The effect of space debris on near-Earth space

The effect of space debris on near-Earth space | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The effect of space debris on near-Earth space Ali M. Ahmed, Russel Mohemmed Shehab, Zainab Hassan Omran, Safa Yaseen Taha, and 5 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1631160/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The research describes the effect of space debris on near-Earth space in order to reveal the concept of space debris composition and origin of debris, to determine the effect of space debris on space orbital flights by discussing the spatial distribution of debris, the Collisions of spacecraft with debris and their consequences, the probability of collisions of spacecraft with debris, and Measures to limit debris contamination of near-Earth space. Also, the expected consequences of debris contamination of space and the Earth have been identified in this research as the frequency of dangerous encounters between debris and vehicles will almost double. By 2059, this figure will quadruple. If we translate this prediction into absolute numbers, it turns out that in 2019 satellites and space debris converged 20 thousand times a week, and in 2059–50 thousand. Now the number of such events is about 13 thousand per week. The need to track hazards and ensure evasive maneuvers will significantly increase the cost of space missions. The research describes the ways to remove space debris from orbit by using jet propulsion devices (both high and low thrust), aerodynamic braking means, Collection of artificial objects using special spacecraft and their subsequent withdrawal, and using a solar sail. space debris collisions contamination near-Earth space Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. Introduction The most acute problem of society has become the safety of astronauts and the safety of artificial satellites from debris filling outer space. Scientists from various countries are developing methods for controlling outer space and disposing of space debris, putting forward various projects for disposing of space debris from a geostationary orbit, because there is no contamination of the national near-earth space, there is a contamination of the Earth's outer space, equally negatively affecting all countries, directly or indirectly participating in its development [ 1 ]. There was an urgent need to urgently address the problem of space debris in order to prevent an environmental catastrophe later. By the beginning of the XXI century. near-earth space (OKP) has become a significant factor in scientific, public, and commercial use. OKP is a zone of expansion of the ecological niche of human civilization due to its inevitable technogenic development, which was one of the ways to avoid the threat of a global ecological crisis. Modern civilization has reached such a level of anthropogenic impact on near space that no other environment experiences: neither the hydrosphere, nor the lithosphere, nor the surface atmosphere [ 2 ]. The development of this environment is carried out by the most powerful modern means. But the near-earth space has many orders of magnitude less connections than the biosphere, ensuring its stability. A very important parameter characterizing the general state of the NSC is its pollution with space debris of natural and man-made origin. A problem arises: space exploration becomes unsafe for the inhabitants of the Earth [ 3 ]. For the first time, scientists started talking about large-scale pollution of space in the 1980s, when the concentration of debris in Earth's orbit reached such a density that ballistics had to work hard to safely place this or that satellite among it. In the last decade, the situation has only worsened. In 1983, the crew of the infamous shuttle Challenger discovered a small crater on the windshield of their ship, just 2.5 mm deep and just as wide. After the landing of the spacecraft, experts carefully examined the damage and came to the conclusion that the cause of the collision was a microparticle of paint that had peeled off from some other spacecraft [ 4 ]. The Soviet orbital station "Salyut-7" also suffered from space debris, the surface of which was literally dotted with microscopic craters from impact with debris particles [ 5 ]. In June 1999, the then uninhabited ISS had every chance of colliding with a debris of the upper stage of one of the rockets that had been orbiting the Earth for many years [ 6 ]. Space debris is also dangerous for earthlings far from space, falling on their heads in the literal sense of the word [ 7 ]. In 1978, the taiga regions in northern Canada suffered from the fall of the Soviet satellite Kosmos-594. A year later, the debris of the American space station Skylab scattered over the desert regions of Australia [ 8 ]. Thus, according to many scientists, orbital debris is a growing danger to space travel. If you do not take measures to clean it from it now, then in 20–30 years such flights will become simply impossible [ 9 ]. 2. Methodology The adopted methodology will be discussed in this section in two phases. 2.1 The composition of the space debris. In this phase we will discuss the characteristics of space debris, the composition and origin of space debris and changes in the amount and composition of space debris. 2.1.1 The characteristics of space debris Space debris is used spacecraft, structural elements that have been separated or shot off from them, large or small fragments formed as a result of destruction or explosions of spacecraft, etc [ 10 ]. They also include packaging, food and other waste, metal particles and even thin layers of paint. Currently, in near space, or more precisely, in near-earth space, there are thousands of observable objects of artificial origin that fall under the category of space debris [ 11 ]. The problem of contamination of near-earth space with "space debris" as a purely theoretical one arose essentially immediately after the launch of the first artificial earth satellites in the late fifties [ 12 ]. It received its official status at the international level after the report of the UN Secretary General entitled "The impact of space activities on the environment" space of the Earth, equally negatively affecting all countries.Distinguish between observed and unobserved space debris: Observed space debris is measured using different methods. Ground-based measurements carried out in the framework of remote sensing of space debris generally fall into two categories: radar and optical. [ 13 ] Space debris radar measurements are generally used for low Earth orbit (LEO) and optical measurements for high Earth orbit (HEO) [ 14 ]. With the help of ground-based radar stations, it is quite possible to monitor space objects in any weather conditions and at any time of the day. However, the disadvantages of using radar systems to detect small particles at large distances include significant power consumption and operating wavelength [ 15 ]. Space debris can be detected with a telescope when a sunlit object is placed against a dark sky [ 16 ]. For objects in low Earth orbit, the detection period is limited to one to two hours immediately after sunset or before sunrise. At the same time, observations of objects in high low-earth orbit, for example, in geostationary orbit, can often continue throughout the night. Another difficulty limiting the ability to carry out optical measurements is that the sky must be clear and dark [ 17 ]. In addition to these methods, debris measurements using space vehicles can also be used. However, the cost of space-based space debris observation equipment is higher than the cost of ground-based observation systems. The number of unobservable objects a few centimeters in size and less is unknown [ 18 ]. The main danger of space debris is collision with active spacecraft. For example, a particle with a diameter of 0.5 mm flying at great speed can pierce the spacesuit of an astronaut working in outer space outside the spacecraft, even if this spacesuit is made of a multilayer material [ 19 ]. 2.1.2 The composition and origin of space debris Currently, more than 600 thousand man-made objects with a diameter of more than 1 cm revolve around the Earth [ 20 ]. According to the European Space Agency (ESA), 41% are various debris, lost instruments, etc, 22% are spent space vehicles, 13% of the total are traces of various experiments and scientific projects, 7% are parts of launch vehicles. At the same time, functioning spacecraft account for only 7% of the huge amount of waste associated with the exploration of space by mankind. It turns out that 93% of objects orbiting the Earth are useless and dangerous debris scattered in different orbits. In general, the concept of "Orbital and space debris" includes the following objects (Scheme 1 ): [ 21 ]. Orbital technogenic debris. Orbital space debris. Orbital debris. Orbital waste. Gaseous emissions. It can be seen from this diagram that the debris appearing in the OKP is associated with both man-made interventions and natural ones - from outer space. Let us give a brief definition of this waste: Orbital and space debris - objects of extraterrestrial origin, appearing in the near-earth space of the Earth under the influence of the planet's gravity, cluttering the OSS, disrupting the operation of rocket and space technology and the life of biogeocenoses [ 22 ]. Orbital potential raw material waste - aircraft rocket and space technology that have lost their performance and their fragments, which can be used as raw materials [ 23 ]. Orbital debris is a waste product of astronauts in near-earth space. Gaseous emissions - a gaseous "cloud" of products released from the design of aircraft, generated by the exhaust of engines, as well as leaked from the compartments of spacecraft. Despite the fact that the density of the gaseous "shell" of the satellites is hundreds of times higher than the density of the environment in the OSS, these excretions practically do not affect the orbital motion of aircraft [ 24 ]. Orbital man-made debris - worthless wreckage of aircraft of rocket and space technology, as well as auxiliary devices or mechanisms, their destroyed parts and fragments, located in the OKP in the burial orbits and at the entrance to the dense layers of the atmosphere (below "200 km). Man-made debris includes debris, fragments and particles of objects of man-made origin, which arise during explosive and collisional accidents in the OKP. Such orbital debris can appear anywhere in the OKP and the near-ground atmosphere [ 25 ]. Almost a third of all space debris came from two events. First, it was China's fault, which tested the rocket and deliberately shot down its own satellite, generating 3,000 debris. The composition of space debris of rocket origin is shown in Fig. 1 [ 26 ]. The second event took place in 2009, when the satellites Iridium 33 and Kosmos-2251 collided. As a result, a cloud of debris of 2,000 debris was formed, which ultimately led to the threat of a collision with the ISS. Only thanks to the ESA cargo ship Georges Lemaître was it possible to change the station's dangerous flight path and avoid a collision. These debris could cause enormous damage to the ISS and lead to human casualties. 1.1.1 Changes in the amount and composition of space debris. Today, the amount of space debris is constantly increasing, not only through rocket launches, but also from mutual collisions of objects and space debris particles. The level of debris in low Earth orbits (LEO) is so high that measures to reduce man-made debris cannot reduce it, therefore, in the long term, this can lead to a catastrophic increase in the number of orbital debris objects in LEO and, as a consequence, to the practical impossibility of further space exploration. [ 27 ]. The level of debris in low Earth orbits (LEO) is so high that measures to reduce man-made debris cannot reduce it, therefore, in the long term, this can lead to a catastrophic increase in the number of orbital debris objects in LEO and, as a consequence, to the practical impossibility of further space exploration. It is assumed that "after 2055, the process of self-propagation of the remnants of space activities of mankind will become a serious problem." 2.2. Distribution of debris in near-earth space and the consequences of its collision with comic vehicles. In this phase we will discuss the spatial distribution of debris, the Collisions of spacecraft with debris and their consequences, the probability of collisions of spacecraft with debris and Measures to limit debris contamination of near-Earth space. 2.2.1 The spatial distribution of debris As the scientists note, the KM is distributed over the orbits in layers. This is directly related to the functional load on a particular orbit. The more convenient it is, the more satellites work on it. After a while, some of them turn into lifeless scrap metal, polluting the space where their lives recently passed. Currently, according to various estimates, in the region of low Earth orbits (LEO) up to heights of about 2000 km there are up to 5000 tons of man-made objects. On the basis of statistical estimates, it is concluded that the total number of objects of this kind (more than 1 cm in diameter) is rather uncertain and can reach 60,000–100,000. Of these, only about 10% (about 8600 objects) are detected, tracked and cataloged by ground-based radar and optical funds and only about 6% of monitored objects are active. About 22% of the facilities ceased functioning, 17% are spent upper stages and booster blocks of launch vehicles, and about 55% are waste, technological elements associated with launches, and debris from explosions and fragmentation. The most contaminated areas are those of the orbits around the Earth, which are most often used for the operation of spacecraft. These are LEO, geostationary orbit (GSO) and sun-synchronous orbits (SSO) [ 28 ]. Contribution to the creation of space debris by country: China − 40%; USA − 27.5%; Russia − 25.5%; other countries − 7%. In the near-Earth space, at altitudes below 400 km, that is, in the area of flight of manned vehicles, there is a large amount of space debris, but these objects are relatively short-lived: a few years after their formation, they burn up in the Earth's atmosphere. Meteorological satellites and Earth remote sensing satellites, as well as most of the satellites with nuclear power devices, fly at altitudes of 850–1200 km. The latter at these altitudes can exist for hundreds of years before the complete disappearance of the radiation hazard. Cases of early destruction are possible due to collision with a particle less than 0.1 cm in size flying at a bullet speed of -10 km /s. The geostationary orbit is densely populated with objects of the space industry - satellites - stations. Currently, there are about 800 objects. Every year, two or three dozen new stations and a significant amount of debris of satellites destroyed for various reasons are added to them. The useful population of high orbits consists of telecommunication satellites, scientific, military and meteorological satellites. Having considered the distribution of space debris by orbital heights, we can conclude that there is space debris in all orbits, but the self-cleaning mechanism occurs in all orbits in different ways [ 29 ]. 2.2.2 Collisions of spacecraft with debris and their consequences. At present, the number of space debris objects has reached such a value that it becomes necessary to reckon with the real danger of damage (destruction) of expensive space technology in possible collisions with space debris objects. In 1983, a small grain of sand (less than 1 mm in diameter) left a serious crack in the shuttle's window. In total, according to experts' estimates, during the flights of reusable spacecraft, i.e. shuttles, more than 170 collision marks were found on the windows. And it took more than 70 replacements of such windows. In July 1996, at an altitude of about 660 km, a French satellite collided with a fragment of the third stage of the French Arian rocket. [ 30 ] In 2001, the ISS almost collided with a seven-kilogram instrument lost by American astronauts. Also, in October this year, the Mission Control Center postponed the station's orbit correction due to the danger of a new collision. Meanwhile, there are now about 13 thousand large objects of artificial origin in near-earth orbit. On February 10, 2009, the commercial satellite of the American satellite communications company Iridium, launched in 1997, collided with the Russian military communications satellite Kosmos-2251, launched in 1993 and decommissioned in 1995. The collision occurred at a relative collision speed of more than 10 km / s, as a result of which both satellites were destroyed and a cloud of more than a thousand debris of various sizes was formed [ 31 ]. When a satellite collides with debris, new debris is often formed (the so-called Kessler syndrome), which in the future may lead to an uncontrolled increase in space debris. NASA scientific consultant Donald Kessler described the apocalyptic scenario, now known as "Kessler syndrome" - with the increase in the amount of "space debris" in orbit, the number of collisions between these objects will increase, which will cause a "domino effect". After each collision, hundreds and thousands of new debris will form, and so over and over again, and ultimately the outer space around the Earth will become unsuitable for flight. Thus, earthlings will close themselves into a trap for hundreds, or even thousands of years. 2.2.3 The probability of collisions of spacecraft with debris. At present, all space powers and the UN have adopted an agreed opinion that the debris in near space has already reached a level that is extremely dangerous for space flights [ 32 ]. The degree of contamination of near-earth space with neodyrakov space debris at different heights. The largest number of debris for every 10 km of altitude falls on the altitude range from 800 to 1000 km and in the area of 1500 km. The sizes of fragments of technogenic bodies also differ. The vast majority of all debris (about 99%) are up to 10 cm in size, and quite a bit (less than 1%) - more than 10 cm. Naturally, the values of the probability of collision of active satellites with space debris and debris fragments with each other will be maximum at altitudes of about 1000 and 1500 km. The probability of collisions, close to 10%, is already so great that it requires a detailed study of the consequences of such collisions. If the consequences of collisions can threaten the safety of astronauts, then they are investigated even at lower probabilities. On the basis of the available data on the formation of technogenic bodies, about 20,000 bodies with dimensions of more than 5 mm were systematized and it was found that their highest densities correspond to heights of 800–1000 km and 1400–1500 km and a latitudinal interval of 65–850. In this case, the maximum density of fragments reaches values of 10 − 6 -10-5 km − 3 . For spacecraft 2 and 30 m in size, the probabilities of collision with technogenic bodies were calculated for circular orbits determined by heights from 300 to 4000 km and inclinations from 30 to 900. It is shown that the probability of collision of technogenic objects with space objects 2 m in size is of the order of 10 − 11 - 10 − 7 , for objects measuring 30 m at an altitude of 900 km − 10 − 4 . The maximum probabilities of collisions per year correspond to heights of about 99 km and for spacecraft with a size of 6 m are 10 − 3 . With a space station radius of 50 m, the number of collisions per year with particles 10 − 2 cm in diameter is 3x104 , 0.1 cm in diameter − 170, and 1 cm in diameter - once a year. These are estimates, but it is obvious that the study of the problem requires close attention. Especially. That the ongoing launches of various kinds of space objects is accompanied by an increase in the number of man-made bodies in near-earth orbits. Their annual growth by 6–12% can lead to a real threat to the safety of space flights and casts doubt on the possibility of implementing promising programs. In the future, it is necessary to constantly monitor not only active satellites and spacecraft, but also tens of thousands of fragments that form space debris. This requires a network of ground-based radar stations, optical tracking devices, it is necessary to create statistical models for the distribution of objects of artificial origin in near-earth space. Currently, tracking is taking place for each fragment of 10 cm or more. For example, modern radar facilities are capable of more or less confidently monitoring space at altitudes up to 1000 km to detect space fragments over 10 cm. To detect fragments less than 10 cm, a system of stations operating at frequencies of 4x10 4 MHz and higher (i.e. waves of the order of 8 mm), which meets certain technical difficulties. The degree of danger posed by fragments of space debris for members of the spacecraft and the stations themselves strongly depends on their size, the density of the fragment material and the speed of the meeting (i.e., it is determined by the kinetic energy of the striker E k = m V 2 / 2). For example, a metal splinter made of steel with a diameter of 0.5 mm, flying at a speed of about 10 km / s, can pierce the spacesuit of an astronaut in open space, and a splinter several centimeters in size will disrupt the normal functioning of even a large space complex, such as the Mir "Or" Freedom ". Moreover, the likelihood of such a collision in the future will grow steadily. An astronomer from the UK has calculated the likelihood of collisions between spacecraft and debris in orbit. The scientist presented his findings at the European Air and Space Conference, which was held in Manchester. Since the launch of the first Soviet satellite PS-1 into orbit, debris of various vehicles, stages of launch vehicles and other debris have gradually accumulated in the nearest outer space. In the last four years alone, the number of such facilities has quadrupled. Collisions with fragments of near-Earth debris pose a serious danger to satellites and spacecraft. The author of the new work decided to calculate how the probability of collision with space debris will increase in the next 50 years. To do this, the scientist used the currently available data on the increase in the number of cases when fragments passed dangerously close to vehicles, depending on the growth in the number of space debris. A distance less than 5 kilometers is considered dangerous. In addition, the astronomer took into account the existing forecasts for an increase in the number of objects in near-earth orbit. According to the conclusion of the researcher, in the next decade, the frequency of dangerous encounters between debris and vehicles will almost double. By 2059, this figure will quadruple. If we translate this prediction into absolute numbers, it turns out that in 2019 satellites and space debris converged 20 thousand times a week, and in 2059–50 thousand. Now the number of such events is about 13 thousand per week. The need to track hazards and ensure evasive maneuvers will significantly increase the cost of space missions. 2.2.4 Measures to limit debris contamination of near-Earth space. As you can see, the problem of space debris in near-earth space will become more and more serious over time and require effective measures to be taken to solve it. In this regard, already today, states are making certain efforts to reduce the debris in outer space. Among the technical means for preventing the clogging of outer space, it is proposed, in particular, a reduction in the number of launches, an increase in the active life of spacecraft, improvement of their designs, the development of methods and means for clearing near-earth space from space debris, the use of "burial orbits", etc. According to available estimates, all known means require too high economic and energy costs. The Japanese National Space Agency (NASDA) requires that mechanical components be prevented from detaching when separating satellites or deploying solar panels, with the exception of certain specific operations, for example, separating spent engines to create a thrust pulse at apogee, which are installed on geostationary weather satellites. The main rule established by the French National Center for Space Research (CNES) to prevent the growth of space debris is as follows: upon completion of a satellite launch program into any given orbit, no more than one unit of inert space debris per launched satellite should remain in orbit. The Canadian RADARSAT program has established a system-wide requirement that any solid debris resulting from the securing / releasing mechanism is retained. In other words, all contractors must design the system so that no debris is generated during the launch and operation of the spacecraft. Within the framework of other space agencies - US NASA, the Russian Aerospace Agency, the European Space Agency, various measures are being developed and taken to prevent technogenic pollution of near-earth space. Here the proposals of the Russian scientist in the field of cosmonautics - S.A.Vaskov are of certain interest, he suggests the following ways to remove space debris from orbit: The use of jet propulsion devices (both high and low thrust). The use of aerodynamic braking means. Collection of artificial objects using special spacecraft and their subsequent withdrawal; The use of "solar sail. According to S. A. Vaskov, from an altitude of 24,600 km and further, from an energy point of view, it is more profitable to remove space debris from the Earth. This means that it is advisable to return all spacecraft of near space (with an orbit altitude of less than 5000 km) and navigation vehicles of the Navstar type (an altitude of a circular orbit of about 20,000 km) to Earth, and send spacecraft in a geostationary orbit to interplanetary space. In the Russian Federation, constant work is being carried out to create normative and technical documents defining the requirements for reducing the technogenic pollution of near-earth space. Since 2009 in Russia the National Standard - GOST R 52925 − 2008 “Products of space technology. General requirements for space vehicles to limit man-made debris in near-earth space ". This document defines the mechanism for the implementation in the Russian Federation of the "Guidelines of the UN Space Committee for the prevention of CM formation". The standard establishes general requirements for space vehicles to limit man-made debris in near-earth space. The requirements of the standard apply to newly created and modernized space vehicles for scientific, socio-economic, commercial and special purposes. 2..2.5 Clean up near-earth space. In a circular orbit with an altitude of 200 km, the lifetime of an uncontrollable satellite is equal to several days, in an orbit with an altitude of 600 km − 25–30 years, at altitudes of about 1000 km - two millennia, at altitudes from 2000 km and above the satellite lives almost forever. The evolution of the orbit of the satellite or the elements of space debris and the time of their existence is determined mainly by natural perturbations: the gravitational field of the Earth and its nonsphericity, the gravitational effect of the Moon and the Sun, the pressure of solar radiation and the inhibitory effect of the atmosphere. As a result of deceleration, the object gradually (in a spiral) enters the denser lower layers of the atmosphere, where it eventually burns out due to friction. The density of the atmosphere at high altitudes increases (and very significantly) with an increase in solar activity. For example, in 1979-80. (Maximum of the 21st cycle of solar activity), the density of the atmosphere at an altitude of about 500 km was several tens of times higher than the density at the minimum of solar activity (1964-65). The number of debris then decreased several times, and the Skylab space station quickly fell to Earth. All this suggests that high solar activity enhances the role of the braking effect of the atmosphere as a natural “cleaner” that removes objects from orbit. This effect affects low satellites (up to 1000 km) and satellites with elongated orbits with low perigee. To calculate the evolution of the orbits of falling satellites and to determine the place of their fall, atmospheric density models are needed, taking into account the forecast of solar and geomagnetic activity. In this regard, the classical astronomical problem of measuring solar and geomagnetic activity acquires new importance. Lunar-solar disturbances for satellites with highly elongated orbits and low perigee, as well as solar radiation pressure for satellites with a high area-to-mass ratio, can change the lifetime of satellites in high and transitional orbits. But as a natural self-cleaning mechanism, only braking in the atmosphere works effectively. An example of artificial cleansing of near-earth space can be the transfer of spent objects to another orbit using the Shuttle reusable spacecraft. [ 32 ] However, the most radical measure could be a sharp decrease in the number of spacecrafts launches, an increase in their useful life and the minimization of waste from rocket and space technology. There are proposals from various scientific and government organizations to reduce the number of details associated with the launch of a satellite into orbit, but there are no international norms aimed at stabilizing and subsequently reducing the level of debris in near-earth space. By international agreement, each country has been assigned certain intervals of longitude, beyond which stationary satellites should not go. For example, longitudes of 35° E, 45° E, 53 ° E, 85° E, 99° E and 346° E were assigned to Soviet satellites. Displacements along the orbit relative to a given longitude should not exceed 0°, 1, which corresponds to 74 km. To keep the satellite within these limits, periodic corrections (turning on the engines) are required. They compensate for the disturbances acting on the satellite due to the ellipticity of the Earth's equator and the gravitational effects of the Sun and Moon. Energy is expended on correction. After the depletion of energy resources, the satellite gets out of control and begins to move freely. But even before the complete depletion of fuel, the satellite must be removed from this congested orbit in order to eliminate the risk of collision with an active satellite. Calculations show that in order to transfer a satellite to a higher orbit, it is necessary to increase its speed by 3.63 m / s for every 100 km of altitude. The energy consumption for such a maneuver is approximately equivalent to the monthly energy budget for maintaining an entire orbital station. In 1979, for the first time in the history of astronautics, the USSR transferred the spent station to another orbit. In December 1991, the European Space Agency moved its meteorological satellite Meteosat-2 from a working geostationary orbit to a "burial" orbit − 700 km higher. Unfortunately, cost considerations usually outweigh the balance. Therefore, in one longitudinal window, several "stations" can sometimes be located, and even controlled independently, by different centers, often commercial. There are also assessments of various possibilities of modern technologies for artificial cleaning of near-earth space from man-made pollution, including projects of exotic garbage collectors with and without nets, but these projects are extremely expensive. Conclusion At present, space debris is an integral part of the near-earth space environment and should be taken into account when studying outer space, designing spacecraft, and planning operations in space. Almost every 10 days, some satellite or other large fragment, which has fulfilled its term, gradually loses its speed in the upper layers of the atmosphere, loop by loop, burrows into it and burns up without causing harm to the Earth. In this sense, reconnaissance satellites flying in low orbits behave in an exemplary manner. They slow down quickly and burn out almost completely. But if something does not burn, then very little gets to the Earth. In any case, so far these debris have not caused any tragedies. And if we compare their mass with those thousands of tons of meteorites that fall on our planet every year, then, in essence, there seems to be no problem. The constantly expanding arsenal of analytical and experimental tools for quantifying the threat from space debris to spacecraft and humanity in general, as well as methods for protecting against it, allows us to make intelligent decisions. In order to adequately assess the danger from man-made space debris for spacecraft, reliably predict it and make timely decisions to reduce this threat, a deep understanding of the causal relationship between the processes occurring in near-earth space and human space activities in the short and long term is necessary., moreover, with a good knowledge of all parameters of these processes: composition, quantity, size, mass, speed, distribution of space objects in height, inclination, eccentricity; sources of formation and dynamics of space debris flows. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Al-Esraa University College, Baghdad, Iraq for its funding in the present work. Data availability statement The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors. Conflict of interest No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. Author Contributions Statement Introduction has been written by Mustafa A Jihad, Ali M. Ahmed and Muntadher I. Rahmah. The Methodology has been written by Russel Mohemmed Shehab, Zainab Hassan Omran, Safa Yaseen Taha, Assel A. Temur, Jalal Jabbar Aleiwi, and Haytham Bashar qasim. Ethical Statement for Solid State Ionics Hereby, I Ali M. Ahmed consciously assure that for the manuscript "The effect of space debris on near-Earth space” the following is fulfilled: 1) This material is the authors' own original work, which has not been previously published elsewhere. 2) The paper is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere. 3) The paper reflects the authors' own research and analysis in a truthful and complete manner. 4) The paper properly credits the meaningful contributions of co-authors and co-researchers. 5) The results are appropriately placed in the context of prior and existing research. 6) All sources used are properly disclosed (correct citation). Literally copying of text must be indicated as such by using quotation marks and giving proper reference. 7) All authors have been personally and actively involved in substantial work leading to the paper, and will take public responsibility for its content. The violation of the Ethical Statement rules may result in severe consequences. I agree with the above statements and declare that this submission follows the policies of Solid State Ionics as outlined in the Guide for Authors and in the Ethical Statement. Date: 2022/05/15 Corresponding author’s signature: Ali M. Ahmed References Jacobs, Benjamin. "Debris Mitigation Certification and the Commercial Space Industry: A New Weapon in the Fight against Space Pollution." Media L. & Pol'y 20 (2011): 117. Haff, Peter K. "Technology as a geological phenomenon: Implications for human well-being." Geological Society, London, Special Publications 395, no. 1 (2014): 301-309. Yan, Yongliang. 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Cement and Concrete Research 114 (2018): 2-26. Sidnyaev, N. I. "A study of the destruction of spacecraft surfaces at contact interactions with microparticles of the space environment." Cosmic Research 56, no. 3 (2018): 213-222. Tyson, Neil deGrasse. Astrophysics for People in a Hurry . WW Norton & Company, 2017. Salnikova, T., S. Stepanov, and E. Kugushev. "Interaction of compact space debris clouds." Acta Astronautica 176 (2020): 613-619. Pisanu, Tonino, Luca Schirru, Enrico Urru, Francesco Gaudiomonte, Pierluigi Ortu, Germano Bianchi, Claudio Bortolotti et al. "Upgrading the Italian BIRALES system to a pulse compression radar for space debris range measurements." In 2018 22nd International Microwave and Radar Conference (MIKON) , pp. 317-320. IEEE, 2018. Šilha, Jiří, Jean-Noël Pittet, Michal Hamara, and Thomas Schildknecht. "Apparent rotation properties of space debris extracted from photometric measurements." Advances in space research 61, no. 3 (2018): 844-861. Faisal, Alice, Hadi Sarieddeen, Hayssam Dahrouj, Tareq Y. Al-Naffouri, and Mohamed-Slim Alouini. "Ultramassive MIMO systems at terahertz bands: Prospects and challenges." IEEE Vehicular Technology Magazine 15, no. 4 (2020): 33-42. Ebisuzaki, Toshikazu, Mark N. Quinn, Satoshi Wada, Lech Wiktor Piotrowski, Yoshiyuki Takizawa, Marco Casolino, Mario E. Bertaina et al. "Demonstration designs for the remediation of space debris from the International Space Station." Acta Astronautica 112 (2015): 102-113. Tonry, J. L., L. Denneau, A. N. Heinze, B. Stalder, K. W. Smith, S. J. Smartt, C. W. Stubbs, H. J. Weiland, and A. Rest. "ATLAS: a high-cadence all-sky survey system." Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 130, no. 988 (2018): 064505. Little, Bryan D., and Carolin E. Frueh. "Space situational awareness sensor tasking: comparison of machine learning with classical optimization methods." Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics 43, no. 2 (2020): 262-273. Weiss, Peter, Makthoum Peer Mohamed, Thibaud Gobert, Yann Chouard, Nisheet Singh, Theo Chalal, Sibylle Schmied et al. "Advanced Materials for Future Lunar Extravehicular Activity Space Suit." Advanced Materials Technologies 5, no. 9 (2020): 2000028. HABIMANA, Sylvestre, and RAMAKRISHNA VR PARAMA. "Space debris: Reasons, types, impacts and management." Indian Journal of Radio & Space Physics (IJRSP) 46, no. 1 (2018): 20-26. Damjanov, Katarina. "Of defunct satellites and other space debris: Media waste in the orbital commons." Science, Technology, & Human Values 42, no. 1 (2017): 166-185. de la Fuente Marcos, C., and R. de la Fuente Marcos. "Dynamical evolution of near-Earth asteroid 1991 VG." Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 473, no. 3 (2018): 2939-2948. Williams, James C., and Rodney R. Boyer. "Opportunities and issues in the application of titanium alloys for aerospace components." Metals 10, no. 6 (2020): 705. Novikov, V. K., S. V. Novikov, and V. V. Tatarinov. "Possible directions for reducing the influence of the rocket and space industry on the environment." In AIP Conference Proceedings , vol. 2171, no. 1, p. 100003. AIP Publishing LLC, 2019. Pelton, Joseph N. New solutions for the space debris problem . Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015. HABIMANA, Sylvestre, and RAMAKRISHNA VR PARAMA. "Space debris: Reasons, types, impacts and management." Indian Journal of Radio & Space Physics (IJRSP) 46, no. 1 (2018): 20-26. Adushkin, V. V., O. Yu Aksenov, S. S. Veniaminov, S. I. Kozlov, and V. V. Tyurenkova. "The small orbital debris population and its impact on space activities and ecological safety." Acta Astronautica 176 (2020): 591-597. Golkar, Alessandro, and Ignasi Lluch i Cruz. "The federated satellite systems paradigm: Concept and business case evaluation." Acta Astronautica 111 (2015): 230-248. Smirnov, N. N., A. B. Kiselev, M. N. Smirnova, and V. F. Nikitin. "Space traffic hazards from orbital debris mitigation strategies." Acta Astronautica 109 (2015): 144-152. Barucci, M. A., and M. Fulchignoni. "Major achievements of the Rosetta mission in connection with the origin of the solar system." The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review 25, no. 1 (2017): 1-52. Makihara, Kanjuro, and Yoshihiro Oki. "Bayesian cloud extraction for assessment of space-debris impact using conditional entropy." Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets 54, no. 6 (2017): 1235-1245. Koryanov, Vsevolod, Alexey Toporkov, and Anton Pozdnyakov. "The concept of a long-term service station to increase the life duration of some satellites or to remove space debris." Journal of Space Safety Engineering 8, no. 1 (2021): 23-28. Schemes Scheme 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Scheme1.png Composition of orbital-space debris excreta. 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Ahmed","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABAUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACdsYGIMkGxMkHYGIGYIQTMMO1pCUQqwXOyoErw6eegYG/mbmB6UYNnxw/e87Hhz/32MkzsDdvk2AosMapReIwYwNzzjE2Y8met5uNeZ4lGzbwHCuTYDBIx20NWAsbW+KGG7nbpBkOAL0mkWMG1HIYpw55sJZ/bPX7b+Q8//njQL19g/wb/FoMQFpy29gSDCRy2Bh4DhxObJDgwa/FEKjlcG4fm+GMM8+MpXkOHE9u40krtkjA4xe54+0PH+d8OybP35788OOPA9W2/eyHN9748Ad3iIHAAQaGYwgeKFYZEpDiCweowRAhqGUUjIJRMApGDgAA66tPUxVXYEsAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Muntadher I. Rahmah Al-Esraa University College","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ali","middleName":"M.","lastName":"Ahmed","suffix":""},{"id":106345537,"identity":"547f2bcc-9e80-4e9a-bab4-3280f6c8f153","order_by":1,"name":"Russel Mohemmed Shehab","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Muntadher I. Rahmah Al-Esraa University College","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Russel","middleName":"Mohemmed","lastName":"Shehab","suffix":""},{"id":106345538,"identity":"9ac17bf5-4308-4fb6-98df-b3cfb02656dc","order_by":2,"name":"Zainab Hassan Omran","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Muntadher I. Rahmah Al-Esraa University College","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zainab","middleName":"Hassan","lastName":"Omran","suffix":""},{"id":106345539,"identity":"fb81ec89-c5cb-44c1-a5bd-8020905eb5b7","order_by":3,"name":"Safa Yaseen Taha","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Muntadher I. Rahmah Al-Esraa University College","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Safa","middleName":"Yaseen","lastName":"Taha","suffix":""},{"id":106345540,"identity":"394eb306-f7dc-4220-94e0-2f8f64cc82ce","order_by":4,"name":"Assel A. Temur","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Muntadher I. Rahmah Al-Esraa University College","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Assel","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Temur","suffix":""},{"id":106345541,"identity":"02711ff9-3bbd-44dc-b0f6-735c1948bef3","order_by":5,"name":"Jalal Jabbar Aleiwi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Muntadher I. Rahmah Al-Esraa University College","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jalal","middleName":"Jabbar","lastName":"Aleiwi","suffix":""},{"id":106345542,"identity":"d4bb471d-807d-427e-be21-c29ac417daf6","order_by":6,"name":"Mustafa A Jihad","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Muntadher I. Rahmah Al-Esraa University College","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mustafa","middleName":"A","lastName":"Jihad","suffix":""},{"id":106345543,"identity":"4586b63e-978b-4c63-861a-70e4b138ccd7","order_by":7,"name":"Haytham Bashar qasim","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Muntadher I. Rahmah Al-Esraa University College","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Haytham","middleName":"Bashar","lastName":"qasim","suffix":""},{"id":106345544,"identity":"bdab0a31-d907-43cc-8309-f026c1d1ff79","order_by":8,"name":"Muntadher I. Rahmah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Muntadher I. Rahmah Al-Esraa University College","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Muntadher","middleName":"I.","lastName":"Rahmah","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2022-05-06 20:44:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1631160/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1631160/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":21830215,"identity":"2ea04a2b-d47d-4953-9c5e-17205db26002","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-05-24 15:46:35","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":31262,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComposition of space debris of rocket origin.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1631160/v1/bdc990dd477e3b5f3cfc66a8.png"},{"id":21830214,"identity":"ddbb7999-e96b-428d-ac40-9a85d52f0053","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-05-24 15:46:35","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":114372,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCollision in orbit with an altitude of 1000 km on February 10, 2009, the Russian communications satellite \"Cosmos-2251\" and the American communications satellite \"Iridium\"\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1631160/v1/253fdb8d07f8d203edef0a70.png"},{"id":21830233,"identity":"5957dc31-8eb3-4b8d-abf3-ccb84baaf248","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-05-24 15:46:39","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":529978,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1631160/v1/c13cfe16-2b55-48ce-b060-8c5296e69f0f.pdf"},{"id":21830232,"identity":"e34b2de4-8110-4ec0-9dc2-52b751de3ee7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-05-24 15:46:39","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":529978,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1631160/v1/accd8a3c-40ce-4a5f-b857-9279a3ace4ca.pdf"},{"id":21830216,"identity":"bcef8b97-f565-4995-ae32-9fa775eff190","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2022-05-24 15:46:36","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":56465,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComposition of orbital-space debris excreta.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Scheme1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1631160/v1/06e0f944f531399c3b5ce15a.png"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The effect of space debris on near-Earth space","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe most acute problem of society has become the safety of astronauts and the safety of artificial satellites from debris filling outer space. Scientists from various countries are developing methods for controlling outer space and disposing of space debris, putting forward various projects for disposing of space debris from a geostationary orbit, because there is no contamination of the national near-earth space, there is a contamination of the Earth's outer space, equally negatively affecting all countries, directly or indirectly participating in its development [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. There was an urgent need to urgently address the problem of space debris in order to prevent an environmental catastrophe later. By the beginning of the XXI century. near-earth space (OKP) has become a significant factor in scientific, public, and commercial use. OKP is a zone of expansion of the ecological niche of human civilization due to its inevitable technogenic development, which was one of the ways to avoid the threat of a global ecological crisis. Modern civilization has reached such a level of anthropogenic impact on near space that no other environment experiences: neither the hydrosphere, nor the lithosphere, nor the surface atmosphere [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The development of this environment is carried out by the most powerful modern means. But the near-earth space has many orders of magnitude less connections than the biosphere, ensuring its stability. A very important parameter characterizing the general state of the NSC is its pollution with space debris of natural and man-made origin. A problem arises: space exploration becomes unsafe for the inhabitants of the Earth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. For the first time, scientists started talking about large-scale pollution of space in the 1980s, when the concentration of debris in Earth's orbit reached such a density that ballistics had to work hard to safely place this or that satellite among it. In the last decade, the situation has only worsened. In 1983, the crew of the infamous shuttle Challenger discovered a small crater on the windshield of their ship, just 2.5 mm deep and just as wide. After the landing of the spacecraft, experts carefully examined the damage and came to the conclusion that the cause of the collision was a microparticle of paint that had peeled off from some other spacecraft [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. The Soviet orbital station \"Salyut-7\" also suffered from space debris, the surface of which was literally dotted with microscopic craters from impact with debris particles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. In June 1999, the then uninhabited ISS had every chance of colliding with a debris of the upper stage of one of the rockets that had been orbiting the Earth for many years [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Space debris is also dangerous for earthlings far from space, falling on their heads in the literal sense of the word [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. In 1978, the taiga regions in northern Canada suffered from the fall of the Soviet satellite Kosmos-594. A year later, the debris of the American space station Skylab scattered over the desert regions of Australia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, according to many scientists, orbital debris is a growing danger to space travel. If you do not take measures to clean it from it now, then in 20\u0026ndash;30 years such flights will become simply impossible [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"Heading\"\u003eThe adopted methodology will be discussed in this section in two phases.\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1 The composition of the space debris.\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn this phase we will discuss the characteristics of space debris, the composition and origin of space debris and changes in the amount and composition of space debris.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"Section3\" id=\"Sec4\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1.1 The characteristics of space debris\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpace debris is used spacecraft, structural elements that have been separated or shot off from them, large or small fragments formed as a result of destruction or explosions of spacecraft, etc [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. They also include packaging, food and other waste, metal particles and even thin layers of paint. Currently, in near space, or more precisely, in near-earth space, there are thousands of observable objects of artificial origin that fall under the category of space debris [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. The problem of contamination of near-earth space with \u0026quot;space debris\u0026quot; as a purely theoretical one arose essentially immediately after the launch of the first artificial earth satellites in the late fifties [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. It received its official status at the international level after the report of the UN Secretary General entitled \u0026quot;The impact of space activities on the environment\u0026quot; space of the Earth, equally negatively affecting all countries.Distinguish between observed and unobserved space debris: Observed space debris is measured using different methods. Ground-based measurements carried out in the framework of remote sensing of space debris generally fall into two categories: radar and optical. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpace debris radar measurements are generally used for low Earth orbit (LEO) and optical measurements for high Earth orbit (HEO) [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. With the help of ground-based radar stations, it is quite possible to monitor space objects in any weather conditions and at any time of the day. However, the disadvantages of using radar systems to detect small particles at large distances include significant power consumption and operating wavelength [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Space debris can be detected with a telescope when a sunlit object is placed against a dark sky [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. For objects in low Earth orbit, the detection period is limited to one to two hours immediately after sunset or before sunrise. At the same time, observations of objects in high low-earth orbit, for example, in geostationary orbit, can often continue throughout the night. Another difficulty limiting the ability to carry out optical measurements is that the sky must be clear and dark [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition to these methods, debris measurements using space vehicles can also be used. However, the cost of space-based space debris observation equipment is higher than the cost of ground-based observation systems. The number of unobservable objects a few centimeters in size and less is unknown [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. The main danger of space debris is collision with active spacecraft. For example, a particle with a diameter of 0.5 mm flying at great speed can pierce the spacesuit of an astronaut working in outer space outside the spacecraft, even if this spacesuit is made of a multilayer material [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"Section3\" id=\"Sec5\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1.2 The composition and origin of space debris\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCurrently, more than 600 thousand man-made objects with a diameter of more than 1 cm revolve around the Earth [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. According to the European Space Agency (ESA), 41% are various debris, lost instruments, etc, 22% are spent space vehicles, 13% of the total are traces of various experiments and scientific projects, 7% are parts of launch vehicles. At the same time, functioning spacecraft account for only 7% of the huge amount of waste associated with the exploration of space by mankind. It turns out that 93% of objects orbiting the Earth are useless and dangerous debris scattered in different orbits.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn general, the concept of \u0026quot;Orbital and space debris\u0026quot; includes the following objects (Scheme \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e): [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrbital technogenic debris.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrbital space debris.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrbital debris.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrbital waste.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGaseous emissions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIt can be seen from this diagram that the debris appearing in the OKP is associated with both man-made interventions and natural ones - from outer space.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLet us give a brief definition of this waste:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrbital and space debris - objects of extraterrestrial origin, appearing in the near-earth space of the Earth under the influence of the planet\u0026apos;s gravity, cluttering the OSS, disrupting the operation of rocket and space technology and the life of biogeocenoses [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrbital potential raw material waste - aircraft rocket and space technology that have lost their performance and their fragments, which can be used as raw materials [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrbital debris is a waste product of astronauts in near-earth space.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGaseous emissions - a gaseous \u0026quot;cloud\u0026quot; of products released from the design of aircraft, generated by the exhaust of engines, as well as leaked from the compartments of spacecraft. Despite the fact that the density of the gaseous \u0026quot;shell\u0026quot; of the satellites is hundreds of times higher than the density of the environment in the OSS, these excretions practically do not affect the orbital motion of aircraft [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOrbital man-made debris - worthless wreckage of aircraft of rocket and space technology, as well as auxiliary devices or mechanisms, their destroyed parts and fragments, located in the OKP in the burial orbits and at the entrance to the dense layers of the atmosphere (below \u0026quot;200 km). Man-made debris includes debris, fragments and particles of objects of man-made origin, which arise during explosive and collisional accidents in the OKP. Such orbital debris can appear anywhere in the OKP and the near-ground atmosphere [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAlmost a third of all space debris came from two events. First, it was China\u0026apos;s fault, which tested the rocket and deliberately shot down its own satellite, generating 3,000 debris. The composition of space debris of rocket origin is shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe second event took place in 2009, when the satellites Iridium 33 and Kosmos-2251 collided. As a result, a cloud of debris of 2,000 debris was formed, which ultimately led to the threat of a collision with the ISS. Only thanks to the ESA cargo ship Georges Lema\u0026icirc;tre was it possible to change the station\u0026apos;s dangerous flight path and avoid a collision. These debris could cause enormous damage to the ISS and lead to human casualties.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"Section3\" id=\"Sec6\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e1.1.1 Changes in the amount and composition of space debris.\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eToday, the amount of space debris is constantly increasing, not only through rocket launches, but also from mutual collisions of objects and space debris particles. The level of debris in low Earth orbits (LEO) is so high that measures to reduce man-made debris cannot reduce it, therefore, in the long term, this can lead to a catastrophic increase in the number of orbital debris objects in LEO and, as a consequence, to the practical impossibility of further space exploration. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. The level of debris in low Earth orbits (LEO) is so high that measures to reduce man-made debris cannot reduce it, therefore, in the long term, this can lead to a catastrophic increase in the number of orbital debris objects in LEO and, as a consequence, to the practical impossibility of further space exploration. It is assumed that \u0026quot;after 2055, the process of self-propagation of the remnants of space activities of mankind will become a serious problem.\u0026quot;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"Section2\" id=\"Sec7\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Distribution of debris in near-earth space and the consequences of its collision with comic vehicles.\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn this phase we will discuss the spatial distribution of debris, the Collisions of spacecraft with debris and their consequences, the probability of collisions of spacecraft with debris and Measures to limit debris contamination of near-Earth space.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"Section3\" id=\"Sec8\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1 The spatial distribution of debris\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs the scientists note, the KM is distributed over the orbits in layers. This is directly related to the functional load on a particular orbit. The more convenient it is, the more satellites work on it. After a while, some of them turn into lifeless scrap metal, polluting the space where their lives recently passed.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCurrently, according to various estimates, in the region of low Earth orbits (LEO) up to heights of about 2000 km there are up to 5000 tons of man-made objects. On the basis of statistical estimates, it is concluded that the total number of objects of this kind (more than 1 cm in diameter) is rather uncertain and can reach 60,000\u0026ndash;100,000. Of these, only about 10% (about 8600 objects) are detected, tracked and cataloged by ground-based radar and optical funds and only about 6% of monitored objects are active. About 22% of the facilities ceased functioning, 17% are spent upper stages and booster blocks of launch vehicles, and about 55% are waste, technological elements associated with launches, and debris from explosions and fragmentation. The most contaminated areas are those of the orbits around the Earth, which are most often used for the operation of spacecraft. These are LEO, geostationary orbit (GSO) and sun-synchronous orbits (SSO) [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Contribution to the creation of space debris by country: China \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;40%; USA \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;27.5%; Russia \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;25.5%; other countries \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;7%. In the near-Earth space, at altitudes below 400 km, that is, in the area of flight of manned vehicles, there is a large amount of space debris, but these objects are relatively short-lived: a few years after their formation, they burn up in the Earth\u0026apos;s atmosphere. Meteorological satellites and Earth remote sensing satellites, as well as most of the satellites with nuclear power devices, fly at altitudes of 850\u0026ndash;1200 km. The latter at these altitudes can exist for hundreds of years before the complete disappearance of the radiation hazard. Cases of early destruction are possible due to collision with a particle less than 0.1 cm in size flying at a bullet speed of -10 km /s.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe geostationary orbit is densely populated with objects of the space industry - satellites - stations. Currently, there are about 800 objects. Every year, two or three dozen new stations and a significant amount of debris of satellites destroyed for various reasons are added to them. The useful population of high orbits consists of telecommunication satellites, scientific, military and meteorological satellites. Having considered the distribution of space debris by orbital heights, we can conclude that there is space debris in all orbits, but the self-cleaning mechanism occurs in all orbits in different ways [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"Section3\" id=\"Sec9\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2 Collisions of spacecraft with debris and their consequences.\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt present, the number of space debris objects has reached such a value that it becomes necessary to reckon with the real danger of damage (destruction) of expensive space technology in possible collisions with space debris objects.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn 1983, a small grain of sand (less than 1 mm in diameter) left a serious crack in the shuttle\u0026apos;s window. In total, according to experts\u0026apos; estimates, during the flights of reusable spacecraft, i.e. shuttles, more than 170 collision marks were found on the windows. And it took more than 70 replacements of such windows.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn July 1996, at an altitude of about 660 km, a French satellite collided with a fragment of the third stage of the French Arian rocket. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn 2001, the ISS almost collided with a seven-kilogram instrument lost by American astronauts. Also, in October this year, the Mission Control Center postponed the station\u0026apos;s orbit correction due to the danger of a new collision. Meanwhile, there are now about 13 thousand large objects of artificial origin in near-earth orbit.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOn February 10, 2009, the commercial satellite of the American satellite communications company Iridium, launched in 1997, collided with the Russian military communications satellite Kosmos-2251, launched in 1993 and decommissioned in 1995. The collision occurred at a relative collision speed of more than 10 km / s, as a result of which both satellites were destroyed and a cloud of more than a thousand debris of various sizes was formed [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhen a satellite collides with debris, new debris is often formed (the so-called Kessler syndrome), which in the future may lead to an uncontrolled increase in space debris. NASA scientific consultant Donald Kessler described the apocalyptic scenario, now known as \u0026quot;Kessler syndrome\u0026quot; - with the increase in the amount of \u0026quot;space debris\u0026quot; in orbit, the number of collisions between these objects will increase, which will cause a \u0026quot;domino effect\u0026quot;. After each collision, hundreds and thousands of new debris will form, and so over and over again, and ultimately the outer space around the Earth will become unsuitable for flight. Thus, earthlings will close themselves into a trap for hundreds, or even thousands of years.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"Section3\" id=\"Sec10\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2.3 The probability of collisions of spacecraft with debris.\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt present, all space powers and the UN have adopted an agreed opinion that the debris in near space has already reached a level that is extremely dangerous for space flights [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. The degree of contamination of near-earth space with neodyrakov space debris at different heights. The largest number of debris for every 10 km of altitude falls on the altitude range from 800 to 1000 km and in the area of 1500 km. The sizes of fragments of technogenic bodies also differ. The vast majority of all debris (about 99%) are up to 10 cm in size, and quite a bit (less than 1%) - more than 10 cm. Naturally, the values of the probability of collision of active satellites with space debris and debris fragments with each other will be maximum at altitudes of about 1000 and 1500 km.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe probability of collisions, close to 10%, is already so great that it requires a detailed study of the consequences of such collisions. If the consequences of collisions can threaten the safety of astronauts, then they are investigated even at lower probabilities. On the basis of the available data on the formation of technogenic bodies, about 20,000 bodies with dimensions of more than 5 mm were systematized and it was found that their highest densities correspond to heights of 800\u0026ndash;1000 km and 1400\u0026ndash;1500 km and a latitudinal interval of 65\u0026ndash;850. In this case, the maximum density of fragments reaches values of 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;6\u003c/sup\u003e-10-5 km\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor spacecraft 2 and 30 m in size, the probabilities of collision with technogenic bodies were calculated for circular orbits determined by heights from 300 to 4000 km and inclinations from 30 to 900. It is shown that the probability of collision of technogenic objects with space objects 2 m in size is of the order of 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;11\u003c/sup\u003e- 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;7\u003c/sup\u003e, for objects measuring 30 m at an altitude of 900 km \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;4\u003c/sup\u003e. The maximum probabilities of collisions per year correspond to heights of about 99 km and for spacecraft with a size of 6 m are 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e. With a space station radius of 50 m, the number of collisions per year with particles 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2 cm in diameter is 3x104\u003c/sup\u003e, 0.1 cm in diameter \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;170, and 1 cm in diameter - once a year. These are estimates, but it is obvious that the study of the problem requires close attention. Especially. That the ongoing launches of various kinds of space objects is accompanied by an increase in the number of man-made bodies in near-earth orbits. Their annual growth by 6\u0026ndash;12% can lead to a real threat to the safety of space flights and casts doubt on the possibility of implementing promising programs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn the future, it is necessary to constantly monitor not only active satellites and spacecraft, but also tens of thousands of fragments that form space debris. This requires a network of ground-based radar stations, optical tracking devices, it is necessary to create statistical models for the distribution of objects of artificial origin in near-earth space. Currently, tracking is taking place for each fragment of 10 cm or more. For example, modern radar facilities are capable of more or less confidently monitoring space at altitudes up to 1000 km to detect space fragments over 10 cm. To detect fragments less than 10 cm, a system of stations operating at frequencies of 4x10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e MHz and higher (i.e. waves of the order of 8 mm), which meets certain technical difficulties.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe degree of danger posed by fragments of space debris for members of the spacecraft and the stations themselves strongly depends on their size, the density of the fragment material and the speed of the meeting (i.e., it is determined by the kinetic energy of the striker E\u003csub\u003ek\u003c/sub\u003e = m V\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e / 2). For example, a metal splinter made of steel with a diameter of 0.5 mm, flying at a speed of about 10 km / s, can pierce the spacesuit of an astronaut in open space, and a splinter several centimeters in size will disrupt the normal functioning of even a large space complex, such as the Mir \u0026quot;Or\u0026quot; Freedom \u0026quot;. Moreover, the likelihood of such a collision in the future will grow steadily.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAn astronomer from the UK has calculated the likelihood of collisions between spacecraft and debris in orbit. The scientist presented his findings at the European Air and Space Conference, which was held in Manchester.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSince the launch of the first Soviet satellite PS-1 into orbit, debris of various vehicles, stages of launch vehicles and other debris have gradually accumulated in the nearest outer space. In the last four years alone, the number of such facilities has quadrupled. Collisions with fragments of near-Earth debris pose a serious danger to satellites and spacecraft.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe author of the new work decided to calculate how the probability of collision with space debris will increase in the next 50 years. To do this, the scientist used the currently available data on the increase in the number of cases when fragments passed dangerously close to vehicles, depending on the growth in the number of space debris. A distance less than 5 kilometers is considered dangerous. In addition, the astronomer took into account the existing forecasts for an increase in the number of objects in near-earth orbit.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccording to the conclusion of the researcher, in the next decade, the frequency of dangerous encounters between debris and vehicles will almost double. By 2059, this figure will quadruple. If we translate this prediction into absolute numbers, it turns out that in 2019 satellites and space debris converged 20 thousand times a week, and in 2059\u0026ndash;50 thousand. Now the number of such events is about 13 thousand per week.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe need to track hazards and ensure evasive maneuvers will significantly increase the cost of space missions.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"Section3\" id=\"Sec11\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2.4 Measures to limit debris contamination of near-Earth space.\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs you can see, the problem of space debris in near-earth space will become more and more serious over time and require effective measures to be taken to solve it. In this regard, already today, states are making certain efforts to reduce the debris in outer space. Among the technical means for preventing the clogging of outer space, it is proposed, in particular, a reduction in the number of launches, an increase in the active life of spacecraft, improvement of their designs, the development of methods and means for clearing near-earth space from space debris, the use of \u0026quot;burial orbits\u0026quot;, etc. According to available estimates, all known means require too high economic and energy costs. The Japanese National Space Agency (NASDA) requires that mechanical components be prevented from detaching when separating satellites or deploying solar panels, with the exception of certain specific operations, for example, separating spent engines to create a thrust pulse at apogee, which are installed on geostationary weather satellites. The main rule established by the French National Center for Space Research (CNES) to prevent the growth of space debris is as follows: upon completion of a satellite launch program into any given orbit, no more than one unit of inert space debris per launched satellite should remain in orbit.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Canadian RADARSAT program has established a system-wide requirement that any solid debris resulting from the securing / releasing mechanism is retained. In other words, all contractors must design the system so that no debris is generated during the launch and operation of the spacecraft. Within the framework of other space agencies - US NASA, the Russian Aerospace Agency, the European Space Agency, various measures are being developed and taken to prevent technogenic pollution of near-earth space.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHere the proposals of the Russian scientist in the field of cosmonautics - S.A.Vaskov are of certain interest, he suggests the following ways to remove space debris from orbit:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe use of jet propulsion devices (both high and low thrust).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe use of aerodynamic braking means.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCollection of artificial objects using special spacecraft and their subsequent withdrawal;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe use of \u0026quot;solar sail.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccording to S. A. Vaskov, from an altitude of 24,600 km and further, from an energy point of view, it is more profitable to remove space debris from the Earth. This means that it is advisable to return all spacecraft of near space (with an orbit altitude of less than 5000 km) and navigation vehicles of the Navstar type (an altitude of a circular orbit of about 20,000 km) to Earth, and send spacecraft in a geostationary orbit to interplanetary space.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn the Russian Federation, constant work is being carried out to create normative and technical documents defining the requirements for reducing the technogenic pollution of near-earth space.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSince 2009 in Russia the National Standard - GOST R 52925\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2008 \u0026ldquo;Products of space technology. General requirements for space vehicles to limit man-made debris in near-earth space \u0026quot;. This document defines the mechanism for the implementation in the Russian Federation of the \u0026quot;Guidelines of the UN Space Committee for the prevention of CM formation\u0026quot;.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe standard establishes general requirements for space vehicles to limit man-made debris in near-earth space. The requirements of the standard apply to newly created and modernized space vehicles for scientific, socio-economic, commercial and special purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2..2.5 Clean up near-earth space.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn a circular orbit with an altitude of 200 km, the lifetime of an uncontrollable satellite is equal to several days, in an orbit with an altitude of 600 km \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;25\u0026ndash;30 years, at altitudes of about 1000 km - two millennia, at altitudes from 2000 km and above the satellite lives almost forever. The evolution of the orbit of the satellite or the elements of space debris and the time of their existence is determined mainly by natural perturbations: the gravitational field of the Earth and its nonsphericity, the gravitational effect of the Moon and the Sun, the pressure of solar radiation and the inhibitory effect of the atmosphere. As a result of deceleration, the object gradually (in a spiral) enters the denser lower layers of the atmosphere, where it eventually burns out due to friction.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe density of the atmosphere at high altitudes increases (and very significantly) with an increase in solar activity. For example, in 1979-80. (Maximum of the 21st cycle of solar activity), the density of the atmosphere at an altitude of about 500 km was several tens of times higher than the density at the minimum of solar activity (1964-65). The number of debris then decreased several times, and the Skylab space station quickly fell to Earth. All this suggests that high solar activity enhances the role of the braking effect of the atmosphere as a natural \u0026ldquo;cleaner\u0026rdquo; that removes objects from orbit. This effect affects low satellites (up to 1000 km) and satellites with elongated orbits with low perigee. To calculate the evolution of the orbits of falling satellites and to determine the place of their fall, atmospheric density models are needed, taking into account the forecast of solar and geomagnetic activity. In this regard, the classical astronomical problem of measuring solar and geomagnetic activity acquires new importance.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLunar-solar disturbances for satellites with highly elongated orbits and low perigee, as well as solar radiation pressure for satellites with a high area-to-mass ratio, can change the lifetime of satellites in high and transitional orbits. But as a natural self-cleaning mechanism, only braking in the atmosphere works effectively. An example of artificial cleansing of near-earth space can be the transfer of spent objects to another orbit using the Shuttle reusable spacecraft. [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHowever, the most radical measure could be a sharp decrease in the number of spacecrafts launches, an increase in their useful life and the minimization of waste from rocket and space technology. There are proposals from various scientific and government organizations to reduce the number of details associated with the launch of a satellite into orbit, but there are no international norms aimed at stabilizing and subsequently reducing the level of debris in near-earth space.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBy international agreement, each country has been assigned certain intervals of longitude, beyond which stationary satellites should not go. For example, longitudes of 35\u0026deg; E, 45\u0026deg; E, 53 \u0026deg; E, 85\u0026deg; E, 99\u0026deg; E and 346\u0026deg; E were assigned to Soviet satellites. Displacements along the orbit relative to a given longitude should not exceed 0\u0026deg;, 1, which corresponds to 74 km. To keep the satellite within these limits, periodic corrections (turning on the engines) are required. They compensate for the disturbances acting on the satellite due to the ellipticity of the Earth\u0026apos;s equator and the gravitational effects of the Sun and Moon. Energy is expended on correction. After the depletion of energy resources, the satellite gets out of control and begins to move freely. But even before the complete depletion of fuel, the satellite must be removed from this congested orbit in order to eliminate the risk of collision with an active satellite.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCalculations show that in order to transfer a satellite to a higher orbit, it is necessary to increase its speed by 3.63 m / s for every 100 km of altitude. The energy consumption for such a maneuver is approximately equivalent to the monthly energy budget for maintaining an entire orbital station. In 1979, for the first time in the history of astronautics, the USSR transferred the spent station to another orbit. In December 1991, the European Space Agency moved its meteorological satellite Meteosat-2 from a working geostationary orbit to a \u0026quot;burial\u0026quot; orbit \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;700 km higher. Unfortunately, cost considerations usually outweigh the balance. Therefore, in one longitudinal window, several \u0026quot;stations\u0026quot; can sometimes be located, and even controlled independently, by different centers, often commercial.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThere are also assessments of various possibilities of modern technologies for artificial cleaning of near-earth space from man-made pollution, including projects of exotic garbage collectors with and without nets, but these projects are extremely expensive.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eAt present, space debris is an integral part of the near-earth space environment and should be taken into account when studying outer space, designing spacecraft, and planning operations in space.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlmost every 10 days, some satellite or other large fragment, which has fulfilled its term, gradually loses its speed in the upper layers of the atmosphere, loop by loop, burrows into it and burns up without causing harm to the Earth. In this sense, reconnaissance satellites flying in low orbits behave in an exemplary manner. They slow down quickly and burn out almost completely. But if something does not burn, then very little gets to the Earth. In any case, so far these debris have not caused any tragedies. And if we compare their mass with those thousands of tons of meteorites that fall on our planet every year, then, in essence, there seems to be no problem.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe constantly expanding arsenal of analytical and experimental tools for quantifying the threat from space debris to spacecraft and humanity in general, as well as methods for protecting against it, allows us to make intelligent decisions. In order to adequately assess the danger from man-made space debris for spacecraft, reliably predict it and make timely decisions to reduce this threat, a deep understanding of the causal relationship between the processes occurring in near-earth space and human space activities in the short and long term is necessary., moreover, with a good knowledge of all parameters of these processes: composition, quantity, size, mass, speed, distribution of space objects in height, inclination, eccentricity; sources of formation and dynamics of space debris flows.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to thank Al-Esraa University College, Baghdad, Iraq for its funding in the present work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntroduction has been written by Mustafa A Jihad, Ali M. Ahmed and Muntadher I. Rahmah.\u0026nbsp;The Methodology has been written by Russel Mohemmed Shehab, Zainab Hassan Omran, Safa Yaseen Taha, Assel A. Temur, Jalal Jabbar Aleiwi, and Haytham Bashar qasim.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Statement for Solid State Ionics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHereby, I Ali M. Ahmed consciously assure that for the manuscript \"The effect of space debris on near-Earth space” the following is fulfilled:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1) This material is the authors' own original work, which has not been previously published elsewhere.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2) The paper is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3) The paper reflects the authors' own research and analysis in a truthful and complete manner.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4) The paper properly credits the meaningful contributions of co-authors and co-researchers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5) The results are appropriately placed in the context of prior and existing research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6) All sources used are properly disclosed (correct citation). Literally copying of text must be indicated as such by using quotation marks and giving proper reference.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7) All authors have been personally and actively involved in substantial work leading to the paper, and will take public responsibility for its content.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe violation of the Ethical Statement rules may result in severe consequences.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI agree with the above statements and declare that this submission follows the policies of Solid State Ionics as outlined in the Guide for Authors and in the Ethical Statement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDate: 2022/05/15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorresponding author’s signature: Ali M. Ahmed\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eJacobs, Benjamin. \u0026quot;Debris Mitigation Certification and the Commercial Space Industry: A New Weapon in the Fight against Space Pollution.\u0026quot; \u003cem\u003eMedia L. \u0026amp; Pol\u0026apos;y\u003c/em\u003e 20 (2011): 117.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHaff, Peter K. \u0026quot;Technology as a geological phenomenon: Implications for human well-being.\u0026quot; \u003cem\u003eGeological Society, London, Special Publications\u003c/em\u003e 395, no. 1 (2014): 301-309.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYan, Yongliang. \u0026quot;Maintaining Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities: Creation of Regulatory Framework to Guide the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization and Selected Legal Issues.\u0026quot; \u003cem\u003eSpace Policy\u003c/em\u003e 47 (2019): 51-62..\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMericle, Megan E. \u003cem\u003eSparks across the gap: essays\u003c/em\u003e. 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Fulchignoni. \u0026quot;Major achievements of the Rosetta mission in connection with the origin of the solar system.\u0026quot; \u003cem\u003eThe Astronomy and Astrophysics Review\u003c/em\u003e 25, no. 1 (2017): 1-52.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMakihara, Kanjuro, and Yoshihiro Oki. \u0026quot;Bayesian cloud extraction for assessment of space-debris impact using conditional entropy.\u0026quot; \u003cem\u003eJournal of Spacecraft and Rockets\u003c/em\u003e 54, no. 6 (2017): 1235-1245.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKoryanov, Vsevolod, Alexey Toporkov, and Anton Pozdnyakov. \u0026quot;The concept of a long-term service station to increase the life duration of some satellites or to remove space debris.\u0026quot; \u003cem\u003eJournal of Space Safety Engineering\u003c/em\u003e 8, no. 1 (2021): 23-28.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Schemes","content":"\u003cp\u003eScheme 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"space debris, collisions, contamination, near-Earth space","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1631160/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1631160/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe research describes the effect of space debris on near-Earth space in order to reveal the concept of space debris composition and origin of debris, to determine the effect of space debris on space orbital flights by discussing the spatial distribution of debris, the Collisions of spacecraft with debris and their consequences, the probability of collisions of spacecraft with debris, and Measures to limit debris contamination of near-Earth space. Also, the expected consequences of debris contamination of space and the Earth have been identified in this research as the frequency of dangerous encounters between debris and vehicles will almost double. By 2059, this figure will quadruple. If we translate this prediction into absolute numbers, it turns out that in 2019 satellites and space debris converged 20 thousand times a week, and in 2059\u0026ndash;50 thousand. Now the number of such events is about 13 thousand per week. The need to track hazards and ensure evasive maneuvers will significantly increase the cost of space missions. The research describes the ways to remove space debris from orbit by using jet propulsion devices (both high and low thrust), aerodynamic braking means, Collection of artificial objects using special spacecraft and their subsequent withdrawal, and using a solar sail.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The effect of space debris on near-Earth space","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2022-05-24 15:46:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-1631160/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"53092057-8e2e-435a-8a36-dbd47a5f4135","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 24th, 2022","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2022-05-24T15:46:35+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2022-05-24 15:46:34","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-1631160","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-1631160","identity":"rs-1631160","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"7rjqhiLT3MXkJMwkYKINL","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}