almost no difference of δ 15 N values between moderate and simple burials (ca. 0‰; p = 0.79, Mann-Whitney U) (Table 4 ; Fig. 6 d). Taken together, isotope analysis of incremental dentin showed that individuals from elaborate burials consistently had lower δ 13 C values and higher δ 15 N values compared to the other two groups, suggesting that they consumed more high-protein C 3 foods (e.g., deer, freshwater fish) throughout weaning period and late childhood. The differences of dietary practices between elites and ordinary people had developed as early as their childhood. It demonstrates that the individuals from those elaborate burials were probably born in wealthy families. 5.5. The intersection of dietary differentiation, social stratification, and childhood socialization As revealed by isotope analysis of human bones and teeth in current study and the previous study (Liu et al., 2024 ), we found that Jiaojia elites had different diet from the ordinary people both during their childhood and adulthood. Dietary differentiation was probably one of the symbols used by elites to strengthen their identity through intergenerational transmission; in other words, it demonstrates the incipient social stratification. The elites have been able to consume preferred foods across generations, possibly due to the inheritance of resources and wealth such as lands, animals, etc., which could help maintain their socio-economic status (Mulder et al., 2009 ; Smith, 2006 ). Moreover, the types of weaning foods that distinguished the elaborate burial group from the other groups also suggest that the elites had particular child-rearing strategies. This was related to childhood socialization, which would influence economic opportunities and health outcomes of adulthood through cumulative advantage/disadvantage of dietary resources during childhood (Mortimer and Shanahan, 2006 ). We argue that both weaning and post-weaning feeding are critical aspects of childhood socialization, during which dietary differentiation serve as a marker, developed in tandem with the shaping of subadult’s social roles. Previous analysis of Dawenkou culture cemeteries argued that lineage-based households/families had emerged during that period and that different families probably had different economic status (Han, 1994 ; Luan, 2015 ; Wang, 2012 ). We also found that the burials of some elites who consumed more C 3 foods were spatially clustered together within the cemetery, suggesting that they were possibly from the same household/family (Liu et al., 2024 ). The emergence of the household/family contributed to the privatization and intergenerational transmission of wealth (Bowles and Fochesato, 2024 ). The elites provided extra care and investment for their children to maintain high social status and to keep family wealth flowing through the generations, and subadults were given an important role as inheritors in this process, even though this investment was accompanied by the risk of premature death of subadults (Craig-Atkins et al., 2018 ; Hayden, 2021 ). Burial treatment at Jiaojia suggest that subadults can have different social roles within the group. Subadults and adults from Jiaojia were buried in the same cemetery, and the burials were spatially intermixed with each other, with no separate burial areas found. Many of the prematurely dead subadults were buried with coffins or grave goods (Table 1 ), and some were even buried elaborately. For example, the individual M124 (13–15 yrs old) was buried with a single coffin and up to 60 grave goods, including a large number of jade ornaments such as rings, bracelets, and earrings (Fig. 2 a). There were also well-buried infants, for example, the individual M45 was buried with a single coffin and 10 pottery vessels (Fig. 2 d). These elaborate burials of subadults were probably from elite families, and even though they could not inherit the family’s wealth due to their early deaths, their parents used grave goods to show their investment and care for their descendants. In contrast, some subadults from simple burials at Jiaojia have suffered unfair treatment. For example, M167 was placed on the west side of elaborate burial M17, and was buried prone, with head to the west, and hands and feet were possibly bound (Fig. 2 c); M5 was placed on the west side of elaborate burial M20, and was buried on its side, with bent legs, and hands covering the face (Liu et al., 2024 : Fig. 4 ). They do not have any coffin or grave goods and were probably ritual sacrifices. In addition, we found that some infants from Jiaojia were buried under the foundation of houses, or in the layer of rammed earth wall, which possibly related to the foundation rituals (Fig. 2 e). The fact that subadults were treated so disparately demonstrated the diversity and complexity of childhood socialization at Jiaojia. 6. Conclusions The stable isotope analysis of human incremental dentin and bone samples from Jiaojia suggests that the Jiaojia people subsisted on a diet primarily composed of C 4 foods since childhood, and they completed weaning around 3 to 5 years of age, but there was no universal weaning age. Comparisons of isotope values among different human tissues showed that the Jiaojia people consumed more C 3 foods with high δ 15 N values during late childhood compared to adulthood and pre-death. The isotope profiles of incremental dentin showed diverse weaning patterns and individual life histories. According to the trends of δ 13 C and δ 15 N values of incremental dentin, we divided all 22 individuals in this study into four groups, including the “typical” weaning, millet weaning, “stress”, and non-local groups. Individuals from the “typical” weaning group (n = 7) had normal weaning patterns (concurrent decrease in δ 15 N and δ 13 C values), and they preferred C 3 weaning foods. Individuals from the millet weaning group (n = 6) preferred C 4 weaning foods with higher δ 15 N values, thus leading to an unclear weaning process. Individuals from the “stress” group (n = 7) experienced some stress during childhood, and most of them died prematurely, demonstrating the negative impact of stress on long term health. Individuals from the non-local group (n = 2) had C 3 and C 4 mixed diets during their childhood, indicating that they probably migrated from mixed millet and rice farming regions, which demonstrates the complementary role of incremental dentin isotope analysis in identifying migrations. We compared the isotope values of incremental dentin among different social groups. Comparisons among groups of different burial lavishness indicated that dietary differentiation between the elites and ordinary people had developed as early as their childhood. The elites consistently consumed more high-protein C 3 foods, from childhood to adulthood, while the ordinary people maintained a C 4 -dominant diet. We argue that the dietary differentiation was probably related to the development of privatization of family wealth and social stratification. Moreover, dietary and mortuary practices showed the elites’ investment in subadults, meanwhile some other subadults suffered unfair treatment, these together demonstrate the diversity and complexity of childhood socialization. Our study provides a new dimension for exploring the development of social stratification and childhood socialization in prehistoric China and even around the world. We demonstrates the significance of the social role of subadults and the diversity of life histories and childhood socialization. We demonstrates the impact of childhood stress on survival into adulthood, and that both weaning and post-weaning feeding are critical aspects of childhood socialization. Furthermore, our study confirms the intergenerational inheritance of wealth and status during the Dawenkou period, which provides critical evidence on social stratification in prehistory. Our sample size is relatively small, and isotope analysis of incremental dentin of more individuals from Dawenkou period and more comparisons among different regions are needed to investigate these questions in more depth. Declarations Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Author Contribution M.L.: data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, visualization, writing-original draft, writing-review & editing. Z.T.: resources. Y.Z.: methodology. H.W.: visualization. S.Y.: investigation. Y.D.: conceptualization, data curation, funding acquisition, methodology, resources, writing-review & editing. F.W.: conceptualization, funding acquisition, project administration, resources, writing-review & editing. All authors reviewed the manuscript. Acknowledgement We thank Qian Zhang, Yuxuan Qiu, Xinyi Huang, and Suxia Ma (Shandong University), who helped with the sample preparation and experiment. Data Availability All raw data of stable isotope analysis for this study can be obtained from the supplementary material. References Allard F (2001) Mortuary ceramics and social organization in the Dawenkou and Majiayao cultures. J East Asian Archaeol 3(3–4):1–22. https://doi.org/10.1163/156852301760238256 AlQahtani SJ, Hector MP, Liversidge HM (2010) Brief communication: The London atlas of human tooth development and eruption. Am J Phys Anthropol 142(3):481–490. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21258 Ambrose SH (1990) Preparation and characterization of bone and tooth collagen for isotopic analysis. J Archaeol Sci 17(4):431–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-4403(90)90007-R Ambrose SH (1991) Effects of diet, climate and physiology on nitrogen isotope abundances in terrestrial foodwebs. J Archaeol Sci 18(3):293–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-4403(91)90067-Y Ambrose SH, Krigbaum J (2003) Bone chemistry and bioarchaeology. J Anthropol Archaeol 22(3):193–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-4165(03)00033-3 Beaumont J, Gledhill A, Lee-Thorp J, Montgomery J (2013) Childhood diet: a closer examination of the evidence from dental tissues using stable isotope analysis of incremental human dentine. Archaeometry 55(2):277–295. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2012.00682.x Beaumont J, Montgomery J (2015) Oral histories: a simple method of assigning chronological age to isotopic values from human dentine collagen. Ann Hum Biol 42(4):407–414. https://doi.org/10.3109/03014460.2015.1045027 Beaumont J, Montgomery J (2016) The Great Irish Famine: Identifying starvation in the tissues of victims using stable isotope analysis of bone and incremental dentine collagen. PLoS ONE 11(8):e0160065. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0160065 Beaumont J, Montgomery J, Buckberry J, Jay M (2015) Infant mortality and isotopic complexity: New approaches to stress, maternal health, and weaning. Am J Phys Anthropol 157(3):441–457. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22736 Binford LR (1971) Mortuary practices: their study and their potential. Mem Soc Am Archaeol 25:6–29. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0081130000002525 Bowles S, Fochesato M (2024) The origins of enduring economic inequality. J Econ Lit 62(4):1475–1537. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20241718 Canterbury JA, Beck CW, Dozier C, Hoffmeister K, Magaro J, Perrotti AG, Wright LE (2020) Bariatric surgery as a proxy for nutritional stress in stable isotope investigations of archaeological populations. J Archaeol Sci : Rep 30:102196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102196 Chen ST, Yu QW, Gao MK, Miller M, Jin GY, Dong Y (2019) Dietary evidence of incipient social stratification at the Dawenkou type site, China. Quat Int 521:44–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.05.024 Chryssi Bourbou BT, Fuller SJ, Garvie-Lok MP, Richards (2013) Nursing mothers and feeding bottles: reconstructing breastfeeding and weaning patterns in Greek Byzantine populations (6th–15th centuries AD) using carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios. J Archaeol Sci 40(11):3903–3913. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.04.020 Costin CL, Earle T (1989) Status distinction and legitimation of power as reflected in changing patterns of consumption in late prehispanic peru. Am Antiq 54(4):691–714. https://doi.org/10.2307/280677 Craig-Atkins E, Towers J, Beaumont J (2018) The role of infant life histories in the construction of identities in death: An incremental isotope study of dietary and physiological status among children afforded differential burial. Am J Phys Anthropol 167(3):644–655. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23691 Crowder KD, Montgomery J, Gröcke DR, Filipek KL (2019) Childhood stress and stable isotope life histories in Transylvania. Int J Osteoarchaeol 29(4):644–653. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.2760 DAMSU (Department of Archaeology and Museology, Shandong, University LCM, Longshan Culture Museum) (2019a) (, The Jiaojia site of the Neolithic Age in Zhangqiu District, Jinan. Chin. Archaeol. 19 (1), 13–27. https://doi.org/10.1515/char-2019-0002 DAMSU (Department of Archaeology and Museology, Shandong University), LCM, Longshan Culture Museum (2019b) (), The survey and excavation of the settlement site of the Jiaojia site in Zhangqiu District, Jinan City, Shandong: A preliminary report of the 2016–2017 seasons. Archaeology (12), 3–19 (in Chinese). DAMSU (Department of Archaeology and Museology, Shandong University), LCM, Longshan Culture Museum (2019c) (), The excavation of the large burials of the Jiaojia site in Zhangqiu District, Jinan City, Shandong: A preliminary report of the 2016–2017 seasons. Archaeology (12), 20–48 (in Chinese) Darmon N, Drewnowski A (2008) Does social class predict diet quality? Am. J Clin Nutr 87(5):1107–1117. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/87.5.1107 DeNiro MJ (1985) Postmortem preservation and alteration of in vivo bone collagen isotope ratios in relation to palaeodietary reconstruction. Nature 317(6040):806–809. https://doi.org/10.1038/317806a0 DeNiro MJ, Epstein S (1978) Influence of diet on the distribution of carbon isotopes in animals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 42(5):495–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(78)90199-0 DeNiro MJ, Epstein S (1981) Influence of diet on the distribution of nitrogen isotopes in animals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 45(3):341–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(81)90244-1 Dong Y, Bi XG, Wu RB, Belfield EJ, Harberd NP, Christensen BT, Charles M, Bogaard A (2022) The potential of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of foxtail and broomcorn millets for investigating ancient farming systems. Front. Plant Sci 13:1018312. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1018312 Dong Y, Lin LG, Zhu XT, Luan FS, Underhill AP (2019) Mortuary ritual and social identities during the late Dawenkou period in China. Antiquity 93(368):378–392. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2019.34 D’Ortenzio L, Brickley M, Schwarcz H, Prowse T (2015) You are not what you eat during physiological stress: Isotopic evaluation of human hair. Am J Phys Anthropol 157(3):374–388. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22722 Eerkens JW, Asgari S, Alizadeh K, Malarchik D, Cramer S, Parker G (2024) Stable isotope and proteomic insights into Bronze age human dietary life history at Köhne Shahar, Northwest Iran. J Archaeol Sci : Rep 58:104746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104746 Eerkens JW, Berget AG, Bartelink EJ (2011) Estimating weaning and early childhood diet from serial micro-samples of dentin collagen. J Archaeol Sci 38(11):3101–3111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.07.010 Fang SY (2018) Strontium isotope analysis of human migrations of Jiaojia site. M.A. Thesis. Shandong University (in Chinese). https://doi.org/10.7666/d.Y3407997 Fernández-Crespo T, Schulting RJ, Czermak A, Ordoño J, Lorenzo JI, Rodanés JM (2022) The post-weanling’s conundrum: exploring the impact of infant and child feeding practices on early mortality in the Bronze Age burial cave of Moro de Alins, north-eastern Iberia, through stable isotope analysis. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 14(10):196. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-022-01658-4 Fleischer DM, Chan ES, Venter C, Spergel JM, Abrams EM, Stukus D, Groetch M, Shaker M, Greenhawt M (2021) A consensus approach to the primary prevention of food allergy through nutrition: Guidance from the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology; American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology; and the Canadian Society for Allergy and Clinical Immunology. J Allergy Clin Immunol : Pract 9(1):22–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2020.11.002 Fournier NA, Kennedy Thornton E, Arellano MV, Leventhal A (2022) Stable isotopic reconstruction of weaning and childhood diet during times of change: An examination of life history and health of San Francisco Bay Area juveniles. J Archaeol Sci : Rep 44:103495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103495 Fuller BT, Fuller JL, Harris DA, Hedges REM (2006) Detection of breastfeeding and weaning in modern human infants with carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios. Am J Phys Anthropol 129(2):279–293. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20249 Fuller BT, Fuller JL, Sage NE, Harris DA, O’Connell TC, Hedges REM (2005) Nitrogen balance and δ 15 N: why you’re not what you eat during nutritional stress. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 19(18):2497–2506. https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.2090 Fuller BT, Richards MP, Mays SA (2003) Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope variations in tooth dentine serial sections from Wharram Percy. J Archaeol Sci 30(12):1673–1684. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-4403(03)00073-6 Fung C (2000) The drinks are on us: Ritual, social status, and practice in Dawenkou burials, north China. J East Asian Archaeol 2(1–2):67–92. https://doi.org/10.1163/156852300509808 Ganiatsou E, Georgiadou A, Souleles A, Aidonis A, Protopsalti T, Tzevreni S, Konstantinidou K, Vasileiadou S, Siegmund F, Papageorgopoulou C (2023) Application of machine learning on isotopic data from tooth microsections for reconstructing weaning patterns and physiological stress. J Archaeol Sci : Rep 47:103765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103765 Goldberg M, Kulkarni AB, Young M, Boskey A (2011) Dentin: Structure, Composition and Mineralization: The role of dentin ECM in dentin formation and mineralization. Front Biosci (Elite Ed) 3(2):711–735. https://doi.org/10.2741/E281 Gugora AD, Dupras TL, Fothi E (2016) Childhood diet at Medieval (1240s AD) Solt-Tételhegy, Hungary as reconstructed from stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses. Am J Phys Anthropol 159(Suppl 62):164 Halcrow SE, Tayles N (2008a) Stress near the start of life? Localised enamel hypoplasia of the primary canine in late prehistoric mainland Southeast Asia. J Archaeol Sci 35(8):2215–2222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2008.02.002 Halcrow SE, Tayles N (2008b) The bioarchaeological investigation of childhood and social age: problems and prospects. J Archaeol Method Theory 15(2):190–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-008-9052-x Han JY (1994) Analysis of the Dawenkou cemetery. Cult Relics Cent China (2), 48–61 (in Chinese). Hatch KA, Crawford MA, Kunz AW, Thomsen SR, Eggett DL, Nelson ST, Roeder BL (2006) An objective means of diagnosing anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa using 15 N/ 14 N and 13 C/ 12 C ratios in hair. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 20(22):3367–3373. https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.2740 Hayden B (2014) The Power of Feasts: From Prehistory to The Present. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY Hayden B (2021) Status pursuits in prehistory, and the condition we are in. In: Isenhour C, Roscoe P (eds) Consumption, Status, and Sustainability: Ecological and Anthropological Perspectives. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, CB, pp 33–58. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108874441.003 Hedges REM, Clement JG, Thomas CDL, O’Connell TC (2007) Collagen turnover in the adult femoral mid-shaft: modeled from anthropogenic radiocarbon tracer measurements. Am J Phys Anthropol 133(2):808–816. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20598 Hedges REM, Reynard LM (2007) Nitrogen isotopes and the trophic level of humans in archaeology. J Archaeol Sci 34(8):1240–1251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.015 Herrscher E, Valentin F, Zinger W, Pradier B, André G (2024) Life histories in Fiji as reconstructed from first millennium CE Sigatoka Sand Dune burials using isotopes. PLoS ONE 19(5):e0300749. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300749 Hirth KG (1989) Domestic architecture and social rank in a Mesoamerican urban center. In: Scott, M., David, A., Richard, G. (Eds.), Households and Communities: Proceedings of the 21st Annual Chacmool Conference. Archaeological Association, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada, pp. 441–449 Jim S, Ambrose SH, Evershed RP (2004) Stable carbon isotopic evidence for differences in the dietary origin of bone cholesterol, collagen and apatite: Implications for their use in palaeodietary reconstruction. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 68(1):61–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(03)00216-3 Kamp KA (1998) Social hierarchy and burial treatments: a comparative assessment. Cross-cult Res 32:79–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/106939719803200103 Kinaston RL, Buckley HR, Gray A (2013) Diet and social status on Taumako, a Polynesian outlier in the Southeastern Solomon Islands. Am J Phys Anthropol 151(4):589–603. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22314 King CL, Halcrow SE, Millard AR, Gröcke DR, Standen VG, Portilla M, Arriaza BT (2018) Let’s talk about stress, baby! Infant-feeding practices and stress in the ancient Atacama desert, Northern Chile. Am J Phys Anthropol 166(1):139–155. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23411 Kohn MJ (1999) You are what you eat. Science 283(5400):335–336. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5400.335 Lee-Thorp JA (2008) On isotopes and old bones. Archaeometry 50(6):925–950. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2008.00441.x Lei S, Gu WF, Wu Q, Xin YJ, Guo Y (2023) Early childhood nurturing strategies in groups of the Yellow River’s middle reaches from the late Yangshao culture (3500–2800 BCE): A stable isotope perspective. Int J Osteoarchaeol 33(5):920–937. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.3254 Li B (2017) On the construction foundation custom in Yellow River basing of the Neolithic period. Cult Relics Cent China (1), 26–34 (in Chinese). Liu L (2004) The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY Liu M, Tang ZM, Zhao YS, Wu H, Cheng LX, Dong Y, Wang F (2024) Human diet and social complexity during the middle and late Dawenkou period at the Jiaojia site, China. J Archaeol Science: Rep 60:104857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104857 Li XL (2015) On the issues related to the pit burials of the Yangshao culture. Relics Museology (6), 31–37 (in Chinese). Luan FS (2013) The Dawenkou Culture in the lower Yellow River and Huai River basin areas. In: Underhill AP (ed) A Companion to Chinese Archaeology. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Malden, MA, pp 411–434. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118325698 Luan FS (2015) The development of prehistorical settlements and early civilizations in Haidai region. In: The Center for the Study of Chinese Archaeology in Peking University (Ed.), Settlement Evolution and Early Civilizations. Cultural Relics Press, Beijing, pp. 107–203 (in Chinese) Luan FS (2021) Cultural inheritance reflected from the head of the tomb: one of the prehistoric burial customs in Haidai area. East Asia Archaeol 18:1–8 (in Chinese) Makarewicz CA, Sealy J (2015) Dietary reconstruction, mobility, and the analysis of ancient skeletal tissues: Expanding the prospects of stable isotope research in archaeology. J Archaeol Sci 56:146–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2015.02.035 Manolagas SC (2000) Birth and death of bone cells: Basic regulatory mechanisms and implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of osteoporosis. Endocr Rev 21(2):115–137. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv.21.2.0395 Mekota A-M, Grupe G, Ufer S, Cuntz U (2006) Serial analysis of stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes in hair: monitoring starvation and recovery phases of patients suffering from anorexia nervosa. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 20(10):1604–1610. https://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.2477 Miller MJ, Dong Y, Pechenkina K, Fan WQ, Halcrow SE (2020) Raising girls and boys in early China: Stable isotope data reveal sex differences in weaning and childhood diets during the eastern Zhou era. Am J Phys Anthropol 172(4):567–585. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24033 Mortimer JT, Shanahan MJ (2006) Handbook of the Life Course. Springer, New York, NY Mulder MB, Bowles S, Hertz T, Bell A, Beise J, Clark G, Fazzio I, Gurven M, Hill K, Hooper PL, Irons W, Kaplan H, Leonetti D, Low B, Marlowe F, McElreath R, Naidu S, Nolin D, Piraino P, Quinlan R, Schniter E, Sear R, Shenk M, Smith EA, Von Rueden C, Wiessner P (2009) Intergenerational wealth transmission and the dynamics of inequality in small-scale societies. Science 326(5953):682–688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1178336 Niu YM (2020) A research on the shape and living patterns of human existence of the Jiaojia site, Zhangqiu. M.A. Thesis. Shandong University (in Chinese). https://doi.org/10.27272/d.cnki.gshdu.2020.003332 Pearson MP (1993) The powerful dead: Archaeological relationships between the living and the dead. Camb Archaeol J 3(2):203–229. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959774300000846 Pearson R (1988) Chinese neolithic burial patterns: problems of method and interpretation. Early China 13:1–45. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0362502800005198 Reitsema LJ, McIlvaine BK (2014) Reconciling stress and health in physical anthropology: What can bioarchaeologists learn from the other subdisciplines? Am. J Phys Anthropol 155(2):181–185. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22596 Reynard LM, Tuross N (2015) The known, the unknown and the unknowable: weaning times from archaeological bones using nitrogen isotope ratios. J Archaeol Sci 53:618–625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.11.018 Sandberg PA, Sponheimer M, Lee-Thorp J, Van Gerven D (2014) Intra‐tooth stable isotope analysis of dentine: a step toward addressing selective mortality in the reconstruction of life history in the archaeological record. Am J Phys Anthropol 155(2):281–293. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22600 Schoeninger MJ (2014) Stable isotope analyses and the evolution of human diets. Annu Rev Anthropol 43(1):413–430. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102313-025935 Schroeder DG, Brown KH (1994) Nutritional status as a predictor of child survival: summarizing the association and quantifying its global impact. Bull World Health Organ 72(4):569–579 Shao WP (2000) The Longshan period and incipient chinese civilization. J East Asian Archaeol 2(1–2):195–226. https://doi.org/10.1163/156852300509844 Smith ME (1987) Household possessions and wealth in agrarian states: implications for archaeology. J Anthropol Archaeol 6(4):297–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-4165(87)90004-3 Smith ML (2006) The archaeology of food preference. Am Anthropol 108(3):480–493. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.2006.108.3.480 Stantis C, Buckley HR, Commendador A, Dudgeon JV (2021) Expanding on incremental dentin methodology to investigate childhood and infant feeding practices on Taumako (southeast Solomon Islands). J Archaeol Sci 126:105294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2020.105294 Stantis C, Schutkowski H, Sołtysiak A (2020) Reconstructing breastfeeding and weaning practices in the Bronze Age Near East using stable nitrogen isotopes. Am J Phys Anthropol 172(1):58–69. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23980 Tao DW, Xu JJ, Wu Q, Gu WF, Wei QL, Zhou YW, Richards MP, Zhang GW (2022a) Human diets, crop patterns, and settlement hierarchies in third millennium BC China: Bioarchaeological perspectives in Zhengluo region. J Archaeol Sci 145:105647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2022.105647 Tao DW, Zhang RJ, Xu JJ, Wu Q, Wei QL, Gu WF, Zhang GW (2022b) Agricultural extensification or intensification: Nitrogen isotopic investigation into late Yangshao agricultural strategies in the middle Yellow River area. J Archaeol Sci : Rep 44:103534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103534 Tsutaya T (2017) Post-weaning diet in archaeological human populations: A meta‐analysis of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios of child skeletons. Am J Phys Anthropol 164(3):546–557. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23295 Tsutaya T, Yoneda M (2015) Reconstruction of breastfeeding and weaning practices using stable isotope and trace element analyses: a review. Am J Phys Anthropol 156(S59):2–21. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22657 Twiss K (2012) The archaeology of food and social diversity. J Archaeol Res 20(4):357–395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-012-9058-5 Underhill AP (2000) An analysis of mortuary ritual at the Dawenkou site, Shandong, China. J East Asian Archaeol 2(1–2):93–127. https://doi.org/10.1163/156852300509817 Underhill AP (2002) Craft Production and Social Change in Northern China. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0641-6 van der Merwe NJ, Vogel JC (1978). 13 C content of human collagen as a measure of prehistoric diet in woodland North America. Nature 276(5690):815–816. https://doi.org/10.1038/276815a0 van Klinken GJ (1999) Bone collagen quality indicators for palaeodietary and radiocarbon measurements. J Archaeol Sci 26(6):687–695. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1998.0385 Wang F (2012) The relationship of cemetery spatial structure and social organization: from cemeteries of Dawenkou period. East Asia Archaeol 9:112–137 (in Chinese) Wang F, Liang RJ, Tang ZM, Wu H, Song YB (2024) Animal selection strategies in mortuary practices at the Dawenkou culture site of Jiaojia in Northern China. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 17(1):8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-024-02136-9 Wang F, Yuan C, Yuan SL (2020) Radiocarbon dating and diet: the Jiaojia site in China. Radiocarbon 62(5):1515–1523. https://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2020.47 Wang J (2019) Research on the faunal remains of middle-late Dawenkou culture excavated in the 2017 season at Jiaojia site, Zhangqiu. M.A. Thesis. Shandong University (in Chinese). https://doi.org/10.7666/d.Y3571596 Wang QG (2018) The spread and variation of juvenile burial customs from the perspective of folkloristics: The prehistorical urn-burial in Haidai region. Folklore Stud 426–30 (in Chinese). https://doi.org/10.13370/j.cnki.fs.2018.04.005 Wang TT, Wei D, Yi B, Jiang HE, Li WY, Hu YW, Fuller BT (2022) Infancy, childhood, and puberty on the Silk Road revealed with isotopic analysis of incremental dentine. Sci Rep 12(1):19494. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-24119-3 Wood JW, Milner GR, Harpending HC, Weiss KM (1992) The osteological paradox: Problems of inferring prehistoric health from skeletal samples. Curr Anthropol 33(4):343–370. https://doi.org/10.1086/204084 Xu H (1989) A preliminary study of urn burials in prehistoric China. Archaeology 4:331–339 (in Chinese) Yi B, Liu XY, Yan X, Zhou ZQ, Chen J, Yuan HB, Hu YW (2021) Dietary shifts and diversities of individual life histories reveal cultural dynamics and interplay of millets and rice in the Chengdu Plain, China during the Late Neolithic (2500–2000 cal. BC). Am J Phys Anthropol 175(4):762–776. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24259 Yi B, Liu XY, Yuan HB, Zhou ZQ, Chen J, Wang TT, Wang YJ, Hu YW, Fuller BT (2018) Dentin isotopic reconstruction of individual life histories reveals millet consumption during weaning and childhood at the Late Neolithic (4500 BP) Gaoshan site in southwestern China. Int J Osteoarchaeol 28(6):636–644. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.2676 Zhang XW (2017) A research on human existence during Dawenkou period in the Jiaojia site, Zhangqiu. M.A. Thesis. Shandong University (in Chinese). https://doi.org/10.7666/d.Y3242632 Zhang YP (2013) Mysterious spocalypse: Observations on minor burials of the Banpo culture. Xi’an Banpo Museum, Prehistory. Northwestern University, Xi’an, SN, pp 265–276. (in Chinese). ZM (Zhangqiu Museum) (1998) The survey of the Jiaojia site in Zhangqiu. Shandong Archaeol 6:20–38 (in Chinese) Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Supplementarymaterial.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 10 Mar, 2026 Reviews received at journal 16 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 13 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 Jan, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 09 Jan, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 06 Jan, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 05 Jan, 2026 First submitted to journal 02 Jan, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8504291","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":572751931,"identity":"1d9bcfc3-b729-48fe-be4a-242bdd7bf187","order_by":0,"name":"Meng Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Key Laboratory of Archaeological Sciences and Technology (Shandong University), Ministry of Education","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Meng","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":572751932,"identity":"b986215a-936d-4488-81d5-1caa2c93a36f","order_by":1,"name":"Zhongming Tang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"School of Archaeology, Shandong University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zhongming","middleName":"","lastName":"Tang","suffix":""},{"id":572751933,"identity":"905f008e-a034-4f66-a255-2e915e6df98f","order_by":2,"name":"Yongsheng Zhao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Cultural Heritage, Shandong University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yongsheng","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhao","suffix":""},{"id":572751934,"identity":"f8429479-c043-4c41-95a5-4b382d6964cb","order_by":3,"name":"Hao Wu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"School of Archaeology, Shandong University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hao","middleName":"","lastName":"Wu","suffix":""},{"id":572751935,"identity":"08f4fd61-cce1-4157-bea4-430b4dda87a2","order_by":4,"name":"Shuai Yao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"School of Archaeology, Shandong University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shuai","middleName":"","lastName":"Yao","suffix":""},{"id":572751936,"identity":"7ff658df-0fcd-407f-8520-ff50a1483463","order_by":5,"name":"Yu Dong","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAvklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACAyC2YWA4AKR4SNCSRrqWwyRoMbiRvPFxwa/z9nw3EhgfvG1jkDcnrCWt2Hhm3+3EmTcSmA3ntjEY7mwgqCXHTJq353aCwY0ENmneNoYEgwPEaTlnD9TC/pt4LTw/DjBuANrCTJQWyTPPio15G5ITZ5552Cw555yE4QZCWviOA0OM54+dPZBx8MObMht5grYogBQwtoGYjA1AQoKAeiCQB6lj+ENY4SgYBaNgFIxgAACnNkQuBdcV9QAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Key Laboratory of Archaeological Sciences and Technology (Shandong University), Ministry of Education","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yu","middleName":"","lastName":"Dong","suffix":""},{"id":572751937,"identity":"11b15eef-f1ad-485a-bcd3-83c109aebd42","order_by":6,"name":"Fen Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Key Laboratory of Archaeological Sciences and Technology (Shandong University), Ministry of Education","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fen","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-03 04:23:14","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8504291/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8504291/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":100155850,"identity":"b0a801fd-b4d9-488c-8808-b44a7f6dcd20","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:15","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":11660293,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Manuscript.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/e91a45f57baaf1243e107f89.docx"},{"id":100155950,"identity":"6ccd1927-58e0-45a5-80ee-bf5d9aa4b7b0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:20","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":8593,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"f7efd26638d841538225418c38475a1a.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/1df53f8562d99214acb3b521.json"},{"id":100155956,"identity":"5759901c-b9b1-4b76-b977-e68d37ababf6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:21","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1716098,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarymaterial.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/d4ae301b4ef8df76c3b38957.docx"},{"id":100155945,"identity":"2b61cf08-6fd2-47cb-b960-27af8a1f516d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:18","extension":"xml","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":267171,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"f7efd26638d841538225418c38475a1a1enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/1317fd2a93868e4c01ae84ce.xml"},{"id":100155926,"identity":"5ce8ea72-87ef-492a-b713-85f27fa8bed3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:16","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1456746,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/e142e94f5ab50ae89aea3b22.png"},{"id":100155948,"identity":"13b69e5c-017b-40f0-a5c4-8ab1e01b4620","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:19","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":2038435,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/e1aec4ec926dfd5929a658a5.png"},{"id":100155772,"identity":"879baec1-65d2-4f19-af77-a98ce6631d29","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:13","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":689955,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/0d887b20a3e32cd4505bc5a3.png"},{"id":100155896,"identity":"cec80300-aebd-4cf9-9866-e10fb6c4400d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:16","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":2285516,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/6a050bcd0adcec29236ce395.png"},{"id":100155931,"identity":"67d700c9-b896-4225-bb8b-505d0af6490b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:17","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":350084,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/44fa6ec9078721572abb879a.png"},{"id":100155929,"identity":"dac8525e-5d46-41d7-a94f-8acbc7663be6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:17","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":507349,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/0cbc6e2032acfdcde887e48d.png"},{"id":100155946,"identity":"3ddd2152-3250-4197-ad2b-0f02b324b2f3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:18","extension":"xml","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":270767,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"f7efd26638d841538225418c38475a1a1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/784e7e8416e67997bf8adfec.xml"},{"id":100155953,"identity":"a6a2133f-5744-44ab-af59-aa123ef98a3d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:21","extension":"html","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":283008,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/d86735914ebf8093048386a1.html"},{"id":100368193,"identity":"a60c0102-b0e2-4e16-96ba-911f0667793f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 07:57:42","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1059732,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap illustrating the location of the Jiaojia site and other sites mentioned in the article.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/7fb62c54f5a45c3e65a20617.jpeg"},{"id":100155951,"identity":"cbd9762a-a4c5-43a6-8c6e-d0b1dd2a7159","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:20","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1040152,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe examples of burials from different lavishness (\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e–\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e) and examples of infants with different mortuary treatments (\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e), the Jiaojia site. (Panels \u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e, and \u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e show elaborate, moderate, and simple burial, respectively; Panels \u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e and \u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003e show a well-treated infant burial and an infant buried under the foundation of a house, respectively).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/6dd71b5ac49c6135dc19a2a1.jpeg"},{"id":100155852,"identity":"669d8286-4c29-495b-b82b-ffca8ad3ba10","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:15","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1062770,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eScatter plot of\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of human incremental dentin and bone collagen from the Jiaojia site and standard error plot of \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of plants and animals from referenced sites. (DWK = Tai’an Dawenkou; LWC = Liangwangcheng; DHC = Dahecun; JJ = Jiaojia. Data sources: Chen et al., 2019; Dong et al., 2019; Tao et al., 2022a,b; Liu et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/b700613e14daf1bae1e7c41f.jpeg"},{"id":100155872,"identity":"4c6b18dd-dde4-4811-a7b5-b9a8933c2e64","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:15","extension":"jpeg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":13374785,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIsotope profiles of four groups (\u003cstrong\u003eA\u003c/strong\u003e–\u003cstrong\u003eD\u003c/strong\u003e) categorized by the trends of \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC (blue) and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN (red) values of incremental dentin from 22 sampled individuals, the Jiaojia site. (Sample number and tooth element are specified in the subtitle. The estimated weaning age is labeled with a green circle. Solid and dashed reference lines correspond to limb bone and rib, respectively. The purple shading highlights age ranges of possible physiological stress. Regression curves were modeled using the third-order polynomial fit, shaded regions indicate 95% confidence intervals).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/6a5d05a2e0090c368023e8ee.jpeg"},{"id":100155954,"identity":"e1ae0ac1-2908-4fc1-9b09-d8fd1cf572c2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:21","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1893356,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eViolin plot of \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC (\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN (\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e) values of dentin (post 5 years old), limb bones, and ribs, the Jiaojia site. (Statistical significance was evaluated using Wilcoxon signed rank test at a significance level of 0.05. Asterisks denote statistical significance: * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e ≤ 0.05; ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e ≤ 0.01).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/22bbf328ac145f8e26f9d25e.jpeg"},{"id":100155947,"identity":"88c9bbcc-36e6-4c3b-a206-60a56fc293b0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:18","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":847222,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIsotope profiles of \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC (\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN (\u003cstrong\u003ec\u003c/strong\u003e) values of incremental dentin samples from burials of different lavishness; violin plot of \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC (\u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN (\u003cstrong\u003ed\u003c/strong\u003e) values of dentin (post 5 years old) from burials of different lavishness, the Jiaojia site. (Mean curves were estimated using the LOESS smoothing model, with shaded regions indicating 95% confidence intervals. Statistical significance was evaluated using Mann-Whitney U test at a significance level of 0.05. Asterisks denote statistical significance: * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e ≤ 0.05; ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e ≤ 0.01).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/c8bb5d7eeca66cc1f5882383.jpeg"},{"id":100382512,"identity":"3e9b7c8b-6ea8-4464-9c4a-3433b0a59258","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-16 10:43:01","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":20978257,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/9366f749-c2aa-4531-bf96-32d28373f7c7.pdf"},{"id":100155955,"identity":"7ad19f60-3883-47b5-829c-6f21043feae5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-13 14:10:21","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1716098,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarymaterial.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8504291/v1/4e35a3f5fb6472677a64f8c6.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Diverse life histories and childhood socialization during the middle and late Dawenkou period: Incremental dentin isotope evidence from the Jiaojia site, China","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSocial stratification has attracted sustained scholarly interest in archaeology; the primary methodology was the examination of mortuary contexts, domestic architecture, and household goods to discern disparities in socioeconomic status among individuals (Binford, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e; Costin and Earle, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; Hirth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Pearson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Smith, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e). During the middle and late Dawenkou period (3500\u0026ndash;2400 cal. BC), the appearance of obvious differences in burial lavishness indicated the inequality of socioeconomic status among different social groups (Luan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Underhill, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Some scholars believe that there was already an incipient social stratification (Liu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Shao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). However, some are more skeptical and argued that mortuary data alone do not necessarily provide an accurate reflection of social stratification (Allard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Fung, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Pearson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Underhill, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStable isotope analysis of incremental dentin collagen, a relatively new method in bioarchaeology developed in the past decade or so, enables the acquisition of high temporal resolution data from horizontal sections of dentin to trace information during one\u0026rsquo;s childhood, such as breastfeeding, weaning, dietary strategies, and stress (Beaumont et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Eerkens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Fuller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Tsutaya and Yoneda, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). This kind of analysis carried out on adults\u0026rsquo; teeth, combined with isotope analysis of bone collagen, can reconstruct an individual\u0026rsquo;s life history from birth to death, thereby effectively circumventing the problem of \u0026ldquo;osteological paradox\u0026rdquo; concerning the representation of non-survivors (Reynard and Tuross, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Sandberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Wood et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). It provides a new perspective for discussing the associations among dietary practices, childhood socialization, and social stratification.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies have shown that weaning and dietary practices of childhood can be influenced by factors such as chronology, gender, culture, and social status (Eerkens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Fournier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Herrscher et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Miller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Yi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Studies have been conducted to reveal the development of gender and social age and subadult\u0026rsquo;s participation in childhood socialization by examining sex differences and age-related variations in childhood diets (Herrscher et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Miller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, the association between socioeconomic status and childhood dietary practices has rarely been discussed (Darmon and Drewnowski, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Gugora et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Stantis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferences in access to food resources based on socioeconomic status have persisted throughout human history (Darmon and Drewnowski, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Hayden, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Twiss, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). This is supported by studies of mortuary and dietary practices of some sites from the Dawenkou culture, as elites with higher socioeconomic status usually consumed more specialized or preferred foods during the late Dawenkou period, although males and females generally had similar diets (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Dong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e, 2021; Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Previous studies have usually examined social stratification through mortuary and dietary practices from an adult dimension, the evidence on possible intergenerational transmission of socioeconomic status is still lacking, which is critical in understanding incipient social stratification (Bowles and Fochesato, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Some studies found that while economic status is associated with dietary differences in adulthood, i. e., wealthier males have consumed more high trophic level foods, there are no significant differences in childhood, which suggests that people may have shared diets during childhood (Kinaston et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Stantis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current study builds upon mortuary research by integrating perspectives on dietary practices and childhood socialization to conduct a multifaceted examination of social stratification. We focus on the following questions: Does dietary differentiation based on socioeconomic status emerge during childhood? How do mortuary and dietary practices reflect family constructions of subadult\u0026rsquo;s identities in the process of childhood socialization? Therefore, we carried out stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of incremental dentin, limb bones, and ribs from burials dated to the middle and late Dawenkou period at the Jiaojia site (Department of Archaeology and Museology, Shandong University [DAMSU] and Longshan Culture Museum [LCM], 2019a; 2019b; 2019c). We examined weaning patterns and life histories across the population and then compared isotope results of incremental dentin among social groups to explore whether dietary differences developed in childhood between elites and ordinary people and whether there were any differences in their weaning patterns.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Archaeological background","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Jiaojia site is located at Zhangqiu District of Jinan City, Shandong Province, China. It is situated on the piedmont alluvial plain to the north of Tai Mountain in the lower Yellow River region (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Discovered in 1987 and first excavated in the 1990s (Zhangqiu Museum [ZM], 1998), continuous and systematic excavations have been conducted at the site from 2016 to 2024. The site covers more than 1\u0026nbsp;million square meters, with approximately 5,200 square meters excavated to date. A total of 175 houses, 514 burials, 2,262 pits, 35 ditches, etc., have been uncovered, predominantly dated to the middle and late Dawenkou period. In addition, the discovery of rammed-earth walls and moats dated to the middle Dawenkou period, enclosing a core area of 122,500 square meters, marks it one of the earliest central settlements in the lower Yellow River region (DAMSU and LCM, 2019a; 2019b; 2019c).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on stratigraphy and pottery typology, the burials from Jiaojia have been divided into the early and late phases. Radiocarbon dating results indicate that the early and late phases date to 2920 to 2700 cal. BC and 2870 to 2490 cal. BC, respectively (95.4% confidence interval) (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese burials have been categorized into three lavishness levels: elaborate, moderate, and simple (DAMSU and LCM, 2019a; 2019c; Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), and they differed significantly in terms of the size of burials, the number of coffins, and the quantity and quality of grave goods (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ec).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince the definition of childhood is culturally specific and there are no standardized age stages, we combined the methods of evolutionary anthropology and bioarchaeology to generally divide childhood into three stages: infancy (0\u0026ndash;3 years old), early childhood (3\u0026ndash;7 years old), and juvenile stage (7\u0026ndash;15 years old) (Halcrow and Tayles, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008b\u003c/span\u003e). The number of subadult\u0026rsquo;s burials excavated at Jiaojia in the 2016\u0026ndash;2017 seasons in each age group are listed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, and we counted the number of burials with both coffins and grave goods, those with only coffins, only grave goods, and with none at all. From a total of 215 burials, there were 35 subadult\u0026rsquo;s burials, 29 of which had coffins or grave goods, most of them are juveniles (7\u0026ndash;15 years old).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary on the number of subadult\u0026rsquo;s burials at Jiaojia site, with both coffins and grave goods, with only coffins, only grave goods, and with none at all (from the 2016\u0026ndash;2017 seasons).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge group\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth coffin and grave goods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly coffin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnly grave goods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInfancy (0\u0026ndash;3 yrs)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly childhood (3\u0026ndash;7 yrs)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuvenile (7\u0026ndash;15 yrs)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterestingly, there were both well and badly treated subadult burials in the cemetery. For example, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the individuals M124, M133, and M167 were similar in age (ca. 10\u0026ndash;15 years old) but with significant differences in burial lavishness. In addition, individuals M45 and H1201 were both infants, but their mortuary treatment was also very different (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ed, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ee). These phenomena were tentatively attributed to the development of social stratification during the Dawenkou period, and will be further examined and discussed in current study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are relatively few discoveries and studies on prehistoric subadult\u0026rsquo;s burials in China, probably because they were buried in areas separate from the adults. Among these, research on jar burials of subadult is somewhat more extensive. Most of the jar coffins had perforations symbolizing the entry and exit of the soul; some were intricately painted or carved with special symbols; and some contained additional grave goods. Studies indicate that jar burials may have originated in multiple areas and are found worldwide, most scholars believe that this burial practice reflects a universal human sentiment of deep sorrow and special care for prematurely dead subadults (Wang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, scholars have paid considerable attention to the findings of elaborate burials of subadults. In addition to the Jiaojia site in the current study, the elaborate burials of subadults have also been found at other sites, such as the burial M117 and M2007 from the Tai\u0026rsquo;an Dawenkou site (Dawenkou period, 3800 to 2400 BCE), both of which have wooden coffin and over 30 grave goods (Underhill, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Another example is the burial M152 from the Banpo site (early Yangshao period, 4800 to 4300 BCE), which have wooden coffin, 6 pottery vessels, 1 jade earring, and ornaments consisting of over 70 stone beads. Scholars argued that it owned by a little girl and that the society at the time was matriarchal, hence the girl received a lavish burial (Zhang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR104\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Most scholars argued that these elaborate subadult\u0026rsquo;s burials represent the development of social stratification and the emergence of hierarchy and power inheritance (Luan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, more subadults were buried plainly during prehistoric period, and some were even possibly buried abnormally as sacrifices. For example, the burial pit AH1 from the Wuzhuangguoliang site (late Yangshao period, 3500 to 2600 BCE) included 17 subadults buried in a particular order that was believed to be related to sacrificial rituals. Some infants were found in the building foundations and rammed-earth layers at the Xishan site (late Yangshao period, 3500 to 2600 BCE), which were thought to be related to foundation rituals. Studies indicate that the majority of sacrifices in foundation rituals were subadults, while only a few adults were sacrificed (Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These phenomena showed the different roles that subadults were shaped into during childhood socialization at that period.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than five hundred burials dated to the middle and late Dawenkou period have been excavated at the Jiaojia site. The human bone and tooth samples of the current study are drawn from seasons 2016 to 2017. These skeletons have been osteologically assessed for sex and age, and their archaeological context and locations within the cemetery have been briefly described and published (DAMSU and LCM, 2019c; Niu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR103\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). We selected teeth, limb bones, and ribs from 22 individuals for stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis, and detailed information of all samples is shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Good preservation condition is the most important criteria for sampling, balanced groups in terms of phase, sex, and burial lavishness are also considered. These sampled individuals can be grouped by pottery phase into the early (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9) and late (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13) phases; by sex, males (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7), females (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7), and unknown sex (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8); and by burial lavishness, including elaborate burials (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6), moderate burials (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10), and simple burials (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe selection of tooth was prioritized based on the developmental chronology, ideally one that would cover the entire childhood: first permanent molars (M1) received first priority as they were formed from neonatal months to ca. 10 years; permanent canines (C) served as the secondary choice, capturing from ca. 7 months to ca. 14 years; first permanent incisors (I1) are the third alternative, developed from ca. 6 months to ca. 9 years (AlQahtani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Beaumont and Montgomery, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArchaeological context and sampling information of human bone and dentin samples from the Jiaojia site.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePottery phase\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge at death (yrs)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLavishness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoffin type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of grave goods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBone element sampled\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTooth sampled\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of dentin sections\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElaborate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOuter and inner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUlna; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper left first molar (ULM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnknown\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElaborate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRadius; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper right canine (URC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM124\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnknown\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u0026ndash;15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElaborate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUlna; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper left first molar (ULM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRadius; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper left first incisor (ULI1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFibula; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper right canine (URC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM127\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u0026ndash;27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRadius; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper left canine (ULC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM130\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRadius; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower left first molar (LLM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnknown\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u0026ndash;10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUlna; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper left first molar (ULM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM191\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnknown\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u0026ndash;15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUlna; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper right canine (URC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElaborate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOuter and inner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRadius; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower left first molar (LLM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM173\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElaborate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOuter and inner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRadius; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper left first molar (ULM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM206\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElaborate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOuter and inner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUlna; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower left first molar (LLM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRadius; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower right first molar (LRM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u0026ndash;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFibula; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper left canine (ULC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM168\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnknown\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u0026ndash;15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRadius; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower left first molar (LLM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM175\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInner\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRadius; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower right canine (LRC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnknown\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u0026ndash;11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUlna; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper right first molar (URM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnknown\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u0026ndash;17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUlna; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper left first molar (ULM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUlna; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper left first molar (ULM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM118\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUlna; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper right first molar (URM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUlna; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLower left canine (LLC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM167\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnknown\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimple\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFibula; Rib\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUpper left first molar (ULM1)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Stable isotope analysis of bone and incremental dentin collagen\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1. Methodological principles\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eStable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis has become a well-established method for reconstructing human diet, and its key principles have been systematically reviewed in many studies (Ambrose and Krigbaum, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Kohn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Lee-Thorp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Makarewicz and Sealy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Schoeninger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Briefly, the \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values of bone collagen permit differentiating dietary contributions of C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e foods (DeNiro and Epstein, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e; van der Merwe and Vogel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e), while the \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values facilitate the evaluation of aquatic vs. terrestrial contributions and animal protein consumption (Deniro and Epstein, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e; Hedges and Reynard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). However, interpretations of human diet should be made cautiously, ideally supported by localized isotope baselines of contemporaneous flora and fauna (Ambrose, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of collagen predominantly reflect the protein component of diets, potentially obscuring isotope signals from carbohydrates, lipids, and other dietary constituents (Jim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBones and teeth are the most commonly used human tissues for stable isotope analysis in archaeology. Bone tissue continues to remodel throughout adulthood, although at reduced rates, so isotope values of bone collagen reflect the average diet over a relatively long period before death. There are some differences in the rate of remodeling among different skeletal elements: isotope values of limb bones reflect an individual\u0026rsquo;s average diet of approximately 10\u0026ndash;20 years before death, whereas those of ribs reflect the average diet of approximately 2\u0026ndash;5 years before death (Hedges et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Manolagas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, dental tissues, which ceased remodeling after adolescent development, preserve dietary information during their formative period (Goldberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, dentin was laid down chronologically. When the dentin is sectioned in serial increments, each increment corresponds to a specific period during its formation. Therefore, the isotope values of incremental dentin can reflect dietary changes of individuals from birth to puberty with high temporal resolution (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1 year) (Beaumont et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Beaumont and Montgomery, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Integrated isotope analysis of incremental dentin, limb bones, and ribs allows for the reconstruction of relatively complete life histories from birth to death, including breastfeeding, weaning, maturing, adulthood, aging, and it will also help elucidating how different life phases were influenced by socio-environmental factors (e.g., ecological constraints, economic systems, cultural norms, political structures, and individual roles/status) (Beaumont et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Craig-Atkins et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Herrscher et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Charlotte L. King et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Miller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Stantis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Yi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR101\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies on modern human breastfeeding and weaning processes reveal that the \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values of exclusively breastfed infants are higher in their tissues compared to adults (Fuller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). During weaning initiation and the introduction of complementary foods, \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values demonstrate a gradual decline, stabilizing to adult-equivalent levels upon complete weaning cessation (ca. 2\u0026ndash;3\u0026permil; drop). Thus, \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN value can serve as a robust indicator for reconstructing the onset, duration, and ending of weaning (Stantis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the magnitude of variation in \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values can provide critical insights into the composition and type of weaning foods (e.g., C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e vs. C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e foods) (Chryssi Bourbou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; C. L. King et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Stantis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values can also be used to assess physiological stress, it tends to increase (ca. 1\u0026ndash;3\u0026permil;) suddenly in human tissues under stresses including malnutrition, disease, and metabolic disorders, and then decrease when the body recovers (D\u0026rsquo;Ortenzio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Fuller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). The response mechanism of \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values to stress is still controversial including a decrease (Ganiatsou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Mekota et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), no significant change (Fuller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Hatch et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), or a slight increase (Canterbury et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Crowder et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Taken together, the sudden abnormal increase of \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values is a good indicator of stress, while changes in \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values can only be used as secondary evidence. Nevertheless, comprehensive interpretation is ideally supported with other evidences, such as stress markers from paleopathological analysis (e.g., linear enamel hypoplasia, porotic hyperostosis, and \u003cem\u003ecribra orbitalia\u003c/em\u003e) or premature mortality (Halcrow and Tayles, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008a\u003c/span\u003e; Reitsema and McIlvaine, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2. Experimental procedures and analysis methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe extraction of dentin collagen followed methods by Beaumont et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) with small modifications. After enamel removal, the entire dentin was demineralized in 0.5 M HCl at 4\u0026deg;C, with the acid replaced every 24 hrs. Once the dentin had become fully softened while retaining its original morphology, the crown portion was sectioned into 1 mm increments, while the root portion was sectioned into 2 mm increments, considering that the isotope ratios of the root incremental dentin are generally stable (Beaumont et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Eerkens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). These sections underwent further demineralization in 0.5 M HCl. Following thorough rinsing to neutrality, samples were gelatinized in 0.001 M HCl at 75\u0026deg;C for 24 hrs, then freeze dried.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe extraction of bone collagen followed Ambrose (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e) with small modifications. After sequential treatment with 0.2 M HCl and 0.125 M NaOH, and rinsed to neutral, the samples were gelatinized in 0.001 M HCl at 70\u0026deg;C for 20 hrs. After that, samples were filtered and freeze dried.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExtracted collagen samples were analyzed for the C and N contents (%) and the \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values (\u0026permil;) using an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (Delta V Advantage, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc., USA). The \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values are reported relative to Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite (VPDB) and Ambient Inhalable Reservoir (AIR), respectively. The analytic precision is \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u0026permil; for \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u0026permil; for \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe estimation of ages of serial dentin increments followed Beaumont and Montgomery (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), based on the developmental timelines from the London Atlas of Human Tooth Development and Eruption (AlQahtani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Estimated age ranges for each dentin increment were assigned according to the initiation and completion ages of crown and root formation, with subsequent calculation of median ages (\u003cb\u003eTable \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e. Notably, some teeth have age gaps due to crown wear or root loss. Furthermore, given the non-horizontal deposition pattern of dentin matrix, the isotope values of a single incremental dentin section represent an average shift over a brief period rather than an age point (Beaumont et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistical analysis and plotting were done using OriginPro 2024 (OriginLab Corp., USA). Non-parametric tests were used for inter-group comparisons due to small sample sizes: Wilcoxon signed rank test for paired sample groups; Mann-Whitney U test for unpaired sample groups. The significance level is 0.05, with \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05 indicating a statistically significant difference and \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.01 indicating a highly significant difference.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eDiagenesis of the samples was assessed according to the collagen yield (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.5%), C (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;13%) and N (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4.8%) content, and atomic C: N ratio (2.9\u0026ndash;3.6) (Ambrose, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; DeNiro, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; van Klinken, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). The human bone samples from the Jiaojia site fulfilled all these criteria, and most incremental dentin samples met the criteria, except for a few samples of very small mass. In total, the \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of 22 limb bones, 22 ribs, and 257 incremental dentin samples could be used for further analysis and discussion (\u003cb\u003eTable \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe isotope results of the limb bones, ribs, and incremental dentin samples in this current study are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e and were compared to those of Jiaojia human (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;115) and pig (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6) bone samples reported in the previous study (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Isotope data of plants and animals from other contemporary sites in the neighboring regions (Tai\u0026rsquo;an Dawenkou, Liangwangcheng, and Dahecun) were referenced to establish isotope baselines (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Dong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Tao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022a\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e) (\u003cb\u003eTable S2\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the current study, the \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of human limb bones from the Jiaojia site ranged from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;11.5\u0026permil; to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;7.1\u0026permil; (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u0026permil;, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22) and 6.8\u0026permil; to 10.4\u0026permil; (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u0026permil;, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22), respectively; those of ribs ranged from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;11.8\u0026permil; to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;7.0\u0026permil; (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u0026permil;, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22) and 7.8\u0026permil; to 10.3\u0026permil; (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u0026permil;, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22), respectively; and those of incremental dentin ranged from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;18.4\u0026permil; to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5.7\u0026permil; (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.6\u0026permil;, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;257) and 8.4\u0026permil; to 15.2\u0026permil; (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u0026permil;, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;257), respectively (\u003cb\u003eTable \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/b\u003e; \u003cb\u003eTable S2\u003c/b\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, the ranges of \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of limb bones and ribs were similar to previously reported data of human bones. This further supports that the diet of Jiaojia humans was composed primarily of C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e foods, including foxtail and broomcorn millets and pigs that fed on C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e foods, supplemented with C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e wild animals and plants (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is worth noting that both the \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of incremental dentin have a wider range. Some of the dentin increments had significantly higher \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), which is probably influenced by breastfeeding. Meanwhile, lower \u003cem\u003eδ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values of dentin increments were found in two individuals (M67, M163) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting that these two individuals had more C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e plants and terrestrial/freshwater animals in their diet during childhood.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e5.1. Weaning age\u003c/h2\u003e\nThe serial incremental dentin isotope profiles of all individuals (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22) show that the \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of the first several dentin increments were significantly higher than those of limb bones and ribs (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting the ubiquity of breastfeeding in early childhood. After a subsequent decrease (ca. 0.4\u0026ndash;4.4\u0026permil;), the \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of most individuals generally stabilized after weaning was completed (except for M2, M167, and M168). The isotope profiles also show a decrease (ca. 0.7\u0026ndash;3.3\u0026permil;) or increase (ca. 0.9\u0026ndash;2.4\u0026permil;) in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values after the first several dentin increments (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), indicating the introduction of different kinds of complementary weaning foods from C3/C4 sources in early childhood. Therefore, we estimated the age of the completion of weaning primarily based on the inflection point of the trend of \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values. The weaning ages were estimated for 10 out of 22 individuals, the others did not show a clear inflection point, hence their weaning ages were not determined. The final estimated weaning ages ranged from 3.2 to 5.1 years old, with the median age at 3.8 years old and the average age at 3.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7 years old (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). This weaning age is slightly older than that previously reported of prehistoric agricultural populations from the Yangshao culture (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.1 years old, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15) in the Central Plain (Lei et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) and the Baodun culture (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.5 years old, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12) in the Chengdu Plain (Yi et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), China. However, this weaning age may not be representative of the whole population due to the small number of individuals that can be estimated. Moreover, we argue that the Jiaojia people probably did not have a universal weaning age, as shown by the large variations among individuals.\u003cbr /\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSummary of estimated weaning age, the average carbon and nitrogen isotope values of dentin after 5 years old, and the isotope values of bone samples from Jiaojia humans sampled in the current study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEstimated weaning age (yrs)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAverage \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values of dentin (post 5 years old; \u0026permil;)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAverage \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of dentin (post 5 years old; \u0026permil;)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values of limb bone collagen (\u0026permil;)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of limb bone collagen (\u0026permil;)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values of rib collagen (\u0026permil;)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of rib collagen (\u0026permil;)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM57\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM98\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;10.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM124\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM78\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM127\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM130\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM133\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;10.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM191\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM173\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM206\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM22\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM168\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM175\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM63\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;17.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM118\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM163\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;17.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eM167\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e5.2. Diverse weaning patterns and individual life histories\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe isotope profiles showed diverse weaning patterns and individual life histories. According to the trends of \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of incremental dentin, we divided the 22 individuals of current study into four groups (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). We calculated the magnitude of change in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values during weaning to examine the types of weaning foods, and for individuals without an estimated weaning age, we calculated the magnitude of change before 5 years old.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe trend in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values (decreased ca. 2.5\u0026ndash;3.7\u0026permil;) of individuals from group A (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7) followed the \u0026ldquo;typical weaning curve\u0026rdquo;, with a ca. 2\u0026ndash;3\u0026permil; decrease in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values and a concurrent decrease in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values which then generally flattens out (Eerkens et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Fuller et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Tsutaya, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). However, these individuals in current study had a considerable decrease (ca. 1.4\u0026ndash;3.3\u0026permil;) in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values, suggesting that they consumed more C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e-based solid foods during the weaning period (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Large number of deer, fish, and shellfish remains were found at the Jiaojia site (Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Wang, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), which were potential sources of C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e-based weaning foods for this group. Shellfish is an allergenic food, which may cause severe allergies in infants (Fleischer et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Hence, the weaning foods for this group of individuals probably included meat porridge (deer or fish). Furthermore, we found that these individuals had a general increase in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values after weaning (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting that the proportion of C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e foods (e.g., foxtail millet, broomcorn millet) in their diet increased during late childhood.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of individuals from group B (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6) also decreased in the first few years (ca. 0.4\u0026ndash;2.5\u0026permil;), though not significant, and no clear inflection point was observed. The \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values showed an increase (ca. 0.6\u0026ndash;2.4\u0026permil;) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). This indicates that these individuals probably consumed more C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e foods with higher \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values during the weaning period. Moreover, the \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values of these individuals continued to increase after 5 years old, indicating a growing reliance on C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e foods in their diets. Studies have indicated that manuring could lead to higher \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of crops (Dong et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). For example, millets from the contemporary Dahecun site have relatively high \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), which are arguably associated with manuring (Tao et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022b\u003c/span\u003e). Millet porridge is one of the common weaning foods in northern China nowadays as it is readily digestible (Lei et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), so Jiaojia people may also use manured millet as weaning food. This hypothesis needs to be validated by further isotope analysis of charred crop remains from Jiaojia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe individuals from group C (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7) probably experienced physiological stress during their childhood. Both their \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values had abnormal fluctuations, especially the \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values that increased abnormally (ca. 1\u0026ndash;3\u0026permil;) over a short time (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e: M98, M130, M133, M191) or continued rapid decrease during the weaning period (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e: M2, M167, M168).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe individual M98 showed a rapid increase in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values (ca. 4.1\u0026permil; and ca. 1.6\u0026permil;, respectively) from 2.7 to 3.5 years old, suggesting a physiological stress possibly related to the maladaptive weaning process. After that, the \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of this individual gradually decreased, suggesting a recovery after care. But then the \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values increased (ca. 0.6\u0026permil;) again from 12.6 to 13.9 years old, along with a decrease (ca. 2\u0026permil;) in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values, suggesting that he/she probably faced a new stress during puberty. Eventually, this individual died at 16\u0026ndash;20 years old. Individual M130 showed a rapid increase (ca. 3\u0026permil;) and then a decrease (ca. 2\u0026permil;) in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values from 7.5 to 9.5 years old, while the \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values decreased ca. 1.2\u0026permil; and then increased ca. 1.7\u0026permil;, suggesting that this individual experienced a short period of stress. Eventually, this individual died at 35\u0026ndash;40 years old. Individual M133 showed a rapid increase (ca. 1.4\u0026permil;) and then a decrease (ca. 1.4\u0026permil;) in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values from 4.5 to 6.3 years old, while the \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values decreased ca. 1.9\u0026permil; and then increased ca. 1.1\u0026permil;, but this was followed by a gradual increase in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values, suggesting that this individual recovered from a stress, but then experienced a long-lasting stress during late childhood, and eventually died at 8\u0026ndash;10 years old. Individual M191 showed an increase (ca. 1\u0026permil;) in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values from 11.3 to 12.6 years old, along with an increase (ca. 2.2\u0026permil;) in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values, suggesting that this individual probably experienced stress and dietary changes during puberty, and eventually died at 13\u0026ndash;15 years old.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndividuals M2, M167, and M168 from group C showed larger decreases in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values (ca. 3.8\u0026ndash;4.4\u0026permil;, compared to \u0026ldquo;normal\u0026rdquo; weaning group of a drop of about 3\u0026permil;) before 5 years old. It suggests that these individuals consumed more solid foods with low \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values during the weaning period, which probably led to malnutritional stress and eventually to premature deaths (all three died at 9\u0026ndash;15 years old).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTaken together, the current study found that 7 out of 22 individuals probably experienced physiological stress during childhood, which is possibly related to illness, malnutrition, or maladaptive weaning patterns (Beaumont and Montgomery, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Crowder et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Charlotte L. King et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This is consistent with previous paleopathologic studies, which have found a relatively high prevalence (ca. 51.2%) of linear enamel hypoplasia among Jiaojia humans, suggesting that many individuals possibly experienced stress during childhood (Zhang, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, 5 out of the 7 individuals from group C died before turning adulthood; while all other studied individuals in current study survived into adulthood (except M124). It suggests that physiological stress during childhood is an important factor for health and lifespan (Fern\u0026aacute;ndez-Crespo et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Schroeder and Brown, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values of individuals from group D (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2) were significantly lower than those of the other individuals and also lower than those of their own limb bones and ribs (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). This indicates that their diets in childhood included significant amount of C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e foods, however, their diets during adulthood were similar to those of the other individuals, mainly C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e foods. Both individuals are from simple burials with no coffins and almost no grave goods (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Individual M67 was buried with her head to the south, while the majorities at Jiaojia were buried with their heads to the east. Previous studies have shown that Neolithic populations in Shandong were generally buried with their heads to the east, some to the north, but very few to the south (Luan, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Strontium isotope analysis of human bones from Jiaojia identified a few non-locals (Fang, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), some of whom were buried with unusual head orientations, so we believe that the individual M67 was non-local. The individual M163 has a normal burial orientation (the east). Nonetheless, we argue that he may also be non-local because of his special diet during his childhood. These two non-locals lived in their hometown during childhood and consumed more C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e foods; after coming to Jiaojia in adulthood, their diets changed to predominantly C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e foods. They lived at Jiaojia for a long time (10\u0026ndash;20 years) until they died in the age of 40s. Further strontium isotope analysis of individuals with special diets or burial head orientations from Jiaojia will help identify whether they were non-locals, as well as their potential birthplaces.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e5.3. Dietary changes over the life course of the Jiaojia people\u003c/h2\u003e\nFor most individuals in current study, the \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of incremental dentin were no longer affected by the breast-feeding effect after approximately 5 years old and remained relatively stable (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, we calculated the average isotope values of post-5-year-old dentin increments to examine the post-weaning diet of Jiaojia people (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). They are then compared to limb bones and ribs to explore how people\u0026rsquo;s diet changes over their life course (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). M168 was excluded because of the loss of post-5-year-old dentin increments, while M67 and M163 were also removed because they are outliers.\n\u003cp\u003eThe mean \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values of post-5-year-old dentin, limb bones, and ribs were \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;9.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u0026permil;, \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u0026permil;, and \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;8.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u0026permil; (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19), respectively. The mean \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of post-5-year-old dentin, limb bones, and ribs were 10.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u0026permil;, 9.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u0026permil;, and 9.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u0026permil; (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19), respectively. The \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values of dentin were lower (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, Wilcoxon signed rank test) than those of limb bones and ribs. The \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of dentin were significantly higher (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, Wilcoxon signed rank test) than those of limb bones and ribs (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). It suggests that the Jiaojia people consumed more C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e foods with higher \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values, possibly meat (deer or fish), during post-weaning childhood compared to adulthood and pre-death. We argue that this may indicate that Jiaojia people provided extra care and investment for subadults through dietary practices. Furthermore, there were no significant differences for both \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.53, Wilcoxon signed rank test) and \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.23, Wilcoxon signed rank test) values between limb bones and ribs (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). It suggests that Jiaojia people had a relatively stable diet from adulthood to death. However, this observation may be biased due to the young age of some analyzed individuals, i.e. young people\u0026rsquo;s limb bones and ribs reflected the diet during the similar period. Future analysis of larger number of older individuals can help assess this hypothesis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e5.4. Weaning and dietary practices of childhood among different social groups\u003c/h2\u003e\nTo examine the weaning patterns and dietary practices during childhood among different social groups, we plotted the mean curves of incremental dentin of \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values and calculated the average isotope values of post-5-year-old dentin increments (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cstrong\u003eFig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e; \u003cstrong\u003eFig. S2\u003c/strong\u003e). M168 was excluded from the comparisons because of the loss of post-5-year-old dentin increments, M67 and M163 were also removed because they were outliers. We did not remove individuals who probably experienced stress due to sample size limitation.\n\u003cp\u003eComparison between the early and late phase groups showed diachronic changes in the weaning diet of Jiaojia people, with the increased consumption of C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e weaning foods during the late phase, which indicates an increase in the contribution of millet agriculture (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cstrong\u003eFig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e). Comparisons among different sex groups showed dietary similarities between adult males and females can be dated back to childhood (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cstrong\u003eFig. S2\u003c/strong\u003e). Since these results are generally consistent with the previous study (Liu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), they are not discussed in detail in the text of the current study, but rather in the \u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary discussion\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrevious isotope analysis of human bones from Jiaojia found that the elites of higher socioeconomic status developed a significant dietary disparity from the ordinary people and that they consumed more high-protein C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e foods during the late Dawenkou period (Liu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In the current study, we divided the dentin isotope profiles of 22 individuals into four groups based on differences of weaning patterns (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e. After examining the burial context, we find that most individuals in group A (the \u0026ldquo;typical\u0026rdquo; weaning group) are from elaborate burials (5/7), and all but one individual in group B (the millet weaning group) and group C (the \u0026ldquo;stress\u0026rdquo; group) are from moderate or simple burials (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e. The differences of dentin isotope profiles among these groups suggest that the elites represented by elaborate burials may have had access to different weaning food and are more likely to pass their childhood smoothly. Jiaojia elites preferred C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e-based weaning foods possibly because these foods are more diverse and contribute to the nutritional balance of infants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo further examine whether the dietary disparity can be traced back to the whole childhood between elites and ordinary people, we compared the \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of incremental dentin among elaborate (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6), moderate (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9), and simple (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4) burials (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistical summary of carbon and nitrogen isotope values of dentin (post 5 years old) from groups of different phases, sexes, and burial lavishness (samples M67, M163, and M168 removed), the Jiaojia site.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"4\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC (\u0026permil;)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"4\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN (\u0026permil;)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMin\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMin\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMedian\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhase\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEarly\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;10.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSex\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnknown\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLavishness\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElaborate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;10.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;10.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimple\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;8.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;11.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;7.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;9.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\nThe mean curves of \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values of incremental dentin showed that the \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values of individuals from elaborate burials were generally lower than those from other groups and they had larger decreases of \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values during weaning period (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ea). The mean \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values of post-5-year-old dentin increments of individuals from elaborate burials were also significantly lower than those from moderate (ca. 1.8\u0026permil;; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.03, Mann-Whitney U) and simple burials (ca. 2.1\u0026permil;; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.02, Mann-Whitney U). While there was little difference of \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values between moderate and simple burials (ca. 0.3\u0026permil;; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.50, Mann-Whitney U) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003eb).\n\u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, the mean curves of \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of incremental dentin showed that the \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of individuals from elaborate burials were generally higher than those from other groups, while there were little differences in both magnitude of decreases and the timing of weaning among groups of different lavishness (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ec). The mean \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of post-5-year-old dentin increments of individuals from elaborate burials were also significantly higher than those from moderate (ca. 0.7\u0026permil;; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05, Mann-Whitney U) and simple burials (ca. 0.7\u0026permil;; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05, Mann-Whitney U). While there was almost no difference of \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values between moderate and simple burials (ca. 0\u0026permil;; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.79, Mann-Whitney U) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e; Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003ed).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTaken together, isotope analysis of incremental dentin showed that individuals from elaborate burials consistently had lower \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values and higher \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values compared to the other two groups, suggesting that they consumed more high-protein C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e foods (e.g., deer, freshwater fish) throughout weaning period and late childhood. The differences of dietary practices between elites and ordinary people had developed as early as their childhood. It demonstrates that the individuals from those elaborate burials were probably born in wealthy families.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e5.5. The intersection of dietary differentiation, social stratification, and childhood socialization\u003c/h2\u003e\nAs revealed by isotope analysis of human bones and teeth in current study and the previous study (Liu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), we found that Jiaojia elites had different diet from the ordinary people both during their childhood and adulthood. Dietary differentiation was probably one of the symbols used by elites to strengthen their identity through intergenerational transmission; in other words, it demonstrates the incipient social stratification. The elites have been able to consume preferred foods across generations, possibly due to the inheritance of resources and wealth such as lands, animals, etc., which could help maintain their socio-economic status (Mulder et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Smith, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the types of weaning foods that distinguished the elaborate burial group from the other groups also suggest that the elites had particular child-rearing strategies. This was related to childhood socialization, which would influence economic opportunities and health outcomes of adulthood through cumulative advantage/disadvantage of dietary resources during childhood (Mortimer and Shanahan, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). We argue that both weaning and post-weaning feeding are critical aspects of childhood socialization, during which dietary differentiation serve as a marker, developed in tandem with the shaping of subadult\u0026rsquo;s social roles.\n\u003cp\u003ePrevious analysis of Dawenkou culture cemeteries argued that lineage-based households/families had emerged during that period and that different families probably had different economic status (Han, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Luan, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Wang, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). We also found that the burials of some elites who consumed more C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e foods were spatially clustered together within the cemetery, suggesting that they were possibly from the same household/family (Liu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The emergence of the household/family contributed to the privatization and intergenerational transmission of wealth (Bowles and Fochesato, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The elites provided extra care and investment for their children to maintain high social status and to keep family wealth flowing through the generations, and subadults were given an important role as inheritors in this process, even though this investment was accompanied by the risk of premature death of subadults (Craig-Atkins et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Hayden, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBurial treatment at Jiaojia suggest that subadults can have different social roles within the group. Subadults and adults from Jiaojia were buried in the same cemetery, and the burials were spatially intermixed with each other, with no separate burial areas found. Many of the prematurely dead subadults were buried with coffins or grave goods (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), and some were even buried elaborately. For example, the individual M124 (13\u0026ndash;15 yrs old) was buried with a single coffin and up to 60 grave goods, including a large number of jade ornaments such as rings, bracelets, and earrings (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea). There were also well-buried infants, for example, the individual M45 was buried with a single coffin and 10 pottery vessels (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ed). These elaborate burials of subadults were probably from elite families, and even though they could not inherit the family\u0026rsquo;s wealth due to their early deaths, their parents used grave goods to show their investment and care for their descendants. In contrast, some subadults from simple burials at Jiaojia have suffered unfair treatment. For example, M167 was placed on the west side of elaborate burial M17, and was buried prone, with head to the west, and hands and feet were possibly bound (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ec); M5 was placed on the west side of elaborate burial M20, and was buried on its side, with bent legs, and hands covering the face (Liu et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e: Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). They do not have any coffin or grave goods and were probably ritual sacrifices. In addition, we found that some infants from Jiaojia were buried under the foundation of houses, or in the layer of rammed earth wall, which possibly related to the foundation rituals (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ee). The fact that subadults were treated so disparately demonstrated the diversity and complexity of childhood socialization at Jiaojia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe stable isotope analysis of human incremental dentin and bone samples from Jiaojia suggests that the Jiaojia people subsisted on a diet primarily composed of C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e foods since childhood, and they completed weaning around 3 to 5 years of age, but there was no universal weaning age. Comparisons of isotope values among different human tissues showed that the Jiaojia people consumed more C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e foods with high \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values during late childhood compared to adulthood and pre-death. The isotope profiles of incremental dentin showed diverse weaning patterns and individual life histories. According to the trends of \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC and \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values of incremental dentin, we divided all 22 individuals in this study into four groups, including the \u0026ldquo;typical\u0026rdquo; weaning, millet weaning, \u0026ldquo;stress\u0026rdquo;, and non-local groups. Individuals from the \u0026ldquo;typical\u0026rdquo; weaning group (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7) had normal weaning patterns (concurrent decrease in \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN and \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC values), and they preferred C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e weaning foods. Individuals from the millet weaning group (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6) preferred C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e weaning foods with higher \u003cem\u003e\u0026delta;\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN values, thus leading to an unclear weaning process. Individuals from the \u0026ldquo;stress\u0026rdquo; group (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7) experienced some stress during childhood, and most of them died prematurely, demonstrating the negative impact of stress on long term health. Individuals from the non-local group (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2) had C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e mixed diets during their childhood, indicating that they probably migrated from mixed millet and rice farming regions, which demonstrates the complementary role of incremental dentin isotope analysis in identifying migrations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe compared the isotope values of incremental dentin among different social groups. Comparisons among groups of different burial lavishness indicated that dietary differentiation between the elites and ordinary people had developed as early as their childhood. The elites consistently consumed more high-protein C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e foods, from childhood to adulthood, while the ordinary people maintained a C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e-dominant diet. We argue that the dietary differentiation was probably related to the development of privatization of family wealth and social stratification. Moreover, dietary and mortuary practices showed the elites\u0026rsquo; investment in subadults, meanwhile some other subadults suffered unfair treatment, these together demonstrate the diversity and complexity of childhood socialization.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur study provides a new dimension for exploring the development of social stratification and childhood socialization in prehistoric China and even around the world. We demonstrates the significance of the social role of subadults and the diversity of life histories and childhood socialization. We demonstrates the impact of childhood stress on survival into adulthood, and that both weaning and post-weaning feeding are critical aspects of childhood socialization. Furthermore, our study confirms the intergenerational inheritance of wealth and status during the Dawenkou period, which provides critical evidence on social stratification in prehistory. Our sample size is relatively small, and isotope analysis of incremental dentin of more individuals from Dawenkou period and more comparisons among different regions are needed to investigate these questions in more depth.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDeclaration of Competing Interest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eM.L.: data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, visualization, writing-original draft, writing-review \u0026amp; editing. Z.T.: resources. Y.Z.: methodology. H.W.: visualization. S.Y.: investigation. Y.D.: conceptualization, data curation, funding acquisition, methodology, resources, writing-review \u0026amp; editing. F.W.: conceptualization, funding acquisition, project administration, resources, writing-review \u0026amp; editing. All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe thank Qian Zhang, Yuxuan Qiu, Xinyi Huang, and Suxia Ma (Shandong University), who helped with the sample preparation and experiment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll raw data of stable isotope analysis for this study can be obtained from the supplementary material.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAllard F (2001) Mortuary ceramics and social organization in the Dawenkou and Majiayao cultures. J East Asian Archaeol 3(3\u0026ndash;4):1\u0026ndash;22. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1163/156852301760238256\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1163/156852301760238256\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlQahtani SJ, Hector MP, Liversidge HM (2010) Brief communication: The London atlas of human tooth development and eruption. Am J Phys Anthropol 142(3):481\u0026ndash;490. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.21258\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.21258\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmbrose SH (1990) Preparation and characterization of bone and tooth collagen for isotopic analysis. J Archaeol Sci 17(4):431\u0026ndash;451. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/0305-4403(90)90007-R\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/0305-4403(90)90007-R\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmbrose SH (1991) Effects of diet, climate and physiology on nitrogen isotope abundances in terrestrial foodwebs. J Archaeol Sci 18(3):293\u0026ndash;317. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/0305-4403(91)90067-Y\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/0305-4403(91)90067-Y\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmbrose SH, Krigbaum J (2003) Bone chemistry and bioarchaeology. J Anthropol Archaeol 22(3):193\u0026ndash;199. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-4165(03)00033-3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/S0278-4165(03)00033-3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBeaumont J, Gledhill A, Lee-Thorp J, Montgomery J (2013) Childhood diet: a closer examination of the evidence from dental tissues using stable isotope analysis of incremental human dentine. Archaeometry 55(2):277\u0026ndash;295. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2012.00682.x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/j.1475-4754.2012.00682.x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBeaumont J, Montgomery J (2015) Oral histories: a simple method of assigning chronological age to isotopic values from human dentine collagen. Ann Hum Biol 42(4):407\u0026ndash;414. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3109/03014460.2015.1045027\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3109/03014460.2015.1045027\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBeaumont J, Montgomery J (2016) The Great Irish Famine: Identifying starvation in the tissues of victims using stable isotope analysis of bone and incremental dentine collagen. PLoS ONE 11(8):e0160065. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0160065\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0160065\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBeaumont J, Montgomery J, Buckberry J, Jay M (2015) Infant mortality and isotopic complexity: New approaches to stress, maternal health, and weaning. Am J Phys Anthropol 157(3):441\u0026ndash;457. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22736\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.22736\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBinford LR (1971) Mortuary practices: their study and their potential. Mem Soc Am Archaeol 25:6\u0026ndash;29. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0081130000002525\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1017/S0081130000002525\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBowles S, Fochesato M (2024) The origins of enduring economic inequality. J Econ Lit 62(4):1475\u0026ndash;1537. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20241718\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1257/jel.20241718\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCanterbury JA, Beck CW, Dozier C, Hoffmeister K, Magaro J, Perrotti AG, Wright LE (2020) Bariatric surgery as a proxy for nutritional stress in stable isotope investigations of archaeological populations. J Archaeol Sci : Rep 30:102196. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102196\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102196\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChen ST, Yu QW, Gao MK, Miller M, Jin GY, Dong Y (2019) Dietary evidence of incipient social stratification at the Dawenkou type site, China. Quat Int 521:44\u0026ndash;53. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2019.05.024\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.quaint.2019.05.024\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChryssi Bourbou BT, Fuller SJ, Garvie-Lok MP, Richards (2013) Nursing mothers and feeding bottles: reconstructing breastfeeding and weaning patterns in Greek Byzantine populations (6th\u0026ndash;15th centuries AD) using carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios. J Archaeol Sci 40(11):3903\u0026ndash;3913. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.04.020\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jas.2013.04.020\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCostin CL, Earle T (1989) Status distinction and legitimation of power as reflected in changing patterns of consumption in late prehispanic peru. Am Antiq 54(4):691\u0026ndash;714. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.2307/280677\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2307/280677\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCraig-Atkins E, Towers J, Beaumont J (2018) The role of infant life histories in the construction of identities in death: An incremental isotope study of dietary and physiological status among children afforded differential burial. Am J Phys Anthropol 167(3):644\u0026ndash;655. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23691\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.23691\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCrowder KD, Montgomery J, Gr\u0026ouml;cke DR, Filipek KL (2019) Childhood stress and stable isotope life histories in Transylvania. Int J Osteoarchaeol 29(4):644\u0026ndash;653. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/oa.2760\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/oa.2760\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDAMSU (Department of Archaeology and Museology, Shandong, University LCM, Longshan Culture Museum) (2019a) (, The Jiaojia site of the Neolithic Age in Zhangqiu District, Jinan. Chin. Archaeol. 19 (1), 13\u0026ndash;27. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1515/char-2019-0002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1515/char-2019-0002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDAMSU (Department of Archaeology and Museology, Shandong University), LCM, Longshan Culture Museum (2019b) (), The survey and excavation of the settlement site of the Jiaojia site in Zhangqiu District, Jinan City, Shandong: A preliminary report of the 2016\u0026ndash;2017 seasons. Archaeology (12), 3\u0026ndash;19 (in Chinese).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDAMSU (Department of Archaeology and Museology, Shandong University), LCM, Longshan Culture Museum (2019c) (), The excavation of the large burials of the Jiaojia site in Zhangqiu District, Jinan City, Shandong: A preliminary report of the 2016\u0026ndash;2017 seasons. Archaeology (12), 20\u0026ndash;48 (in Chinese)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDarmon N, Drewnowski A (2008) Does social class predict diet quality? Am. J Clin Nutr 87(5):1107\u0026ndash;1117. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/87.5.1107\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1093/ajcn/87.5.1107\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDeNiro MJ (1985) Postmortem preservation and alteration of in vivo bone collagen isotope ratios in relation to palaeodietary reconstruction. Nature 317(6040):806\u0026ndash;809. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/317806a0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/317806a0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDeNiro MJ, Epstein S (1978) Influence of diet on the distribution of carbon isotopes in animals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 42(5):495\u0026ndash;506. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(78)90199-0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/0016-7037(78)90199-0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDeNiro MJ, Epstein S (1981) Influence of diet on the distribution of nitrogen isotopes in animals. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 45(3):341\u0026ndash;351. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(81)90244-1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/0016-7037(81)90244-1\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDong Y, Bi XG, Wu RB, Belfield EJ, Harberd NP, Christensen BT, Charles M, Bogaard A (2022) The potential of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of foxtail and broomcorn millets for investigating ancient farming systems. Front. Plant Sci 13:1018312. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1018312\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3389/fpls.2022.1018312\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDong Y, Lin LG, Zhu XT, Luan FS, Underhill AP (2019) Mortuary ritual and social identities during the late Dawenkou period in China. Antiquity 93(368):378\u0026ndash;392. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2019.34\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.15184/aqy.2019.34\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eD\u0026rsquo;Ortenzio L, Brickley M, Schwarcz H, Prowse T (2015) You are not what you eat during physiological stress: Isotopic evaluation of human hair. Am J Phys Anthropol 157(3):374\u0026ndash;388. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22722\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.22722\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEerkens JW, Asgari S, Alizadeh K, Malarchik D, Cramer S, Parker G (2024) Stable isotope and proteomic insights into Bronze age human dietary life history at K\u0026ouml;hne Shahar, Northwest Iran. J Archaeol Sci : Rep 58:104746. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104746\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104746\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEerkens JW, Berget AG, Bartelink EJ (2011) Estimating weaning and early childhood diet from serial micro-samples of dentin collagen. J Archaeol Sci 38(11):3101\u0026ndash;3111. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.07.010\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jas.2011.07.010\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFang SY (2018) Strontium isotope analysis of human migrations of Jiaojia site. M.A. Thesis. Shandong University (in Chinese). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.7666/d.Y3407997\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.7666/d.Y3407997\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFern\u0026aacute;ndez-Crespo T, Schulting RJ, Czermak A, Ordo\u0026ntilde;o J, Lorenzo JI, Rodan\u0026eacute;s JM (2022) The post-weanling\u0026rsquo;s conundrum: exploring the impact of infant and child feeding practices on early mortality in the Bronze Age burial cave of Moro de Alins, north-eastern Iberia, through stable isotope analysis. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 14(10):196. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-022-01658-4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12520-022-01658-4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFleischer DM, Chan ES, Venter C, Spergel JM, Abrams EM, Stukus D, Groetch M, Shaker M, Greenhawt M (2021) A consensus approach to the primary prevention of food allergy through nutrition: Guidance from the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology; American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology; and the Canadian Society for Allergy and Clinical Immunology. J Allergy Clin Immunol : Pract 9(1):22\u0026ndash;43. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2020.11.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jaip.2020.11.002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFournier NA, Kennedy Thornton E, Arellano MV, Leventhal A (2022) Stable isotopic reconstruction of weaning and childhood diet during times of change: An examination of life history and health of San Francisco Bay Area juveniles. J Archaeol Sci : Rep 44:103495. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103495\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103495\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFuller BT, Fuller JL, Harris DA, Hedges REM (2006) Detection of breastfeeding and weaning in modern human infants with carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios. Am J Phys Anthropol 129(2):279\u0026ndash;293. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20249\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.20249\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFuller BT, Fuller JL, Sage NE, Harris DA, O\u0026rsquo;Connell TC, Hedges REM (2005) Nitrogen balance and δ\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN: why you\u0026rsquo;re not what you eat during nutritional stress. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 19(18):2497\u0026ndash;2506. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.2090\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/rcm.2090\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFuller BT, Richards MP, Mays SA (2003) Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope variations in tooth dentine serial sections from Wharram Percy. J Archaeol Sci 30(12):1673\u0026ndash;1684. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-4403(03)00073-6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/S0305-4403(03)00073-6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFung C (2000) The drinks are on us: Ritual, social status, and practice in Dawenkou burials, north China. J East Asian Archaeol 2(1\u0026ndash;2):67\u0026ndash;92. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1163/156852300509808\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1163/156852300509808\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGaniatsou E, Georgiadou A, Souleles A, Aidonis A, Protopsalti T, Tzevreni S, Konstantinidou K, Vasileiadou S, Siegmund F, Papageorgopoulou C (2023) Application of machine learning on isotopic data from tooth microsections for reconstructing weaning patterns and physiological stress. J Archaeol Sci : Rep 47:103765. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103765\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103765\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGoldberg M, Kulkarni AB, Young M, Boskey A (2011) Dentin: Structure, Composition and Mineralization: The role of dentin ECM in dentin formation and mineralization. Front Biosci (Elite Ed) 3(2):711\u0026ndash;735. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.2741/E281\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2741/E281\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGugora AD, Dupras TL, Fothi E (2016) Childhood diet at Medieval (1240s AD) Solt-T\u0026eacute;telhegy, Hungary as reconstructed from stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses. Am J Phys Anthropol 159(Suppl 62):164\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHalcrow SE, Tayles N (2008a) Stress near the start of life? Localised enamel hypoplasia of the primary canine in late prehistoric mainland Southeast Asia. J Archaeol Sci 35(8):2215\u0026ndash;2222. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2008.02.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jas.2008.02.002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHalcrow SE, Tayles N (2008b) The bioarchaeological investigation of childhood and social age: problems and prospects. J Archaeol Method Theory 15(2):190\u0026ndash;215. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-008-9052-x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10816-008-9052-x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHan JY (1994) Analysis of the Dawenkou cemetery. Cult Relics Cent China (2), 48\u0026ndash;61 (in Chinese).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHatch KA, Crawford MA, Kunz AW, Thomsen SR, Eggett DL, Nelson ST, Roeder BL (2006) An objective means of diagnosing anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa using \u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003eN/\u003csup\u003e14\u003c/sup\u003eN and \u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC/\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003eC ratios in hair. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 20(22):3367\u0026ndash;3373. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.2740\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/rcm.2740\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHayden B (2014) The Power of Feasts: From Prehistory to The Present. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHayden B (2021) Status pursuits in prehistory, and the condition we are in. In: Isenhour C, Roscoe P (eds) Consumption, Status, and Sustainability: Ecological and Anthropological Perspectives. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, CB, pp 33\u0026ndash;58. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1017/9781108874441.003\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1017/9781108874441.003\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHedges REM, Clement JG, Thomas CDL, O\u0026rsquo;Connell TC (2007) Collagen turnover in the adult femoral mid-shaft: modeled from anthropogenic radiocarbon tracer measurements. Am J Phys Anthropol 133(2):808\u0026ndash;816. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20598\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.20598\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHedges REM, Reynard LM (2007) Nitrogen isotopes and the trophic level of humans in archaeology. J Archaeol Sci 34(8):1240\u0026ndash;1251. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.015\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.015\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHerrscher E, Valentin F, Zinger W, Pradier B, Andr\u0026eacute; G (2024) Life histories in Fiji as reconstructed from first millennium CE Sigatoka Sand Dune burials using isotopes. PLoS ONE 19(5):e0300749. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0300749\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1371/journal.pone.0300749\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHirth KG (1989) Domestic architecture and social rank in a Mesoamerican urban center. In: Scott, M., David, A., Richard, G. (Eds.), Households and Communities: Proceedings of the 21st Annual Chacmool Conference. Archaeological Association, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada, pp. 441\u0026ndash;449\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJim S, Ambrose SH, Evershed RP (2004) Stable carbon isotopic evidence for differences in the dietary origin of bone cholesterol, collagen and apatite: Implications for their use in palaeodietary reconstruction. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 68(1):61\u0026ndash;72. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(03)00216-3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/S0016-7037(03)00216-3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKamp KA (1998) Social hierarchy and burial treatments: a comparative assessment. Cross-cult Res 32:79\u0026ndash;115. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/106939719803200103\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/106939719803200103\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKinaston RL, Buckley HR, Gray A (2013) Diet and social status on Taumako, a Polynesian outlier in the Southeastern Solomon Islands. Am J Phys Anthropol 151(4):589\u0026ndash;603. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22314\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.22314\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKing CL, Halcrow SE, Millard AR, Gr\u0026ouml;cke DR, Standen VG, Portilla M, Arriaza BT (2018) Let\u0026rsquo;s talk about stress, baby! Infant-feeding practices and stress in the ancient Atacama desert, Northern Chile. Am J Phys Anthropol 166(1):139\u0026ndash;155. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23411\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.23411\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKohn MJ (1999) You are what you eat. Science 283(5400):335\u0026ndash;336. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5400.335\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1126/science.283.5400.335\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLee-Thorp JA (2008) On isotopes and old bones. Archaeometry 50(6):925\u0026ndash;950. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2008.00441.x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/j.1475-4754.2008.00441.x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLei S, Gu WF, Wu Q, Xin YJ, Guo Y (2023) Early childhood nurturing strategies in groups of the Yellow River\u0026rsquo;s middle reaches from the late Yangshao culture (3500\u0026ndash;2800 BCE): A stable isotope perspective. Int J Osteoarchaeol 33(5):920\u0026ndash;937. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/oa.3254\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/oa.3254\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi B (2017) On the construction foundation custom in Yellow River basing of the Neolithic period. Cult Relics Cent China (1), 26\u0026ndash;34 (in Chinese).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu L (2004) The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu M, Tang ZM, Zhao YS, Wu H, Cheng LX, Dong Y, Wang F (2024) Human diet and social complexity during the middle and late Dawenkou period at the Jiaojia site, China. J Archaeol Science: Rep 60:104857. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104857\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jasrep.2024.104857\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi XL (2015) On the issues related to the pit burials of the Yangshao culture. Relics Museology (6), 31\u0026ndash;37 (in Chinese).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLuan FS (2013) The Dawenkou Culture in the lower Yellow River and Huai River basin areas. In: Underhill AP (ed) A Companion to Chinese Archaeology. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Malden, MA, pp 411\u0026ndash;434. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/9781118325698\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/9781118325698\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLuan FS (2015) The development of prehistorical settlements and early civilizations in Haidai region. In: The Center for the Study of Chinese Archaeology in Peking University (Ed.), Settlement Evolution and Early Civilizations. Cultural Relics Press, Beijing, pp. 107\u0026ndash;203 (in Chinese)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLuan FS (2021) Cultural inheritance reflected from the head of the tomb: one of the prehistoric burial customs in Haidai area. East Asia Archaeol 18:1\u0026ndash;8 (in Chinese)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMakarewicz CA, Sealy J (2015) Dietary reconstruction, mobility, and the analysis of ancient skeletal tissues: Expanding the prospects of stable isotope research in archaeology. J Archaeol Sci 56:146\u0026ndash;158. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2015.02.035\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jas.2015.02.035\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eManolagas SC (2000) Birth and death of bone cells: Basic regulatory mechanisms and implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of osteoporosis. Endocr Rev 21(2):115\u0026ndash;137. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1210/edrv.21.2.0395\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1210/edrv.21.2.0395\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMekota A-M, Grupe G, Ufer S, Cuntz U (2006) Serial analysis of stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes in hair: monitoring starvation and recovery phases of patients suffering from anorexia nervosa. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 20(10):1604\u0026ndash;1610. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/rcm.2477\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/rcm.2477\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMiller MJ, Dong Y, Pechenkina K, Fan WQ, Halcrow SE (2020) Raising girls and boys in early China: Stable isotope data reveal sex differences in weaning and childhood diets during the eastern Zhou era. Am J Phys Anthropol 172(4):567\u0026ndash;585. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24033\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.24033\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMortimer JT, Shanahan MJ (2006) Handbook of the Life Course. Springer, New York, NY\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMulder MB, Bowles S, Hertz T, Bell A, Beise J, Clark G, Fazzio I, Gurven M, Hill K, Hooper PL, Irons W, Kaplan H, Leonetti D, Low B, Marlowe F, McElreath R, Naidu S, Nolin D, Piraino P, Quinlan R, Schniter E, Sear R, Shenk M, Smith EA, Von Rueden C, Wiessner P (2009) Intergenerational wealth transmission and the dynamics of inequality in small-scale societies. Science 326(5953):682\u0026ndash;688. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1126/science.1178336\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1126/science.1178336\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNiu YM (2020) A research on the shape and living patterns of human existence of the Jiaojia site, Zhangqiu. M.A. Thesis. Shandong University (in Chinese). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.27272/d.cnki.gshdu.2020.003332\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.27272/d.cnki.gshdu.2020.003332\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePearson MP (1993) The powerful dead: Archaeological relationships between the living and the dead. Camb Archaeol J 3(2):203\u0026ndash;229. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0959774300000846\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1017/S0959774300000846\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePearson R (1988) Chinese neolithic burial patterns: problems of method and interpretation. Early China 13:1\u0026ndash;45. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0362502800005198\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1017/S0362502800005198\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eReitsema LJ, McIlvaine BK (2014) Reconciling stress and health in physical anthropology: What can bioarchaeologists learn from the other subdisciplines? Am. J Phys Anthropol 155(2):181\u0026ndash;185. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22596\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.22596\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eReynard LM, Tuross N (2015) The known, the unknown and the unknowable: weaning times from archaeological bones using nitrogen isotope ratios. J Archaeol Sci 53:618\u0026ndash;625. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.11.018\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jas.2014.11.018\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSandberg PA, Sponheimer M, Lee-Thorp J, Van Gerven D (2014) Intra‐tooth stable isotope analysis of dentine: a step toward addressing selective mortality in the reconstruction of life history in the archaeological record. Am J Phys Anthropol 155(2):281\u0026ndash;293. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22600\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.22600\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSchoeninger MJ (2014) Stable isotope analyses and the evolution of human diets. Annu Rev Anthropol 43(1):413\u0026ndash;430. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102313-025935\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1146/annurev-anthro-102313-025935\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSchroeder DG, Brown KH (1994) Nutritional status as a predictor of child survival: summarizing the association and quantifying its global impact. Bull World Health Organ 72(4):569\u0026ndash;579\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShao WP (2000) The Longshan period and incipient chinese civilization. J East Asian Archaeol 2(1\u0026ndash;2):195\u0026ndash;226. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1163/156852300509844\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1163/156852300509844\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSmith ME (1987) Household possessions and wealth in agrarian states: implications for archaeology. J Anthropol Archaeol 6(4):297\u0026ndash;335. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/0278-4165(87)90004-3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/0278-4165(87)90004-3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSmith ML (2006) The archaeology of food preference. Am Anthropol 108(3):480\u0026ndash;493. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1525/aa.2006.108.3.480\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1525/aa.2006.108.3.480\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStantis C, Buckley HR, Commendador A, Dudgeon JV (2021) Expanding on incremental dentin methodology to investigate childhood and infant feeding practices on Taumako (southeast Solomon Islands). J Archaeol Sci 126:105294. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2020.105294\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jas.2020.105294\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStantis C, Schutkowski H, Sołtysiak A (2020) Reconstructing breastfeeding and weaning practices in the Bronze Age Near East using stable nitrogen isotopes. Am J Phys Anthropol 172(1):58\u0026ndash;69. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23980\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.23980\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTao DW, Xu JJ, Wu Q, Gu WF, Wei QL, Zhou YW, Richards MP, Zhang GW (2022a) Human diets, crop patterns, and settlement hierarchies in third millennium BC China: Bioarchaeological perspectives in Zhengluo region. J Archaeol Sci 145:105647. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2022.105647\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jas.2022.105647\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTao DW, Zhang RJ, Xu JJ, Wu Q, Wei QL, Gu WF, Zhang GW (2022b) Agricultural extensification or intensification: Nitrogen isotopic investigation into late Yangshao agricultural strategies in the middle Yellow River area. J Archaeol Sci : Rep 44:103534. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103534\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jasrep.2022.103534\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTsutaya T (2017) Post-weaning diet in archaeological human populations: A meta‐analysis of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios of child skeletons. Am J Phys Anthropol 164(3):546\u0026ndash;557. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23295\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.23295\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTsutaya T, Yoneda M (2015) Reconstruction of breastfeeding and weaning practices using stable isotope and trace element analyses: a review. Am J Phys Anthropol 156(S59):2\u0026ndash;21. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22657\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.22657\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTwiss K (2012) The archaeology of food and social diversity. J Archaeol Res 20(4):357\u0026ndash;395. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-012-9058-5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s10814-012-9058-5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUnderhill AP (2000) An analysis of mortuary ritual at the Dawenkou site, Shandong, China. J East Asian Archaeol 2(1\u0026ndash;2):93\u0026ndash;127. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1163/156852300509817\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1163/156852300509817\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUnderhill AP (2002) Craft Production and Social Change in Northern China. Springer, New York, NY. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0641-6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/978-1-4615-0641-6\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003evan der Merwe NJ, Vogel JC (1978). \u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003eC content of human collagen as a measure of prehistoric diet in woodland North America. Nature 276(5690):815\u0026ndash;816. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/276815a0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/276815a0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003evan Klinken GJ (1999) Bone collagen quality indicators for palaeodietary and radiocarbon measurements. J Archaeol Sci 26(6):687\u0026ndash;695. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1998.0385\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1006/jasc.1998.0385\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang F (2012) The relationship of cemetery spatial structure and social organization: from cemeteries of Dawenkou period. East Asia Archaeol 9:112\u0026ndash;137 (in Chinese)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang F, Liang RJ, Tang ZM, Wu H, Song YB (2024) Animal selection strategies in mortuary practices at the Dawenkou culture site of Jiaojia in Northern China. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 17(1):8. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-024-02136-9\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12520-024-02136-9\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang F, Yuan C, Yuan SL (2020) Radiocarbon dating and diet: the Jiaojia site in China. Radiocarbon 62(5):1515\u0026ndash;1523. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1017/RDC.2020.47\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1017/RDC.2020.47\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang J (2019) Research on the faunal remains of middle-late Dawenkou culture excavated in the 2017 season at Jiaojia site, Zhangqiu. M.A. Thesis. Shandong University (in Chinese). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.7666/d.Y3571596\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.7666/d.Y3571596\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang QG (2018) The spread and variation of juvenile burial customs from the perspective of folkloristics: The prehistorical urn-burial in Haidai region. Folklore Stud 426\u0026ndash;30 (in Chinese). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.13370/j.cnki.fs.2018.04.005\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.13370/j.cnki.fs.2018.04.005\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang TT, Wei D, Yi B, Jiang HE, Li WY, Hu YW, Fuller BT (2022) Infancy, childhood, and puberty on the Silk Road revealed with isotopic analysis of incremental dentine. Sci Rep 12(1):19494. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-24119-3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/s41598-022-24119-3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWood JW, Milner GR, Harpending HC, Weiss KM (1992) The osteological paradox: Problems of inferring prehistoric health from skeletal samples. Curr Anthropol 33(4):343\u0026ndash;370. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1086/204084\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1086/204084\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eXu H (1989) A preliminary study of urn burials in prehistoric China. Archaeology 4:331\u0026ndash;339 (in Chinese)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYi B, Liu XY, Yan X, Zhou ZQ, Chen J, Yuan HB, Hu YW (2021) Dietary shifts and diversities of individual life histories reveal cultural dynamics and interplay of millets and rice in the Chengdu Plain, China during the Late Neolithic (2500\u0026ndash;2000 cal. BC). Am J Phys Anthropol 175(4):762\u0026ndash;776. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24259\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/ajpa.24259\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYi B, Liu XY, Yuan HB, Zhou ZQ, Chen J, Wang TT, Wang YJ, Hu YW, Fuller BT (2018) Dentin isotopic reconstruction of individual life histories reveals millet consumption during weaning and childhood at the Late Neolithic (4500 BP) Gaoshan site in southwestern China. Int J Osteoarchaeol 28(6):636\u0026ndash;644. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1002/oa.2676\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1002/oa.2676\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang XW (2017) A research on human existence during Dawenkou period in the Jiaojia site, Zhangqiu. M.A. Thesis. Shandong University (in Chinese). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.7666/d.Y3242632\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.7666/d.Y3242632\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang YP (2013) Mysterious spocalypse: Observations on minor burials of the Banpo culture. Xi\u0026rsquo;an Banpo Museum, Prehistory. Northwestern University, Xi\u0026rsquo;an, SN, pp 265\u0026ndash;276. (in Chinese).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZM (Zhangqiu Museum) (1998) The survey of the Jiaojia site in Zhangqiu. Shandong Archaeol 6:20\u0026ndash;38 (in Chinese)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"archaeological-and-anthropological-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aasc","sideBox":"Learn more about [Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences](http://link.springer.com/journal/12517)","snPcode":"12520","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12520/3","title":"Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Stable isotopes, incremental dentin, weaning, childhood socialization, social stratification","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8504291/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8504291/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eInvestigating childhood socialization can enhance our comprehensions of families and the overall society in the past. Previous studies paid little attention to subadults, and the evidence on the intergenerational inheritance of wealth and status is still lacking. Stable isotope analysis of incremental dentin and bones enables the reconstruction of individual life histories and provides a new dimension to the study of social stratification and childhood socialization. We conducted stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis on incremental dentin, limb bones, and ribs of individuals from the middle and late Dawenkou period, the Jiaojia site. Results indicate that Jiaojia people have diverse weaning patterns and individual life histories. The 22 individuals in this study were divided into four groups: \u0026ldquo;typical\u0026rdquo; weaning, millet weaning, \u0026ldquo;stress\u0026rdquo;, and non-local groups. Comparisons among groups of different burial lavishness indicated that the elites consistently consumed more high-protein C\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e foods, from childhood to adulthood, while the ordinary people maintained a C\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e-dominant diet. The dietary differentiation was related to the development of privatization of family wealth and social stratification. Both dietary and mortuary practices showed there are observable differences within the group of subadults, and indicated the diversity and complexity of childhood socialization. This study demonstrates that multidimensional investigations including diet, health, and mortuary practices could provide critical evidence on the process of prehistoric social stratification and childhood socialization. Only by studying both subadults and adults can we piece together the whole picture of complex ancient societies.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Diverse life histories and childhood socialization during the middle and late Dawenkou period: Incremental dentin isotope evidence from the Jiaojia site, China","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-13 14:08:54","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8504291/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-10T17:29:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-16T11:50:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-14T02:28:15+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"91549516580396168056061109698551569010","date":"2026-01-11T12:58:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"187352186537621695513465258489572979291","date":"2026-01-09T11:37:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-09T11:20:00+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-01-06T09:54:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-01-05T11:08:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences","date":"2026-01-03T04:12:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"archaeological-and-anthropological-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"aasc","sideBox":"Learn more about [Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences](http://link.springer.com/journal/12517)","snPcode":"12520","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12520/3","title":"Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"144e57ac-dbf5-405f-b51f-d5be817cb10d","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 13th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-23T11:55:49+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-13 14:08:54","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8504291","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8504291","identity":"rs-8504291","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}