Contribution of Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Pastoral Communities in Sustainable Rangeland Management in Nepal

Contribution of Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Pastoral Communities in Sustainable Rangeland Management in Nepal | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Contribution of Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Pastoral Communities in Sustainable Rangeland Management in Nepal Uma Dungel, Uttam Babu Shrestha, Tulasa Chaudhary, Sujata Shrestha, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6816057/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) of pastoralist communities plays a vital role in the sustainable management of rangelands. This study documents the knowledge systems, practices, and governance mechanisms of high-altitude pastoral communities in Nepal and examines how these attributes contribute to rangeland management, biodiversity conservation, livelihood sustainability, and climate change adaptation. Data were gathered through focus group discussions (n = 12), key informant interviews (n = 103), participatory mapping (n = 12), and direct observations in two rural municipalities of Jumla, District, Nepal. Descriptive analysis was conducted for quantitative data, while thematic analysis was performed for qualitative data. Pastoral communities possess extensive knowledge of medicinal plant species and use them to treat livestock diseases. Herders practice a traditional transhumance system, guided by a customary grazing calendar that includes established 57 routes and 111 stopping locations for certain periods used for generations. They also adopt rotational grazing by dividing pastures into smaller paddocks and systematically moving livestock from one paddock to another, while also diversifying their herd composition. Customary rules, the designation of sacred places, and adherence to certain rituals help conserve ecosystems and foster their connection with nature. Despite the importance of traditional ecological knowledge, the pastoral knowledge system is being weakened by climate change, modernization, and changing perceptions among younger generations, leading to reduced rangeland productivity and decreased reliability of traditional practices. Documenting and preserving TEK not only supports pastoral communities in adapting to environmental and socio-economic changes but also provides valuable insights for policymakers and researchers. pastoralism rangelands socio-ecological resilience traditional ecological knowledge Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1. INTRODUCTION Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is a cumulative body of knowledge, practices, and beliefs about the relationships between humans and their environment (Berkes, 1999 ; Berkes et al., 2000 ). Developed by Indigenous People and Local Communities (IPLCs) over millennia through direct interactions with their specific environment, this knowledge is passed down through generations (Gadgil et al., 1993 ; Berkes et al., 1994 ; Berkes et al., 2000 ; Souther et al., 2023 ). TEK is manifested in diverse social contexts, places, and forms, including oral traditions, arts and crafts, stories, poems, songs, ceremonies, rituals, and practical experiences (Hill et al., 2020 ). It represents a holistic framework of understanding, utilizing, managing, and fostering the relationships between people and nature (Brondízio et al., 2021 ). Globally, pastoral communities possess a rich body of traditional ecological knowledge from their surrounding ecosystems, particularly pastures and rangelands, and maintain distinctive ways of connecting with them (Sinthumule, 2023 ). Beyond its spiritual and cultural significance, TEK also encompasses resource management systems and adaptation strategies for coping with environmental and social changes (Houde, 2007 ). For example, knowledge of medicinal plants and forage species and associated customary practices plays a crucial role in conserving biodiversity (Ayaa & Waswa, 2016 ; Tamou et al., 2018 ; Sinthumule et al., 2023). Local management practices rooted in TEK help maintain ecosystem resilience, sustain livelihoods, and restore degraded ecosystems (Uprety et al., 2012 ; Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2013 ). Traditional pastoral practices such as herding mobility, rotational grazing, and controlled burning contribute to the sustainable use of rangeland ecosystems (Muhammad et al., 2019 ; Sharifian et al., 2022 ). Likewise, local governance structures and customary rules developed by pastoral communities play a critical role in rangeland management and biodiversity conservation (Fynn et al., 2016 ). While these knowledge systems and practices are locally based and shaped by specific regional contexts, they are valuable globally (Brondízio et al., 2021 ). Thus, documenting and preserving TEK is critical for sustainable rangeland management, biodiversity conservation, socio-ecological resilience, and informing policies. Despite the importance of TEK, this knowledge system is experiencing a rapid erosion. A global review of pastoral traditional ecological knowledge found that 52 out of 63 studies reported knowledge erosion (Sharifian et al., 2022 ). Multiple drivers contribute to the loss of pastoral TEK, such as socio-cultural changes, formal schooling of children of pastoral communities, abandonment of pastoral activities, declining interest among youngsters, transitions to market economies, environmental changes, policy and regulatory constraints, reduced dependence on ecosystems for livelihoods, and the diversification of income opportunities (Reyes-García et al., 2013 ; Sharifian et al., 2022 ; Siru et al., 2024 ). The loss of TEK among the pastoral communities has led to loss of biodiversity, reduced capacity for climate change adaptation, negative impacts on livelihoods, reduced socio-ecological resilience, and a decline in rangeland management, ultimately causing irreversible effects on pastoral systems and their sustainability (Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2013 ; Tang & Gavin, 2016 ; Sharifian et al., 2022 ). Pastoralism, particularly transhumant pastoralism, is a major livelihood in Nepal's high-altitude regions, especially above 2,500 meters (Gentle & Thwaites, 2016 ). As the majority of Nepal’s landscape is mountainous, transhumance pastoralism is a critical livelihood adapted to the country’s challenging geography, climate, and economic conditions. Mountain communities in Nepal have practiced livestock herding for generations (Dong et al., 2016 ). Through these sustained interactions with their environment, indigenous and local herder communities have developed rich TEK, which is vital for cultural identity (Gentle & Thwaites, 2016 ), food security (Aryal et al., 2022 ), climate change adaptation (Helvetas, 2011 ; Karki & Adhikari, 2015 ), and sustainable resource management (Rai, 2024). Despite the vital role of TEK in sustaining pastoral systems, its erosion along with the loss of cultural practices has threatened the sustainability of pastoralism in Nepal (Gentle & Thwaites, 2016 ; Bhusal et al., 2018 ; Tiwari et al., 2020 ; Aryal et al., 2022 ). In addition, climatic and socio-political changes, the decline of traditional resource governance systems, and shifts in conventional norms and values have undermined the integrity of the entire rangeland ecosystem (Reid et al., 2014 ; Muhammad et al., 2019 ; Tiwari et al., 2020 ), increasing vulnerability among indigenous marginalized communities (Dong et al., 2011 ) and exacerbating conflicts among rangeland users (Aryal et al., 2013 ). Despite the increasing recognition of TEK in global science-policy documents (IPBES, 2019), pastoralist TEK is severely underemphasized in the Himalayan region (Negi et al., 2025 ). In Nepal, much of the pastoral TEK and its ecological and conservation significance remains undocumented (Tiwari et al., 2020 ). Although a few studies have investigated pastoral practices and rangelands (e.g., Aryal et al., 2013 , Gentle & Thwaites, 2016 ; Bhusal et al., 2018 ; Tiwari et al., 2020 ; Aryal et al., 2022 ), a comprehensive documentation of how traditional ecological knowledge, practices, and governance shape sustainable rangeland management, and coping strategies for climate and socio-cultural changes is still lacking. As Nepal’s pastoral communities are marginalized socially and politically, the lack of documentation of their knowledge and practices further limits their visibility in national planning and research agendas. Therefore, this study uses Berkes’ framework of TEK (Berkes, 1999 ) to document the knowledge systems, practices, and governance mechanisms of high-altitude pastoral communities in Nepal. By analyzing how these attributes contribute to rangeland management, biodiversity conservation, livelihood sustainability, and climate change adaptation, this study addresses a knowledge gap and aims to support the preservation and integration of this valuable knowledge into relevant policies. 1.1. Berke’s Framework of TEK We adopted the theoretical framework provided by Fikret Berkes, who defined TEK systems as a combination of knowledge, practices, and beliefs of IPLCs that evolve through adaptive processes and are transmitted intergenerationally through cultural practices (Berkes, 1999 ). This framework offers the most accepted and widely used definition of TEK, which has also been adopted by institutions like the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) (Sharifian et al., 2022 ), which widely recognizes the critical role of TEK and IPLCs in biodiversity conservation and environmental sustainability. This framework offers a robust, integrative model for sustainable natural resource management by recognizing the value of traditional knowledge, fostering adaptive management, leveraging social institutions, and embedding ethical worldviews—all of which contribute to the resilience and sustainability of ecosystems and communities (Berkes et al., 2000 ; Menzies, 2006 ; Sharifian et al., 2022 ). The first dimension of this framework involves knowledge of the local environment, including flora, fauna, soil, landscape, and weather, gathered through empirical observations and passed down across generations. The second dimension combines environmental knowledge with management practices such as rotational grazing, seasonal migration, and selective harvesting, which are used by IPLCs for the sustainable management of communal resources like grazing pastures. The third component consists of rules and customary laws developed by IPLCs to govern resource access and use, ensuring community coordination, enforcement, and ethical practices. The fourth component encompasses worldviews, cultural beliefs, spirituality, and ethics for the protection of sacred sites that shape human-environment relationships (Berkes et al., 2000 ) (Fig. 1 ). In this study, we focus on the traditional knowledge of herder communities regarding plants and their uses, landscapes (including transhumance routes and stops), and weather patterns; practices such as rotational grazing, maintenance of herd diversification, and sustainable resource use; institutions such as customary governance systems, and worldviews such as cultural beliefs, and taboos that have shaped resource management in Nepal’s high-altitude rangelands. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. Study Area This study was conducted among the herders residing in Patarasi Rural Municipality and Guthichaur Rural Municipality of Jumla district of Nepal’s Karnali Province (Fig. 2 ). Patarasi Rural Municipality (RM) has the largest area of grazing pastures in Jumla, covering an area of 36,054 hectares whereas Guthichaur has 24,491 hectares of rangelands (GIIS, 2024). About 16.7% of the population in Patarasi is involved in livestock rearing and the major livestock includes cattle, sheep, goat/chyangra, yak/nak/chauri, and buffalo (NSO, 2021). Likewise, 18.25% of the Tablepopulation in Guthichaur is engaged in livestock rearing and the major livestock includes cattle, sheep, goat/chyangra, yak/nak/chauri, and buffalo (NSO, 2021). 2.3. Data Collection We used a mixed-methods approach that combined Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), participatory mapping, and direct observations to capture the full spectrum of knowledge, practices, institutions, and worldviews. This type of low-risk surveys did not require ethical approval from an Institutional Review Board in Nepal. However, we strictly adhered to widely accepted ethical standards for research involving human participants. Before starting the FGDs and KIIs, we obtained verbal consent from all participants by reading a confidentiality and anonymity statement that included the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, participants’ rights to decline or withdraw at any stage of the interview, and procedures of data handling. The discussions and interviews were conducted in the Nepali language; however, respondents were also allowed to answer in their local languages, and these responses were later translated into English for data analysis. Oral consent was also obtained before taking photographs. We also used participatory mapping techniques for the collection of information regarding the traditional transhumance routes (starting of migration, stops overs, durations of stay, ending of migration) of pastoral communities. We used Google Earth Pro and a projector to ensure group visibility and inclusiveness. Participants identified and marked important locations on the Google Earth interface, such as migratory routes, grazing stops, water resources, and sacred sites. These features were further marked using placemarks, polygons, and paths, and annotated with local names and attributes discussed by the participants. We conducted the field work for data collection from September to December 2024. Initially, 12 FGDs Seven in Patarasi and five in Guthichaur were conducted to identify the issues related to rangeland management practices, collective decision-making, pastoralism, and changing socio-ecological dynamics. Each FGD included 10 to 15 herders representing diversity in caste/ethnicity (Brahmin-hill/Kshetri, Indigenous, and Dalit), gender (male and female), and age (ranging from 18 to 70 years). We conducted KII with 103 herders (30 in Patarasi and 73 in Guthichaur) using semi-structured questionnaires to document local ecological knowledge, management practices, institutional function, and cultural beliefs. These interviews were conducted both in villages and in pastures. The survey questionnaire mainly included two sections, where the first section was about the socio-demographic and livestock information of the respondents, while the second section aimed to collect data on migration routes, knowledge about the use of plants, grazing schedules, resource access, institutional arrangements, access rights and cultural taboos and myths. Additionally, direct field observation was conducted to document grazing patterns, pasture vegetation, herders’ daily routines, and behaviors. The details of the data collection methods and questionnaire for FGDs and KIIS are given in supplementary material. 2.4. Data analysis Both the quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed separately. Quantitative data were analyzed using frequency counts and percentages. Qualitative data were coded and thematically categorized according to the four components of Berke’s framework: local knowledge, resource management systems, social institutions, and worldviews. This thematic analysis helped identify patterns, relationships, and meanings within the data. Insights from both datasets were compared to validate the results and integrated to produce a holistic interpretation. Finally, we developed an illustration of how knowledge, practices, institutions, and worldviews interact to produce sustainability outcomes, practices, institutions, and worldviews interact to produce sustainability outcomes. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and the response frequencies and percentages were calculated. Maps of the pastures were created using ArcMap 10.8 and graphs were prepared using R software. 3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 3.1. Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents Out of 103 KII respondents, the majority (82.5%) were male, illiterate (60.1%), and the average age of the respondents was 45.4 years (SD = 13.3 years). Their primary occupation was herding, while the major secondary occupation was agriculture (94.2%), followed by non-timber forest products (NTFPs) collection (26.2%), small business (15.5%), and others (Table 1). Table 1. Socio-demographic information of respondents Respondents’ characteristics Frequency Percentage Gender Male 85 82.5 Female 18 17.5 Average age in years (SD) 45. 4 (13.3) Occupation (Secondary occupation) Agriculture 97 94.2 Small business 16 15.5 NTFPs collection 27 26.2 Wage labor 5 4.8 Remittance 2 1.9 Education Illiterate 62 60.2 Literate 41 39.8 3.2 . Knowledge 3.2.1. Knowledge of plant resources Herders possess a comprehensive knowledge of plant species, their habitats, and uses. A large majority of herders (87.4%) described using medicinal plants to treat both livestock and human ailments. Altogether, 14 species of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were reported to be used for treating various livestock diseases (Table 2 ). Table 2 Plants used for ethnoveterinary medicines by the local herders Scientific name Local name Family Parts use Ethno-veterinary uses Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott Bako Araceae Whole plant The decoction of the whole plant is used for urinary infections. Colocasia spp. Karkalo Araceae Whole plant The viscous juice of the whole plant is used for diarrhea. Delphinium himalayae Munz Atis Ranunculaceae Root The decoction is used to treat wounds. Fritillaria cirrhosa D.Don Ban lasun Liliaceae Tuber The viscous juice of the tuber is mixed with salt or ash to treat worms, wounds, diarrhea, fever, and cough. Hippophae tibetana Schltdl. Dale chuk Elaeagnaceae Fruit Fruit paste mixed with honey is used to treat Lumpy skin disease. Hymenidium dentatum (DC.) Pimenov & Kljuykov Gannaino Apiaceae Root Root decoction is used for abdominal swelling. Juglans regia L. Okhad Juglandaceae Fruit bark Fruit bark decoction mixed with mamira as an energy tonic. Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC. Bhotle Caprifoliaceae Root Root decoction mixed with ash or salt is used to treat worms, heal inner wounds. Root decoction mixed with salt is used as an energy tonic. Root pest is used to heal wounds. Root decoction mixed with turmeric is used to treat cough and cold. Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D.Y. Hong Katuko Plantaginaceae Root Root decoction mixed with turmeric is used to treat cough and cold. Root decoction mixed with salt is used to treat inner wounds. Root decoction is used for abdominal swelling. Tuber Tuber decoction mixed with salt is used as an energy tonic, and tuber decoction mixed with honey is used as a detoxifying agent. Tuber decoction mixed with honey is used to treat skin problems. Oxalis corniculata L. Chariamilo Oxalidaceae Whole plant, leaf Fresh juice of leaves or the whole plant is used to treat eye problems. Paris polyphylla Sm. Satuwa Melanthiaceae Tuber Tuber decoction mixed with honey or ghee is used as a detoxifying agent. Tuber decoction is used to treat wounds. Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex-Royle Mamira Celastraceae Root Root decoction mixed with bark of the walnut fruit is used as an energy tonic. Rheum australe D.Don Aakchya Polygonaceae Shoot, Root Root decoction is used to treat abdominal swelling, fever, and wounds. Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H.Karst. Chiraito Gentianaceae Whole plant The viscous juice of the whole plant is used for abdominal swelling. This knowledge about species and its use in ethnoveterinary purposes and human ailments have been disseminated across generations within pastoral communities. A higher portion of the respondents (79%) explained that the knowledge about the identification of different plants and their usage (palatable, unpalatable, toxic, nutritious, and medicinal) was acquired from their ancestors. As one herder (H_G_38_male) recalled, My grandfather taught my father about the plants, and my father taught me. This is like an ancestral property that is automatically given to you. These things seem trivial, but very helpful to a herder to save their livestock and cure illness. Pastoral communities use generational knowledge of species identification and utilization for ethnoveterinary purposes (McCorkle, 1986 ; Berkes et al., 1994 ). Ethnoveterinary medicine is very common among herder communities, as in our study areas, where access to modern veterinary services is limited and traditional remedies are often more affordable than commercially available medicines (Parthiban et al., 2016 ). Another herder (H_G_56_female) explained, We don’t need to depend on modern health care facilities for ourselves and for our livestock to treat small health issues like small wounds, abdominal pain, diarrhea, or the common cold, which can be easily treated using medicinal herbs found in these pastures. Our traditional knowledge helps us save money and time because hospitals and veterinary services are very far from our pastures. Otherwise, we would have to walk a whole day to reach a veterinary or hospital. As these traditional practices were rooted in long observations, they are also proven to be effective for preserving ecosystems and promoting the sustainable use of biological resources (Gadgil et al., 1993 ; Berkes et al., 2000 ; Reyes-García et al., 2019 ). The majority of respondents (60.2%) explained that they were aware about the conservation practices. Such practices adopted by pastoral communities helped to avoid destructive harvesting, supporting the survival of species with increased harvesting pressure (Msuya & Kideghesho, 2009 ). Such practices are often reinforced by customary laws or religious beliefs, which contribute to minimizing overharvesting or overexploitation (Niamir, 1990). For example, herders in FGDs (FGD_Guthichaur_2) highlighted the importance of selective harvesting: We collect medicinal plants such as ninejadi ( Iris decora ), biojadi ( Tanacetum dolichophyllum ) in limited amounts, and we leave their rhizomes in the soil for the next season because they are important for treating ourselves and our livestock. For us, these plants are like our doctors and nurses; they treat us and our livestock in many cases. Herders possess not only extensive knowledge of plants but also actively track changes in plant species diversity, abundance, and ecosystem health through direct interactions with the environment. They assess pastoral quality by observing the composition of dominant grass species; declines in palatable grasses and increases in non-palatable grasses that signal rangeland degradation. In our surveys, 85% of herders believed that rangeland’s health has deteriorated compared to the last decade. A herder (FGD_Patarasi_6) expressed his observation: “Pasture is not the same as it used to be; there is much less palatable grass now.” Similarly, another herder (H_G_44_male) mentioned: “Fulbaadi (lands with diverse varieties of flowers and grass) is no longer Fulbaadi. Now it has become Hallebaadi (lands dominated by unpalatable Rumex species). We can rarely see buki (a palatable native grass species) in our pastureland nowadays.” We also observed an increasing spread of non-palatable species such as Rumex nepalensis and Polygonum molle , leading to the shrinking of grazing areas, and verifying this observation, 18.4% of herders also explained the increased abundance of these species. This increasing bush abundance in pastures reduces the availability of indigenous fodder and disrupts ecosystem functioning (Dogra et al., 2010 ; O'Connor et al., 2014 ). As bush encroachment alters landscapes, indigenous communities face intensified competition for critical resources like water and grazing land (Archer et al., 2017 ). 3.2.2. Knowledge of transhumance routes and stops Herders practiced a traditional transhumance system, which involves the seasonal movement of livestock between ecological regions. Most of the respondents (78.6%) still followed their traditional grazing calendar with established routes and stopping locations that have been used for generations. As the knowledge about the routes and landscapes was passed down from the generations, local herders had a detailed memory of their transhumance routes, including knowledge of geographic features (slopes, safe passageways), water sources, and grazing areas. As one herder (FGD_Guthichaur_5) recalled: Our ancestors decided the grazing locations and the stops and route based on their past experiences and knowledge. We have continued to follow these routes and stops at specific pastures because these sites also serve as venues for religious and cultural activities, as well as having good grass quality and water availability. A total of 57 transhumance routes and 111 stops/locations were identified and mapped (Fig. 3 ). Migration to higher elevations generally began in the month of Baishakh (April/May), during which they moved up to an average elevation of 3200 m as the pastures started greening. The peak season for transhumance occurred in the months of Ashadh (June/July) at an average elevation of 3800 m, Shrawan (July/August) at 3900 m, and Bhadra (August/September) at 3800 m, when the pastures were completely snow-free and reached their maximum productivity. As temperature gradually decreased, herders migrated to lower elevations, such as Ashoj (September/October) at 3500 m, Kartik (October/November) at 3300 m, and Mangsir (November/December) at 3100 m. For the remaining four months— Push (December/January), Magh (January/February), Falgun (February/March), and Chitra (March/April)—transhumance typically halted as the high-altitude pastures were covered by snow or remained too cold and unproductive. In these months, livestock were kept in the villages or nearby stops/locations and fed on dried grass and agricultural residues (Fig. 4 ). Herders also possessed detailed knowledge of when to move their herds, based on generations of observation of climate, pasture phenology, and the needs of their animals. These movements coincided with the seasons, as 49% of the respondents reported that climatic condition determines the duration of stay at specific grazing locations. Knowledge about transhumance routes and stops that encompass detailed spatial, temporal, ecological, and cultural understanding is vital for the resilience of pastoral systems (Singh et al., 2020 ). It helps prevent overgrazing, allows vegetation to recover, maintains productivity, reduces soil erosion, and contributes to biodiversity conservation (Mekonen, 2017 ; Srichandan et al., 2021 ). Additionally, it fulfills their manure needs when livestock graze near villages, farms, and forests. The seasonal movement of livestock also helps adapt with ecological changes. 3.2.3. Knowledge about weather Pastoral communities shared their knowledge about climate, which fundamentally shapes pastoral activities such as dictating the availability and quality of grass in the pasture, the availability of water, and the timing of livestock movements (Nkuba et al., 2019 ). The majority of the herders (71%) relied on traditional knowledge about weather patterns to decide when and where to move their herds. Climate knowledge of pastoral communities plays an important role in rural areas where livelihoods directly rely on the weather and climate conditions (Balehegn et al., 2019 ), which helps them to detect environmental changes, create adaptation strategies, and practice sustainable management strategies (Parrotta & Agnoletti, 2012 ). Explaining the importance of climatic knowledge, one herder (H_G_70_male) said: Climate is like a clock to us—it determines our start and end of livestock migration. If the weather starts to get warmer early, we must move towards higher altitudes as our livestock cannot handle the heat at lower elevations. As traditional knowledge of pastoral communities was transferred from previous generations, this knowledge helps them detect both short- and long-term climatic changes and assists them to adapt to changing climate (Carver, 1998 ; Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2013 ; Shikuku, 2017). One herder (H_P_35_male) explained: Sometimes, rainfall continues for more than a week, which is not good for herding. When the sky burns (the sky turns red as it is cleaner and dryer), it makes us happy as it indicates the end of the rain. As we have no other source of information, we must fully depend on our knowledge to anticipate upcoming climate conditions. Furthermore, the knowledge about local climate also enables them to adjust their livelihood, like changing crop cycle and diversifying their livelihood options (Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2013 ) and make them resilient (Carver, 1998 ). This was also supported by the herder’s perceptions that 49% of the respondents mentioned the role of climate in determining the duration of stay in migratory routes. Despite knowing the short-term and long-term changes in weather pattern, herders still depended on a traditional grazing calendar, as they did not have an alternative feeding area and feeding source other than the natural grass of the rangeland. Explaining this, one herder (KII_G_36_male) said: Due to a decrease in rainfall and an uncertain snowfall pattern, the greening starts late in the pasture nowadays compared to before. But we must start our migration as per our traditional migration calendar, as there is no feed source and space for livestock to stay in the village. 3.3. Practice 3.3.1. Rotational grazing Rotational grazing involves dividing pastures into smaller paddocks and systematically moving livestock from one paddock to another, allowing previously grazed areas to rest and recover before being grazed again. In the study area, herders practiced rotational grazing through planning, division of paddocks, and scheduled livestock movement. Before the start of the grazing season, herders from different villages convened meetings to decide and allocate paddocks and pastures among households for the entire season. Typically, 4–5 households jointly selected one pasture to graze their animals, as one herder (H_G_68_male) explained: “At the beginning of the grazing season, we (all the herders) unite and choose our routes and pastures for grazing, most of which have been pre-decided for generations. This minimizes the risk of conflict and ensures sufficient fodder for livestock.”. Herders scheduled livestock movement between paddocks based on different factors like availability of forage, the availability of water sources, climatic conditions, and social factors like festivals and family events. About 71% of respondents considered changes in the temperature (warming) as the major factor responsible for this movement of livestock, followed by social factors (63%) like festivals and family events, availability of forage (48%), and availability of water (10%). The movement of herders is often based on the local knowledge and expertise of pastoral communities while aligning with the ecological principles of rangelands. As one herder (H_P_41_male) emphasized: Pastures also need rest, so we move our herd from one point to another. This is beneficial for (herders, livestock, and the pasture), as vegetation gets time to revive. The annual cycle of rotational grazing allows plant species to regenerate during rest periods (Niamir-Fuller, 1998 ; Berkes et al., 2000 ). It also aids in restoring productivity in degraded rangelands (Briske et al., 2011 ). This alignment helps to increase plant diversity, greater abundance of perennial species, reduce grazing pressure (McDonald et al., 2019 ), and improve the resilience of rangelands (Fernández-Giménez, 2000 ). It plays a crucial role in soil health management by enhancing soil carbon sequestration, improving soil organic carbon content, and preserving soil structure and fertility (Byrnes et al., 2018 ). Allocating paddocks not only prevented overgrazing and adjusted stocking rates but also helped resolve conflicts among herders, as another herder (H_P_26_male) noted: Our elders resolve conflicts that arise in the pasture with their knowledge and experience; their decisions are usually correct. The customary practices like rotational grazing ensure equitable access to resources, which reduces conflicts (Boelens et al., 2016 ) and help foster a sense of identity and belonging among community members (Fernández-Giménez, 2000 ), enhancing social harmony and cohesion (Reid et al., 2014 ). 3.3.2. Herd diversification Different livestock species (e.g., cattle, sheep, and goats) have distinct dietary preferences. When grazed together, these animals utilize a broader range of vegetation, preventing the dominance of any single plant type and promoting a more balanced plant community (Soder et al., 2007). About 33% of the respondents have a mixed herd of small ruminants like sheep and goats, while 3.9% have a mixed herd of yaks and cows. This diversification helped them to ensure the long-term sustainability and adaptability of livestock systems by reducing risks from disease and environmental shocks, while also providing diversified income sources. As one herder (H_P_50_male) mentioned: We generally have a mix of sheep and goats as it has a lot of benefits like breed improvement and reduced cost as a type of feed source, medicine, and types of disease are quite similar in both of them. Maintaining herd diversity enabled herders to meet diverse needs by producing a wider range of animal products (meat, milk, fiber), thereby supporting food security, livelihoods, and income (Megersa et al., 2014a ). Another herder (H_G_35_male) recalled: “Jhopas/ Jhomas (cross of cow and yak) are more beneficial for us because they can be used for multiple purposes like plowing, producing manure and milk, and they can also survive in a harsh environment, so we don’t need to worry much about fodder”. However, despite its economic benefits, herders were generally unaware that maintaining diversity in livestock species could also help balance plant diversity. The traditional practice of herd diversification contributed to maintaining rangeland health and enhancing ecosystem resilience. For example, mixed species grazing allows more efficient use of available forage, often increasing the total carrying capacity of land and enhancing pasture productivity (Doti, 2010 ; Megersa et al., 2014b ). But in recent years, changes in market value, like increasing demand for small ruminants like sheep and goats, have impacted on the dynamics of traditional mixed livestock rearing practice (Udo et al., 2011 ). Most of the herders have goats and sheep and stopped rearing buffalo and cows recently. This change in grazing animal types impacts the biodiversity and species richness of the rangeland (Benthien et al., 2018 ) and increases pressure on some plant species while promoting the growth of some species. One herder (KII_P_55_male) said: The market value of goats and sheep has increased as meat demand has increased in recent years. So, most of us (herders) have now started to rear goats and sheep and stopped rearing cows and buffalo. 3.4. Institution 3.4.1. Customary governance Customary practices were used for the governance of common pool resources like rangelands in the study area. This governance system was adopted mainly to make decisions for resource use and access rights such as medicinal and aromatic plants, grazing land, and for conflict resolution. These rules were generally unwritten and were based on the indigenous cultures and societal norms (Harly, 2023 ), which were shaped by the generational knowledge, adaptation, practice, and learning of the communities, which allowed communities to thrive and remain united (Ørebech, 2005). Explaining this governance system, one herder (H_P_50_male) said: We do not have written rules and formal rights for the rangeland resources like grazing area or grazing route, but we follow our own traditional rules and norms for the utilization and management of these resources, which are accepted and respected by everyone. The customary norms and the governing system adopted by pastoral communities contributed to maintaining ecological balance and enhancing community resilience against environmental and social stressors by granting rights, managing resources, and restricting access (Yin, 2022). One herder (H_P_54_male) said: We have community-based rules for harvesting medicinal plants for local herders and for regulating the use of pastureland for outsiders. These rules were made through collective decision making within our community, so everyone is expected to obey them. These rule systems help us to ensure that few herders use the pasture at the same time, which improves grass availability for everyone. Such customary institutions facilitate harmonious human-nature interactions, support ecological resilience and promote biodiversity conservation (Berkes et al., 2000 ). They contribute to sustainable natural resource management and help prevent rangeland degradation (Sinthumule, 2025 ). As a result, such systems lead to increased plant species diversity, reduced grazing pressure (McDonald et al., 2019 ), and improved overall resilience of rangeland ecosystems (Fernández-Giménez, 2000 ) and the society (Reid et al., 2014 ). For example, this year, Krishna Budha (name changed), a herder from Mahari village of Patarasi, and his group of six herds used the Hale-Chokse route, while another group from the same village followed the Nadai-Lere Dhara route. In the next grazing season, the groups would switch routes. This traditional practice not only balanced grazing pressure but also promoted equal and sustainable access to common pool resources like rangelands. This customary governance system also restricted the movement of some communities or ethnic groups, which reduced the pressure on the ecosystem. About 6% of the respondents mentioned that local government policies supported such community-level decision making for the rangeland ecosystem management. One herder (H_P_40_male) said: We have rules like taxation for outsiders who collect high-value medicinal plants or graze their animals here; they have to pay 100 Nepalese rupees per animal for the grazing season. Despite having many benefits of the customary rules, recent changes in land tenure and policy reform have impacted the traditional resource management systems. These reforms of land tenure right disrupt customary norms and governance structures, causing unclear ownership and resource management rights and responsibilities, leading to the degradation of rangeland (Dong et al., 2011 ; Kreutzmann, 2013 ). In the study area, rangeland management was traditionally handled by customary norms and community-based policies and practices. However, due to recent reforms in forest policies, rangeland has been brought under the jurisdiction of the local division forest office. This shift was causing conflict among the community members and their transhumance practices, mainly in the dry season when fodder availability was less. Explaining the same kind of situation, one of the young herders (H_G_25_male) expressed his frustration: Why should we pay a penalty for using our own resources? These are our resources, which we have relied on for generations. These new rules seem to be made just to collect money. 3.4.2. Sacred landscape Customary governance practices such as declaring sacred sites in forests and water bodies like rivers and lakes play a central role in the sustainable management of natural resources (Bhagwat & Rutte, 2006 ; Sinthumule, 2024 ). Declaring sacred sites and prohibiting harmful activities within them is recognized as one of the oldest forms of habitat protection (Dudley et al., 2009 ; Tatay & Merino, 2023 ). Explaining the importance of sacred sites, one of the female respondents (FGD_P_38_female) noted during FGD: These sacred sites are home to the maximum number of wild animals such as birds, animals like bears, jackals, and ghorals, and many types of wildflowers. These species are rarely seen outside these religious places because of illegal hunting. But in sacred places, hunting is strictly prohibited, which helps conserve wildlife. Another herder (H_G_55_male), highlighted the ecological value of sacred sites, said: Thankur Jiu and Bista Jiu —two popular pilgrimage sites of western Nepal, residing in rangelands—are home to hundreds of birds and animals. Dozens of small lakes are situated near these sites, preserving a variety of fish and water birds. Studies have also shown that sacred sites have greater species diversity than non-sacred sites (Hegde et al., 2020 ). These sacred sites are not only important for biodiversity conservation but also reflect the deep spiritual and cultural connections that indigenous communities have with nature and contribute to their spiritual well-being (Wild & McLeod, 2008 ; Tatay & Merino, 2023 ). These landscapes help preserve the cultural identity of indigenous pastoral communities. The celebration of Jatra and Mela in sacred locations of rangelands serves as a means to transfer their cultural and religious value to younger generation. Explaining the importance of sacred sites in intergenerational knowledge transfer, one female herder (H_G_51_female) said: Jatra and Mela (forms of worship) in sacred places are the visual act of thanking our GOD, and nature. They also help us to teach our children about our culture, religion, and identity. These events bring our community together and strengthen social harmony. These sites are generally considered as holy places that hold great religious importance, as they provide a physical location to perform rituals or any other forms of worship (Canter, 2019 ; McFarland, 2019 ). These sites are also considered as reservoirs of ancestral wisdom, which helps transfer intergenerational cultural knowledge and traditions (Ezenweke & Nwachukwu, 2023 ). In addition to their cultural and spiritual value, sacred sites also contribute to the local economy by supporting indigenous communities through cultural and local tourism. In the study area, these sacred sites attract visitors and pilgrims, contributing to the local economy. However, increased tourism has also had negative impacts on the rangeland ecosystem, due to the construction of infrastructure like roads and pollution. Explaining the same thing, one of the young herders (H_P_18_male) said: Seasonal tourism has benefited us because people come, and we earn money. But at the same time, the sound of vehicles and pollution like plastic wrappers and bottles have affected the health of our livestock. 3.5. Worldview and belief system 3.5.1. Rituals/ Taboos/Myths Taboos, myths, and beliefs are powerful elements of traditional knowledge systems that play a significant role in enhancing the human-nature connection, fostering social unity, and promoting environmental sustainability, and resource conservation (Abbas & Shamim, 2023 ; Tumbali, 2025 ). These cultural practices reflect the deep-rooted connections between pastoral communities and their surrounding landscapes. In the study area, the existence of belief systems that connected local herders with nature was still practiced. One female herder (FGD_Guthichaur_6) described a ritual that takes place at the start of the grazing journey: We hold a puja (ceremony) of Bandevi (Goddess of the forest) after reaching the first stop of our grazing route to ask for blessings for our livestock and ourselves. Such rituals were commonly performed either before the start of the transhumance migration at villages or after the arrival at grazing sites. These practices not only preserve their identity as a pastoralist community but also help maintain their cultural continuity and social harmony while affirming their relationships with the land and nature (Johnson, 1992 ; Berkes, 2017 ; Sinthumule, 2023 ; Chao et al., 2025 ). One herder (KII_H_G_52_female) said: “Rituals are something that helps us to preserve our culture, our identity, even our food habits. They not only explain our traditions but also connect us together and strengthen our social cohesion”. Rituals also serve as opportunities for knowledge transfer, especially across generations, by embedding values, practices, and ecological understanding in the cultural expression of gratitude and unity (Namgay et al., 2013 ; Oteros-Rozas et al., 2013 ). It fosters social cohesion among community members and helps to maintain resilience as they unite (Abbas & Shamim, 2023 ; Tumbali, 2025 ). One respondent (KII_H_P_) noted that: Performing Puja provides us opportunity to gather and thank our mother, ‘Nature’, for all the services. This is also a way to teach our son about our land, and culture. Furthermore, most of the respondents (63%) in the study area also explained the value of social and cultural events such as festivals and family gatherings as a key determinant in the timing of transhumance movements. Explaining its importance in the transhumance practice, one of the herders (H_P_54_male) said: Baisakh Purnima (Full moon fall in May/June) is the indicator for the beginning of the upward migration season, as the pasture greening usually starts around that time. Bhadra Purnima (Full moon fall in August/September) is the indicator for the starting of the downward migration season, as the festivals start from that day. This statement was also supported by the results of the pasture mapping exercise (Fig. 3 , 4 ). Taboos and myths practiced by indigenous communities also helped in biodiversity conservation by restricting the movement, reducing human pressure, and guiding seasonal movement within ecosystems (Bhagwat & Rutte, 2006 ; Sinthumule, 2023 ; Gbadegesin & Gbadamosi, 2024 ). such belief systems were evident in the study area, in various forms, including gender-based restrictions. More than half of the respondents (51%) explained the restriction of women from entering pastures during menstruation. Explaining about the restriction of women in the pasture, one male herder (H_P_35_male) said: Women in their period are not allowed to feed or touch animals; this will anger our GOD, and livestock will become ill. While such beliefs may contribute to limiting human activity in sensitive ecological areas, restrictions based on gender, age, ethnicity, or social status in the name of taboos can also pose ethical and practical challenges for inclusive conservation (Johannes, 1994 ; Cegan et al., 2017 ). Therefore, incorporating worldviews such as taboos, myths, and rituals in biodiversity conservation should be done through a participatory and inclusive approach. This will promote environmental stewardship, strengthen community action, and support equitable and sustainable natural resource management (Fig. 5 ). 3.6. Drivers of TEK erosion Traditional ecological knowledge of pastoral communities is increasingly under threat, undergoing either transition or facing erosion due to multiple drivers such as climate change, globalization, and modernization (Reyes-Garcia et al., 2005; Sharifian et al., 2022 ). Respondents mentioned other additional underlying causes, including the declining interest of younger generations in pastoralism, sociocultural transition within pastoral communities, and weakened intergenerational knowledge transmission (Fig. 6 ). A significant proportion of respondents (66%) mentioned the scarcity of traditional resources as the major challenge to traditional resource use practices. They further explained the reason for this scarcity to the underlying drivers, such as overharvesting and climate change. Explaining this scenario, one herder (Yarsa_P_55_male) highlighted the drastic decline in the availability of highly valuable species only found in rangeland: There is a huge decrease in the availability of Yarsagunbu ( Ophiocordyceps sinensis ). Five years ago, I used to find about 1,500 Yarsagunbu in aweek, but now barely 100 Yarsagunbu in the entire season. This is mainly due to the lack of snowfall and haphazard harvesting. This has significantly impacted our livelihood, and now we have no option left except to migrate to India or other Gulf countries as wage laborers. Climate change impacts traditional ecological practices of indigenous communities, mainly by altering the productivity and diversity of rangeland (Polley et al., 2013 ; Godde et al., 2020 ). This has resulted in the scarcity of traditional resources, which, in turn, impacts traditional resource utilization practices and cultural norms, disrupting intergenerational knowledge transfer (Ahmad & Ariana, 2018). Climate-induced changes also impact the reliability of intergenerational knowledge and practices, such as predicting weather and rotational grazing-core aspects of pastoral knowledge, making them less reliable and effective to transmit to younger generations (Doblas-Reyes et al., 2013 ; Salite, 2019 ). One elderly herder (KII_H_70_male) expressed this concern: Predicting the weather is a tough task nowadays. We (old herders) are unable to predict even with years of experience—how can we teach this (knowledge about weather prediction) to our younger generation? These gaps in knowledge transmission threaten the resilience of pastoral communities and force them to overexploit available resources (Niamir-Fuller, 1998 ), migrate, and shift to alternative livelihoods (Muhammad et al., 2019 ). This not only leads to the loss of skilled manpower but also disturbs the traditional community-based resource management system (Berkes, 2012 ). In fact, nearly one in five respondents (19%) mentioned that the erosion of TEK was a key challenge they were facing now. Nearly half (44%) of the respondents mentioned the disconnection of the younger generation from traditional pastoralism practice and explained this disconnection with urbanization and the influence of modern education systems. Herders further explained the effect of urbanization or modernization with the replacement of traditional medicines with modern ones, such as veterinary medicines. This was highlighted by 61% of the herders as a challenge to the traditional ecological resource use pattern (Fig. 6 ). Explaining this, one of the oldest herders (KII_H_70_male) said: Everything has changed now; how we (pastoralists) used to treat our livestock before using all plant-based products. But now we must visit the veterinarian as there are so many new diseases observed every year. Adoption of these new resources or technologies changes the traditional resource use techniques and practices (Radeny et al., 2019 ) and contributes to the erosion of TEK (Sharifian et al., 2022 ). These also act as a hurdle in the intergenerational transfer of knowledge (Oteros-Rozas et al., 2013 ; Sharifian et al., 2022 ). The impact of modernization was also observed in the changing perspective of pastoral communities. About 5% of the respondents also mentioned that changing cultural attitudes towards traditional practices is the reason for TEK erosion. They further mentioned that changes in climate, environment, and society also changed the cultural attitude toward traditional practices. One herder said: Not only weather has changed, disease has changed, pasture has changed, soil has changed, and people have changed; everything has changed. This change not only makes of difficult to rear livestock but also leaves us in a dilemma; whether to do this (pastoralism) or not? These changes and dilemmas increase youth outmigration and force pastoralist communities to adopt practices that may not align with their cultural values and identity (Rawat et al., 2013 ; Sharifian et al., 2022 ). Explaining the same situation, one herder (H_P_60_male) said: Very few young people are involved in herding, and they are here until they get better opportunities. Once they get more money, they will run from here. We are not sure whether herding and pastoralism will remain the same for the next generation or not. The impacts of these drivers are increasing the vulnerability of traditional pastoral communities and the knowledge of the system they have used for generations. For many pastoral communities, TEK is inseparable from their rituals, oral histories, cosmologies, and social structures. Increasing vulnerability will lead to cultural disintegration and a sense of community sovereignty and resilience. So, safeguarding traditional practices and knowledge is not only necessary for the environmental imperative but also for the human rights and social justice issues of the indigenous communities. TEK requires more than documentation—it demands recognition, respect, and support for the rights of indigenous and local communities to maintain their traditional practices and territories. For this, validation of indigenous participatory and community-led conservation initiatives, legal protection of customary land rights, and inclusive governance frameworks are essential. Conclusion Traditional Ecological Knowledge of pastoral communities plays a vital role in addressing the current challenges of sustainable rangeland management. TEK of pastoral communities consists of practices such as rotational grazing and diversifying livestock, which are based on local knowledge about resources and the environment, promoting effective land and resource management. These practices are typically interconnected through networks of local communities shaped by culture and values. This study also acknowledges the significance of traditional ecological knowledge of pastoral communities in various aspects of sustainable rangeland management practices and highlights climate change and globalization as the two main drivers causing the erosion of this knowledge system. The underlying impacts of climate change, including unpredictable weather patterns, shifting ecological conditions, and increased frequency of extreme events, have disrupted the ecological baselines that TEK relies on. At the same time, globalization—through cultural homogenization, market integration, and modernization—has resulted in a decline in the intergenerational transmission of knowledge, outmigration of youth, and devaluation of traditional lifestyles. The findings of this study contribute to the growing body of evidence supporting the integration of TEK into contemporary natural resource management and policy frameworks. It also emphasizes the necessity of TEK for securing the future resilience of indigenous communities. By documenting local knowledge systems and understanding how they are impacted, this research provides insights into more inclusive, culturally grounded, and ecologically sustainable policy interventions for sustainable rangeland management in the Himalayas. It highlights the importance for policymakers to recognize TEK not just as a knowledge system, but as an expression of cultural identity, governance, and resilience. Declarations Human Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations: not applicable Clinical trial number: not applicable Funding: PUR-KTM-24-0061 CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT The authors have no conflicts of interest associated with this research to declare. References Abbas, K., & Shamim, Q. (2023). Adapting to a New Era: Cultural Evolution in Response to Globalization, Technological Advancements, and Environmental Changes. Insights-Journal of Life and Social Sciences , 1 (1), 15-21. Ahmad Wani, K., & Ariana, L. (2018). Impact of climate change on indigenous people and adaptive capacity of bajo tribe, Indonesia. Environmental Claims Journal , 30 (4), 302-313. https://doi.org/10.1080/10406026.2018.1504380. Archer, S. R., Andersen, E. M., Predick, K. I., Schwinning, S., Steidl, R. J., & Woods, S. R. (2017). 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Integrating Traditional Ecological Knowledge into Land Use and Land Cover Change Assessments, Pastoralist Communities in Northwest Inner Mongolia China. Land , 13 (12), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13121979. Souther, S., Colombo, S., & Lyndon, N. N. (2023). Integrating traditional ecological knowledge into US public land management: Knowledge gaps and research priorities. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution , 11 , 988126. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2023.988126. Srichandan, S., Pasupuleti, R. S., & Mishra, A. J. (2021). The transhumance route of Pithoragarh: A cultural route?. Environmental Challenges , 5 , 100291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100291. Tamou, C., De Boer, I. J. M., Ripoll-Bosch, R., & Oosting, S. J. (2018). Traditional ecological knowledge underlying herding decisions of pastoralists. animal , 12 (4), 831-843. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731117002130. Tang, R., & Gavin, M. C. (2016). A classification of threats to traditional ecological knowledge and conservation responses. Conservation and Society , 14 (1), 57-70. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-4923.182799. Tatay, J., & Merino, A. (2023). What is sacred in sacred natural sites? A literature review from a conservation lens. Ecology and Society , 28 (1). https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-13823-280112. Tiwari, K. R., Sitaula, B. K., Bajracharya, R. M., Raut, N., Bhusal, P., & Sengel, M. (2020). Vulnerability of pastoralism: A case study from the High Mountains of Nepal. Sustainability , 12 (7), 2737. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072737. Tumbali, G. C. (2025). Exploring Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) in Kalinga Province: Practices, Preservation, and Perspectives. Religion and Social Communication , 9. 10.62461/GCT101624. Udo, H. M. J., Aklilu, H. A., Phong, L. T., Bosma, R. H., Budisatria, I. G. S., Patil, B. R., ... & Bebe, B. O. (2011). Impact of intensification of different types of livestock production in smallholder crop-livestock systems. Livestock science , 139 (1-2), 22-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2011.03.020. Uprety, Y., Asselin, H., Bergeron, Y., Doyon, F., & Boucher, J. F. (2012). Contribution of traditional knowledge to ecological restoration: practices and applications. Ecoscience , 19 (3), 225-237. https://doi.org/10.2980/19-3-3530. Wild, R., & McLeod, C. (2008). Sacred natural sites: guidelines for protected area managers (No. 16). IUCN. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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The DEM was reclassified to enhance visual clarity).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6816057/v1/6c1b07adccf9d7dddcbc3b76.png"},{"id":85000057,"identity":"06695fb2-a8cf-4da6-91b8-f3455af3d841","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-19 17:23:30","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":375557,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBoxplot of the average elevation of pastures and stops. Each dot represents individual pasture or stop (Boxplot colors correspond to the location point’s colors shown in Figure 3).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6816057/v1/cd035348306fffa57ceef1aa.png"},{"id":85000067,"identity":"3fb0799f-932a-4399-b2ea-02480acde627","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-19 17:23:31","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":156594,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSchematic showing the attributes of the conceptual framework and their linkages with various rangeland components that contribute to rangeland sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6816057/v1/c38bd43ca9030c709b61d46c.png"},{"id":85000074,"identity":"ae046829-0023-452c-ad85-a94c90f3e7f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-19 17:23:32","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":202375,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePerceived challenges contributing to the erosion of traditional ecological knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6816057/v1/6ba389b94b6db7e276573592.png"},{"id":85000833,"identity":"3aa06f60-fba4-48b7-b4a1-ed44bf49f754","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-19 17:39:36","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3165114,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6816057/v1/71ebb0ea-ef2c-499d-a313-4f0ee22f3a3d.pdf"},{"id":85000832,"identity":"822a1148-e646-46f0-a22f-e61f78a3528d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-19 17:39:30","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":36830,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarymaterials.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6816057/v1/b105b730d2c987ee3b11036a.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Contribution of Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Pastoral Communities in Sustainable Rangeland Management in Nepal","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eTraditional ecological knowledge (TEK) is a cumulative body of knowledge, practices, and beliefs about the relationships between humans and their environment (Berkes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Berkes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Developed by Indigenous People and Local Communities (IPLCs) over millennia through direct interactions with their specific environment, this knowledge is passed down through generations (Gadgil et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Berkes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Berkes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Souther et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). TEK is manifested in diverse social contexts, places, and forms, including oral traditions, arts and crafts, stories, poems, songs, ceremonies, rituals, and practical experiences (Hill et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). It represents a holistic framework of understanding, utilizing, managing, and fostering the relationships between people and nature (Brond\u0026iacute;zio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Globally, pastoral communities possess a rich body of traditional ecological knowledge from their surrounding ecosystems, particularly pastures and rangelands, and maintain distinctive ways of connecting with them (Sinthumule, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond its spiritual and cultural significance, TEK also encompasses resource management systems and adaptation strategies for coping with environmental and social changes (Houde, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). For example, knowledge of medicinal plants and forage species and associated customary practices plays a crucial role in conserving biodiversity (Ayaa \u0026amp; Waswa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Tamou et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Sinthumule et al., 2023). Local management practices rooted in TEK help maintain ecosystem resilience, sustain livelihoods, and restore degraded ecosystems (Uprety et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; G\u0026oacute;mez-Baggethun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Traditional pastoral practices such as herding mobility, rotational grazing, and controlled burning contribute to the sustainable use of rangeland ecosystems (Muhammad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Sharifian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Likewise, local governance structures and customary rules developed by pastoral communities play a critical role in rangeland management and biodiversity conservation (Fynn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). While these knowledge systems and practices are locally based and shaped by specific regional contexts, they are valuable globally (Brond\u0026iacute;zio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, documenting and preserving TEK is critical for sustainable rangeland management, biodiversity conservation, socio-ecological resilience, and informing policies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the importance of TEK, this knowledge system is experiencing a rapid erosion. A global review of pastoral traditional ecological knowledge found that 52 out of 63 studies reported knowledge erosion (Sharifian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Multiple drivers contribute to the loss of pastoral TEK, such as socio-cultural changes, formal schooling of children of pastoral communities, abandonment of pastoral activities, declining interest among youngsters, transitions to market economies, environmental changes, policy and regulatory constraints, reduced dependence on ecosystems for livelihoods, and the diversification of income opportunities (Reyes-Garc\u0026iacute;a et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Sharifian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Siru et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The loss of TEK among the pastoral communities has led to loss of biodiversity, reduced capacity for climate change adaptation, negative impacts on livelihoods, reduced socio-ecological resilience, and a decline in rangeland management, ultimately causing irreversible effects on pastoral systems and their sustainability (G\u0026oacute;mez-Baggethun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Tang \u0026amp; Gavin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Sharifian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePastoralism, particularly transhumant pastoralism, is a major livelihood in Nepal's high-altitude regions, especially above 2,500 meters (Gentle \u0026amp; Thwaites, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). As the majority of Nepal\u0026rsquo;s landscape is mountainous, transhumance pastoralism is a critical livelihood adapted to the country\u0026rsquo;s challenging geography, climate, and economic conditions. Mountain communities in Nepal have practiced livestock herding for generations (Dong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Through these sustained interactions with their environment, indigenous and local herder communities have developed rich TEK, which is vital for cultural identity (Gentle \u0026amp; Thwaites, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), food security (Aryal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), climate change adaptation (Helvetas, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Karki \u0026amp; Adhikari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), and sustainable resource management (Rai, 2024). Despite the vital role of TEK in sustaining pastoral systems, its erosion along with the loss of cultural practices has threatened the sustainability of pastoralism in Nepal (Gentle \u0026amp; Thwaites, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Bhusal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Tiwari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Aryal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, climatic and socio-political changes, the decline of traditional resource governance systems, and shifts in conventional norms and values have undermined the integrity of the entire rangeland ecosystem (Reid et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Muhammad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Tiwari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), increasing vulnerability among indigenous marginalized communities (Dong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) and exacerbating conflicts among rangeland users (Aryal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the increasing recognition of TEK in global science-policy documents (IPBES, 2019), pastoralist TEK is severely underemphasized in the Himalayan region (Negi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). In Nepal, much of the pastoral TEK and its ecological and conservation significance remains undocumented (Tiwari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Although a few studies have investigated pastoral practices and rangelands (e.g., Aryal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, Gentle \u0026amp; Thwaites, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Bhusal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Tiwari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR88\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Aryal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), a comprehensive documentation of how traditional ecological knowledge, practices, and governance shape sustainable rangeland management, and coping strategies for climate and socio-cultural changes is still lacking. As Nepal\u0026rsquo;s pastoral communities are marginalized socially and politically, the lack of documentation of their knowledge and practices further limits their visibility in national planning and research agendas. Therefore, this study uses Berkes\u0026rsquo; framework of TEK (Berkes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) to document the knowledge systems, practices, and governance mechanisms of high-altitude pastoral communities in Nepal. By analyzing how these attributes contribute to rangeland management, biodiversity conservation, livelihood sustainability, and climate change adaptation, this study addresses a knowledge gap and aims to support the preservation and integration of this valuable knowledge into relevant policies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1. Berke\u0026rsquo;s Framework of TEK\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe adopted the theoretical framework provided by Fikret Berkes, who defined TEK systems as a combination of knowledge, practices, and beliefs of IPLCs that evolve through adaptive processes and are transmitted intergenerationally through cultural practices (Berkes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). This framework offers the most accepted and widely used definition of TEK, which has also been adopted by institutions like the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) (Sharifian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), which widely recognizes the critical role of TEK and IPLCs in biodiversity conservation and environmental sustainability. This framework offers a robust, integrative model for sustainable natural resource management by recognizing the value of traditional knowledge, fostering adaptive management, leveraging social institutions, and embedding ethical worldviews\u0026mdash;all of which contribute to the resilience and sustainability of ecosystems and communities (Berkes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Menzies, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Sharifian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The first dimension of this framework involves knowledge of the local environment, including flora, fauna, soil, landscape, and weather, gathered through empirical observations and passed down across generations. The second dimension combines environmental knowledge with management practices such as rotational grazing, seasonal migration, and selective harvesting, which are used by IPLCs for the sustainable management of communal resources like grazing pastures. The third component consists of rules and customary laws developed by IPLCs to govern resource access and use, ensuring community coordination, enforcement, and ethical practices. The fourth component encompasses worldviews, cultural beliefs, spirituality, and ethics for the protection of sacred sites that shape human-environment relationships (Berkes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, we focus on the traditional knowledge of herder communities regarding plants and their uses, landscapes (including transhumance routes and stops), and weather patterns; practices such as rotational grazing, maintenance of herd diversification, and sustainable resource use; institutions such as customary governance systems, and worldviews such as cultural beliefs, and taboos that have shaped resource management in Nepal\u0026rsquo;s high-altitude rangelands.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted among the herders residing in Patarasi Rural Municipality and Guthichaur Rural Municipality of Jumla district of Nepal\u0026rsquo;s Karnali Province (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Patarasi Rural Municipality (RM) has the largest area of grazing pastures in Jumla, covering an area of 36,054 hectares whereas Guthichaur has 24,491 hectares of rangelands (GIIS, 2024). About 16.7% of the population in Patarasi is involved in livestock rearing and the major livestock includes cattle, sheep, goat/chyangra, yak/nak/chauri, and buffalo (NSO, 2021). Likewise, 18.25% of the Tablepopulation in Guthichaur is engaged in livestock rearing and the major livestock includes cattle, sheep, goat/chyangra, yak/nak/chauri, and buffalo (NSO, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Data Collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used a mixed-methods approach that combined Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), participatory mapping, and direct observations to capture the full spectrum of knowledge, practices, institutions, and worldviews. This type of low-risk surveys did not require ethical approval from an Institutional Review Board in Nepal. However, we strictly adhered to widely accepted ethical standards for research involving human participants. Before starting the FGDs and KIIs, we obtained verbal consent from all participants by reading a confidentiality and anonymity statement that included the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, participants\u0026rsquo; rights to decline or withdraw at any stage of the interview, and procedures of data handling. The discussions and interviews were conducted in the Nepali language; however, respondents were also allowed to answer in their local languages, and these responses were later translated into English for data analysis. Oral consent was also obtained before taking photographs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe also used participatory mapping techniques for the collection of information regarding the traditional transhumance routes (starting of migration, stops overs, durations of stay, ending of migration) of pastoral communities. We used Google Earth Pro and a projector to ensure group visibility and inclusiveness. Participants identified and marked important locations on the Google Earth interface, such as migratory routes, grazing stops, water resources, and sacred sites. These features were further marked using placemarks, polygons, and paths, and annotated with local names and attributes discussed by the participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted the field work for data collection from September to December 2024. Initially, 12 FGDs Seven in Patarasi and five in Guthichaur were conducted to identify the issues related to rangeland management practices, collective decision-making, pastoralism, and changing socio-ecological dynamics. Each FGD included 10 to 15 herders representing diversity in caste/ethnicity (Brahmin-hill/Kshetri, Indigenous, and Dalit), gender (male and female), and age (ranging from 18 to 70 years).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted KII with 103 herders (30 in Patarasi and 73 in Guthichaur) using semi-structured questionnaires to document local ecological knowledge, management practices, institutional function, and cultural beliefs. These interviews were conducted both in villages and in pastures. The survey questionnaire mainly included two sections, where the first section was about the socio-demographic and livestock information of the respondents, while the second section aimed to collect data on migration routes, knowledge about the use of plants, grazing schedules, resource access, institutional arrangements, access rights and cultural taboos and myths. Additionally, direct field observation was conducted to document grazing patterns, pasture vegetation, herders\u0026rsquo; daily routines, and behaviors. The details of the data collection methods and questionnaire for FGDs and KIIS are given in supplementary material.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoth the quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed separately. Quantitative data were analyzed using frequency counts and percentages. Qualitative data were coded and thematically categorized according to the four components of Berke\u0026rsquo;s framework: local knowledge, resource management systems, social institutions, and worldviews. This thematic analysis helped identify patterns, relationships, and meanings within the data. Insights from both datasets were compared to validate the results and integrated to produce a holistic interpretation. Finally, we developed an illustration of how knowledge, practices, institutions, and worldviews interact to produce sustainability outcomes, practices, institutions, and worldviews interact to produce sustainability outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and the response frequencies and percentages were calculated. Maps of the pastures were created using ArcMap 10.8 and graphs were prepared using R software.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOut of 103 KII respondents, the majority (82.5%) were male, illiterate (60.1%), and the average age of the respondents was 45.4 years (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13.3 years). Their primary occupation was herding, while the major secondary occupation was agriculture (94.2%), followed by non-timber forest products (NTFPs) collection (26.2%), small business (15.5%), and others (Table\u0026nbsp;1).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1. Socio-demographic information of respondents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondents\u0026rsquo; characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFrequency\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePercentage\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGender\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e82.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAverage age in years (SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45. 4 (13.3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOccupation (Secondary occupation)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgriculture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall business\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNTFPs collection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWage labor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRemittance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEducation\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIlliterate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiterate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.2\u003c/b\u003e. \u003cb\u003eKnowledge\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.1. Knowledge of plant resources\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerders possess a comprehensive knowledge of plant species, their habitats, and uses. A large majority of herders (87.4%) described using medicinal plants to treat both livestock and human ailments. Altogether, 14 species of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were reported to be used for treating various livestock diseases (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlants used for ethnoveterinary medicines by the local herders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScientific name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocal name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParts use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthno-veterinary uses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eArisaema flavum\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;(Forssk.) Schott\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBako\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhole plant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe decoction of the whole plant is used for urinary infections.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eColocasia\u003c/em\u003e spp.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKarkalo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhole plant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe viscous juice of the whole plant is used for diarrhea.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDelphinium himalayae\u003c/em\u003e Munz\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAtis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRanunculaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe decoction is used to treat wounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFritillaria cirrhosa\u003c/em\u003e D.Don\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBan lasun\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiliaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTuber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe viscous juice of the tuber is mixed with salt or ash to treat worms, wounds, diarrhea, fever, and cough.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHippophae tibetana\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;Schltdl.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDale chuk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElaeagnaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit paste mixed with honey is used to treat Lumpy skin disease.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHymenidium dentatum\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;(DC.) Pimenov \u0026amp; Kljuykov\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGannaino\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot decoction is used for abdominal swelling.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJuglans regia\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkhad\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuglandaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit bark\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit bark decoction mixed with mamira as an energy tonic.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNardostachys jatamansi\u003c/em\u003e (D. Don) DC.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBhotle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCaprifoliaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot decoction mixed with ash or salt is used to treat worms, heal inner wounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot decoction mixed with salt is used as an energy tonic.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot pest is used to heal wounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot decoction mixed with turmeric is used to treat cough and cold.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNeopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora\u003c/em\u003e (Pennell) D.Y. Hong\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKatuko\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlantaginaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot decoction mixed with turmeric is used to treat cough and cold. Root decoction mixed with salt is used to treat inner wounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot decoction is used for abdominal swelling.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTuber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTuber decoction mixed with salt is used as an energy tonic, and tuber decoction mixed with honey is used as a detoxifying agent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTuber decoction mixed with honey is used to treat skin problems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOxalis corniculata\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChariamilo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOxalidaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhole plant, leaf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFresh juice of leaves or the whole plant is used to treat eye problems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParis polyphylla\u003c/em\u003e Sm.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSatuwa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMelanthiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTuber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTuber decoction mixed with honey or ghee is used as a detoxifying agent. Tuber decoction is used to treat wounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParnassia nubicola\u003c/em\u003e Wall. ex-Royle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMamira\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCelastraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot decoction mixed with bark of the walnut fruit is used as an energy tonic.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRheum australe\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;D.Don\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAakchya\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolygonaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShoot, Root\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot decoction is used to treat abdominal swelling, fever, and wounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSwertia chirayita\u003c/em\u003e (Roxb.) H.Karst.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChiraito\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGentianaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhole plant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe viscous juice of the whole plant is used for abdominal swelling.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis knowledge about species and its use in ethnoveterinary purposes and human ailments have been disseminated across generations within pastoral communities. A higher portion of the respondents (79%) explained that the knowledge about the identification of different plants and their usage (palatable, unpalatable, toxic, nutritious, and medicinal) was acquired from their ancestors. As one herder (H_G_38_male) recalled,\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMy grandfather taught my father about the plants, and my father taught me. This is like an ancestral property that is automatically given to you. These things seem trivial, but very helpful to a herder to save their livestock and cure illness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePastoral communities use generational knowledge of species identification and utilization for ethnoveterinary purposes (McCorkle, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Berkes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). Ethnoveterinary medicine is very common among herder communities, as in our study areas, where access to modern veterinary services is limited and traditional remedies are often more affordable than commercially available medicines (Parthiban et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Another herder (H_G_56_female) explained,\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe don\u0026rsquo;t need to depend on modern health care facilities for ourselves and for our livestock to treat small health issues like small wounds, abdominal pain, diarrhea, or the common cold, which can be easily treated using medicinal herbs found in these pastures. Our traditional knowledge helps us save money and time because hospitals and veterinary services are very far from our pastures. Otherwise, we would have to walk a whole day to reach a veterinary or hospital.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs these traditional practices were rooted in long observations, they are also proven to be effective for preserving ecosystems and promoting the sustainable use of biological resources (Gadgil et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Berkes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Reyes-Garc\u0026iacute;a et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe majority of respondents (60.2%) explained that they were aware about the conservation practices. Such practices adopted by pastoral communities helped to avoid destructive harvesting, supporting the survival of species with increased harvesting pressure (Msuya \u0026amp; Kideghesho, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Such practices are often reinforced by customary laws or religious beliefs, which contribute to minimizing overharvesting or overexploitation (Niamir, 1990). For example, herders in FGDs (FGD_Guthichaur_2) highlighted the importance of selective harvesting:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe collect medicinal plants such as ninejadi (\u003cem\u003eIris decora\u003c/em\u003e), biojadi (\u003cem\u003eTanacetum dolichophyllum\u003c/em\u003e) in limited amounts, and we leave their rhizomes in the soil for the next season because they are important for treating ourselves and our livestock. For us, these plants are like our doctors and nurses; they treat us and our livestock in many cases.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerders possess not only extensive knowledge of plants but also actively track changes in plant species diversity, abundance, and ecosystem health through direct interactions with the environment. They assess pastoral quality by observing the composition of dominant grass species; declines in palatable grasses and increases in non-palatable grasses that signal rangeland degradation. In our surveys, 85% of herders believed that rangeland\u0026rsquo;s health has deteriorated compared to the last decade. A herder (FGD_Patarasi_6) expressed his observation:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Pasture is not the same as it used to be; there is much less palatable grass now.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, another herder (H_G_44_male) mentioned:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Fulbaadi (lands with diverse varieties of flowers and grass) is no longer Fulbaadi. Now it has become Hallebaadi (lands dominated by unpalatable \u003cem\u003eRumex\u003c/em\u003e species). We can rarely see buki (a palatable native grass species) in our pastureland nowadays.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe also observed an increasing spread of non-palatable species such as \u003cem\u003eRumex nepalensis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePolygonum molle\u003c/em\u003e, leading to the shrinking of grazing areas, and verifying this observation, 18.4% of herders also explained the increased abundance of these species. This increasing bush abundance in pastures reduces the availability of indigenous fodder and disrupts ecosystem functioning (Dogra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; O'Connor et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). As bush encroachment alters landscapes, indigenous communities face intensified competition for critical resources like water and grazing land (Archer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.2. Knowledge of transhumance routes and stops\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerders practiced a traditional transhumance system, which involves the seasonal movement of livestock between ecological regions. Most of the respondents (78.6%) still followed their traditional grazing calendar with established routes and stopping locations that have been used for generations. As the knowledge about the routes and landscapes was passed down from the generations, local herders had a detailed memory of their transhumance routes, including knowledge of geographic features (slopes, safe passageways), water sources, and grazing areas. As one herder (FGD_Guthichaur_5) recalled:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur ancestors decided the grazing locations and the stops and route based on their past experiences and knowledge. We have continued to follow these routes and stops at specific pastures because these sites also serve as venues for religious and cultural activities, as well as having good grass quality and water availability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 57 transhumance routes and 111 stops/locations were identified and mapped (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Migration to higher elevations generally began in the month of \u003cem\u003eBaishakh\u003c/em\u003e (April/May), during which they moved up to an average elevation of 3200 m as the pastures started greening. The peak season for transhumance occurred in the months of \u003cem\u003eAshadh\u003c/em\u003e (June/July) at an average elevation of 3800 m, \u003cem\u003eShrawan\u003c/em\u003e (July/August) at 3900 m, and \u003cem\u003eBhadra\u003c/em\u003e (August/September) at 3800 m, when the pastures were completely snow-free and reached their maximum productivity. As temperature gradually decreased, herders migrated to lower elevations, such as \u003cem\u003eAshoj\u003c/em\u003e (September/October) at 3500 m, \u003cem\u003eKartik\u003c/em\u003e (October/November) at 3300 m, and \u003cem\u003eMangsir\u003c/em\u003e (November/December) at 3100 m. For the remaining four months\u0026mdash;\u003cem\u003ePush\u003c/em\u003e (December/January), \u003cem\u003eMagh\u003c/em\u003e (January/February), \u003cem\u003eFalgun\u003c/em\u003e (February/March), and \u003cem\u003eChitra\u003c/em\u003e (March/April)\u0026mdash;transhumance typically halted as the high-altitude pastures were covered by snow or remained too cold and unproductive. In these months, livestock were kept in the villages or nearby stops/locations and fed on dried grass and agricultural residues (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerders also possessed detailed knowledge of when to move their herds, based on generations of observation of climate, pasture phenology, and the needs of their animals. These movements coincided with the seasons, as 49% of the respondents reported that climatic condition determines the duration of stay at specific grazing locations. Knowledge about transhumance routes and stops that encompass detailed spatial, temporal, ecological, and cultural understanding is vital for the resilience of pastoral systems (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). It helps prevent overgrazing, allows vegetation to recover, maintains productivity, reduces soil erosion, and contributes to biodiversity conservation (Mekonen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Srichandan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, it fulfills their manure needs when livestock graze near villages, farms, and forests. The seasonal movement of livestock also helps adapt with ecological changes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2.3. Knowledge about weather\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePastoral communities shared their knowledge about climate, which fundamentally shapes pastoral activities such as dictating the availability and quality of grass in the pasture, the availability of water, and the timing of livestock movements (Nkuba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The majority of the herders (71%) relied on traditional knowledge about weather patterns to decide when and where to move their herds. Climate knowledge of pastoral communities plays an important role in rural areas where livelihoods directly rely on the weather and climate conditions (Balehegn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), which helps them to detect environmental changes, create adaptation strategies, and practice sustainable management strategies (Parrotta \u0026amp; Agnoletti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Explaining the importance of climatic knowledge, one herder (H_G_70_male) said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClimate is like a clock to us\u0026mdash;it determines our start and end of livestock migration. If the weather starts to get warmer early, we must move towards higher altitudes as our livestock cannot handle the heat at lower elevations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs traditional knowledge of pastoral communities was transferred from previous generations, this knowledge helps them detect both short- and long-term climatic changes and assists them to adapt to changing climate (Carver, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; G\u0026oacute;mez-Baggethun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Shikuku, 2017). One herder (H_P_35_male) explained:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSometimes, rainfall continues for more than a week, which is not good for herding. When the sky burns (the sky turns red as it is cleaner and dryer), it makes us happy as it indicates the end of the rain. As we have no other source of information, we must fully depend on our knowledge to anticipate upcoming climate conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the knowledge about local climate also enables them to adjust their livelihood, like changing crop cycle and diversifying their livelihood options (G\u0026oacute;mez-Baggethun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) and make them resilient (Carver, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). This was also supported by the herder\u0026rsquo;s perceptions that 49% of the respondents mentioned the role of climate in determining the duration of stay in migratory routes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite knowing the short-term and long-term changes in weather pattern, herders still depended on a traditional grazing calendar, as they did not have an alternative feeding area and feeding source other than the natural grass of the rangeland. Explaining this, one herder (KII_G_36_male) said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDue to a decrease in rainfall and an uncertain snowfall pattern, the greening starts late in the pasture nowadays compared to before. But we must start our migration as per our traditional migration calendar, as there is no feed source and space for livestock to stay in the village.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Practice\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.1. Rotational grazing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRotational grazing involves dividing pastures into smaller paddocks and systematically moving livestock from one paddock to another, allowing previously grazed areas to rest and recover before being grazed again. In the study area, herders practiced rotational grazing through planning, division of paddocks, and scheduled livestock movement. Before the start of the grazing season, herders from different villages convened meetings to decide and allocate paddocks and pastures among households for the entire season. Typically, 4\u0026ndash;5 households jointly selected one pasture to graze their animals, as one herder (H_G_68_male) explained:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;At the beginning of the grazing season, we (all the herders) unite and choose our routes and pastures for grazing, most of which have been pre-decided for generations. This minimizes the risk of conflict and ensures sufficient fodder for livestock.\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerders scheduled livestock movement between paddocks based on different factors like availability of forage, the availability of water sources, climatic conditions, and social factors like festivals and family events. About 71% of respondents considered changes in the temperature (warming) as the major factor responsible for this movement of livestock, followed by social factors (63%) like festivals and family events, availability of forage (48%), and availability of water (10%). The movement of herders is often based on the local knowledge and expertise of pastoral communities while aligning with the ecological principles of rangelands. As one herder (H_P_41_male) emphasized:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePastures also need rest, so we move our herd from one point to another. This is beneficial for (herders, livestock, and the pasture), as vegetation gets time to revive.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe annual cycle of rotational grazing allows plant species to regenerate during rest periods (Niamir-Fuller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Berkes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). It also aids in restoring productivity in degraded rangelands (Briske et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). This alignment helps to increase plant diversity, greater abundance of perennial species, reduce grazing pressure (McDonald et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and improve the resilience of rangelands (Fern\u0026aacute;ndez-Gim\u0026eacute;nez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). It plays a crucial role in soil health management by enhancing soil carbon sequestration, improving soil organic carbon content, and preserving soil structure and fertility (Byrnes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Allocating paddocks not only prevented overgrazing and adjusted stocking rates but also helped resolve conflicts among herders, as another herder (H_P_26_male) noted:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur elders resolve conflicts that arise in the pasture with their knowledge and experience; their decisions are usually correct.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe customary practices like rotational grazing ensure equitable access to resources, which reduces conflicts (Boelens et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and help foster a sense of identity and belonging among community members (Fern\u0026aacute;ndez-Gim\u0026eacute;nez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), enhancing social harmony and cohesion (Reid et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.2. Herd diversification\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferent livestock species (e.g., cattle, sheep, and goats) have distinct dietary preferences. When grazed together, these animals utilize a broader range of vegetation, preventing the dominance of any single plant type and promoting a more balanced plant community (Soder et al., 2007). About 33% of the respondents have a mixed herd of small ruminants like sheep and goats, while 3.9% have a mixed herd of yaks and cows. This diversification helped them to ensure the long-term sustainability and adaptability of livestock systems by reducing risks from disease and environmental shocks, while also providing diversified income sources. As one herder (H_P_50_male) mentioned:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe generally have a mix of sheep and goats as it has a lot of benefits like breed improvement and reduced cost as a type of feed source, medicine, and types of disease are quite similar in both of them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaintaining herd diversity enabled herders to meet diverse needs by producing a wider range of animal products (meat, milk, fiber), thereby supporting food security, livelihoods, and income (Megersa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014a\u003c/span\u003e). Another herder (H_G_35_male) recalled:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Jhopas/ Jhomas (cross of cow and yak) are more beneficial for us because they can be used for multiple purposes like plowing, producing manure and milk, and they can also survive in a harsh environment, so we don\u0026rsquo;t need to worry much about fodder\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, despite its economic benefits, herders were generally unaware that maintaining diversity in livestock species could also help balance plant diversity. The traditional practice of herd diversification contributed to maintaining rangeland health and enhancing ecosystem resilience. For example, mixed species grazing allows more efficient use of available forage, often increasing the total carrying capacity of land and enhancing pasture productivity (Doti, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Megersa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014b\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBut in recent years, changes in market value, like increasing demand for small ruminants like sheep and goats, have impacted on the dynamics of traditional mixed livestock rearing practice (Udo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Most of the herders have goats and sheep and stopped rearing buffalo and cows recently. This change in grazing animal types impacts the biodiversity and species richness of the rangeland (Benthien et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and increases pressure on some plant species while promoting the growth of some species. One herder (KII_P_55_male) said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe market value of goats and sheep has increased as meat demand has increased in recent years. So, most of us (herders) have now started to rear goats and sheep and stopped rearing cows and buffalo.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Institution\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.1. Customary governance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCustomary practices were used for the governance of common pool resources like rangelands in the study area. This governance system was adopted mainly to make decisions for resource use and access rights such as medicinal and aromatic plants, grazing land, and for conflict resolution. These rules were generally unwritten and were based on the indigenous cultures and societal norms (Harly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), which were shaped by the generational knowledge, adaptation, practice, and learning of the communities, which allowed communities to thrive and remain united (\u0026Oslash;rebech, 2005). Explaining this governance system, one herder (H_P_50_male) said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe do not have written rules and formal rights for the rangeland resources like grazing area or grazing route, but we follow our own traditional rules and norms for the utilization and management of these resources, which are accepted and respected by everyone.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe customary norms and the governing system adopted by pastoral communities contributed to maintaining ecological balance and enhancing community resilience against environmental and social stressors by granting rights, managing resources, and restricting access (Yin, 2022). One herder (H_P_54_male) said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe have community-based rules for harvesting medicinal plants for local herders and for regulating the use of pastureland for outsiders. These rules were made through collective decision making within our community, so everyone is expected to obey them. These rule systems help us to ensure that few herders use the pasture at the same time, which improves grass availability for everyone.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuch customary institutions facilitate harmonious human-nature interactions, support ecological resilience and promote biodiversity conservation (Berkes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). They contribute to sustainable natural resource management and help prevent rangeland degradation (Sinthumule, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, such systems lead to increased plant species diversity, reduced grazing pressure (McDonald et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and improved overall resilience of rangeland ecosystems (Fern\u0026aacute;ndez-Gim\u0026eacute;nez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) and the society (Reid et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor example, this year, Krishna Budha (name changed), a herder from Mahari village of Patarasi, and his group of six herds used the \u003cem\u003eHale-Chokse\u003c/em\u003e route, while another group from the same village followed the \u003cem\u003eNadai-Lere\u003c/em\u003e Dhara route. In the next grazing season, the groups would switch routes. This traditional practice not only balanced grazing pressure but also promoted equal and sustainable access to common pool resources like rangelands.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis customary governance system also restricted the movement of some communities or ethnic groups, which reduced the pressure on the ecosystem. About 6% of the respondents mentioned that local government policies supported such community-level decision making for the rangeland ecosystem management. One herder (H_P_40_male) said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe have rules like taxation for outsiders who collect high-value medicinal plants or graze their animals here; they have to pay 100 Nepalese rupees per animal for the grazing season.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite having many benefits of the customary rules, recent changes in land tenure and policy reform have impacted the traditional resource management systems. These reforms of land tenure right disrupt customary norms and governance structures, causing unclear ownership and resource management rights and responsibilities, leading to the degradation of rangeland (Dong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Kreutzmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). In the study area, rangeland management was traditionally handled by customary norms and community-based policies and practices. However, due to recent reforms in forest policies, rangeland has been brought under the jurisdiction of the local division forest office. This shift was causing conflict among the community members and their transhumance practices, mainly in the dry season when fodder availability was less. Explaining the same kind of situation, one of the young herders (H_G_25_male) expressed his frustration:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhy should we pay a penalty for using our own resources? These are our resources, which we have relied on for generations. These new rules seem to be made just to collect money.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.2. Sacred landscape\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCustomary governance practices such as declaring sacred sites in forests and water bodies like rivers and lakes play a central role in the sustainable management of natural resources (Bhagwat \u0026amp; Rutte, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Sinthumule, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Declaring sacred sites and prohibiting harmful activities within them is recognized as one of the oldest forms of habitat protection (Dudley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Tatay \u0026amp; Merino, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Explaining the importance of sacred sites, one of the female respondents (FGD_P_38_female) noted during FGD:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese sacred sites are home to the maximum number of wild animals such as birds, animals like bears, jackals, and ghorals, and many types of wildflowers. These species are rarely seen outside these religious places because of illegal hunting. But in sacred places, hunting is strictly prohibited, which helps conserve wildlife.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother herder (H_G_55_male), highlighted the ecological value of sacred sites, said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eThankur Jiu and Bista Jiu\u003c/em\u003e\u0026mdash;two popular pilgrimage sites of western Nepal, residing in rangelands\u0026mdash;are home to hundreds of birds and animals. Dozens of small lakes are situated near these sites, preserving a variety of fish and water birds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies have also shown that sacred sites have greater species diversity than non-sacred sites (Hegde et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These sacred sites are not only important for biodiversity conservation but also reflect the deep spiritual and cultural connections that indigenous communities have with nature and contribute to their spiritual well-being (Wild \u0026amp; McLeod, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR92\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Tatay \u0026amp; Merino, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These landscapes help preserve the cultural identity of indigenous pastoral communities. The celebration of \u003cem\u003eJatra and Mela\u003c/em\u003e in sacred locations of rangelands serves as a means to transfer their cultural and religious value to younger generation. Explaining the importance of sacred sites in intergenerational knowledge transfer, one female herder (H_G_51_female) said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eJatra\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eMela\u003c/em\u003e (forms of worship) in sacred places are the visual act of thanking our GOD, and nature. They also help us to teach our children about our culture, religion, and identity. These events bring our community together and strengthen social harmony.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese sites are generally considered as holy places that hold great religious importance, as they provide a physical location to perform rituals or any other forms of worship (Canter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; McFarland, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). These sites are also considered as reservoirs of ancestral wisdom, which helps transfer intergenerational cultural knowledge and traditions (Ezenweke \u0026amp; Nwachukwu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In addition to their cultural and spiritual value, sacred sites also contribute to the local economy by supporting indigenous communities through cultural and local tourism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the study area, these sacred sites attract visitors and pilgrims, contributing to the local economy. However, increased tourism has also had negative impacts on the rangeland ecosystem, due to the construction of infrastructure like roads and pollution. Explaining the same thing, one of the young herders (H_P_18_male) said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeasonal tourism has benefited us because people come, and we earn money. But at the same time, the sound of vehicles and pollution like plastic wrappers and bottles have affected the health of our livestock.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5. Worldview and belief system\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5.1. Rituals/ Taboos/Myths\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaboos, myths, and beliefs are powerful elements of traditional knowledge systems that play a significant role in enhancing the human-nature connection, fostering social unity, and promoting environmental sustainability, and resource conservation (Abbas \u0026amp; Shamim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Tumbali, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). These cultural practices reflect the deep-rooted connections between pastoral communities and their surrounding landscapes. In the study area, the existence of belief systems that connected local herders with nature was still practiced. One female herder (FGD_Guthichaur_6) described a ritual that takes place at the start of the grazing journey:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe hold a \u003cem\u003epuja\u003c/em\u003e (ceremony) of \u003cem\u003eBandevi\u003c/em\u003e (Goddess of the forest) after reaching the first stop of our grazing route to ask for blessings for our livestock and ourselves.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuch rituals were commonly performed either before the start of the transhumance migration at villages or after the arrival at grazing sites. These practices not only preserve their identity as a pastoralist community but also help maintain their cultural continuity and social harmony while affirming their relationships with the land and nature (Johnson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Berkes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Sinthumule, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Chao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). One herder (KII_H_G_52_female) said:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;Rituals are something that helps us to preserve our culture, our identity, even our food habits. They not only explain our traditions but also connect us together and strengthen our social cohesion\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRituals also serve as opportunities for knowledge transfer, especially across generations, by embedding values, practices, and ecological understanding in the cultural expression of gratitude and unity (Namgay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Oteros-Rozas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). It fosters social cohesion among community members and helps to maintain resilience as they unite (Abbas \u0026amp; Shamim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Tumbali, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). One respondent (KII_H_P_) noted that:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerforming \u003cem\u003ePuja\u003c/em\u003e provides us opportunity to gather and thank our mother, \u0026lsquo;Nature\u0026rsquo;, for all the services. This is also a way to teach our son about our land, and culture.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, most of the respondents (63%) in the study area also explained the value of social and cultural events such as festivals and family gatherings as a key determinant in the timing of transhumance movements. Explaining its importance in the transhumance practice, one of the herders (H_P_54_male) said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eBaisakh Purnima\u003c/em\u003e (Full moon fall in May/June) is the indicator for the beginning of the upward migration season, as the pasture greening usually starts around that time. \u003cem\u003eBhadra Purnima\u003c/em\u003e (Full moon fall in August/September) is the indicator for the starting of the downward migration season, as the festivals start from that day.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis statement was also supported by the results of the pasture mapping exercise (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Taboos and myths practiced by indigenous communities also helped in biodiversity conservation by restricting the movement, reducing human pressure, and guiding seasonal movement within ecosystems (Bhagwat \u0026amp; Rutte, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Sinthumule, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Gbadegesin \u0026amp; Gbadamosi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). such belief systems were evident in the study area, in various forms, including gender-based restrictions. More than half of the respondents (51%) explained the restriction of women from entering pastures during menstruation. Explaining about the restriction of women in the pasture, one male herder (H_P_35_male) said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWomen in their period are not allowed to feed or touch animals; this will anger our GOD, and livestock will become ill.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile such beliefs may contribute to limiting human activity in sensitive ecological areas, restrictions based on gender, age, ethnicity, or social status in the name of taboos can also pose ethical and practical challenges for inclusive conservation (Johannes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Cegan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, incorporating worldviews such as taboos, myths, and rituals in biodiversity conservation should be done through a participatory and inclusive approach. This will promote environmental stewardship, strengthen community action, and support equitable and sustainable natural resource management (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6. Drivers of TEK erosion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTraditional ecological knowledge of pastoral communities is increasingly under threat, undergoing either transition or facing erosion due to multiple drivers such as climate change, globalization, and modernization (Reyes-Garcia et al., 2005; Sharifian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Respondents mentioned other additional underlying causes, including the declining interest of younger generations in pastoralism, sociocultural transition within pastoral communities, and weakened intergenerational knowledge transmission (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). A significant proportion of respondents (66%) mentioned the scarcity of traditional resources as the major challenge to traditional resource use practices. They further explained the reason for this scarcity to the underlying drivers, such as overharvesting and climate change. Explaining this scenario, one herder (Yarsa_P_55_male) highlighted the drastic decline in the availability of highly valuable species only found in rangeland:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere is a huge decrease in the availability of Yarsagunbu (\u003cem\u003eOphiocordyceps sinensis\u003c/em\u003e). Five years ago, I used to find about 1,500 Yarsagunbu in aweek, but now barely 100 Yarsagunbu in the entire season. This is mainly due to the lack of snowfall and haphazard harvesting. This has significantly impacted our livelihood, and now we have no option left except to migrate to India or other Gulf countries as wage laborers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change impacts traditional ecological practices of indigenous communities, mainly by altering the productivity and diversity of rangeland (Polley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Godde et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This has resulted in the scarcity of traditional resources, which, in turn, impacts traditional resource utilization practices and cultural norms, disrupting intergenerational knowledge transfer (Ahmad \u0026amp; Ariana, 2018). Climate-induced changes also impact the reliability of intergenerational knowledge and practices, such as predicting weather and rotational grazing-core aspects of pastoral knowledge, making them less reliable and effective to transmit to younger generations (Doblas-Reyes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Salite, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). One elderly herder (KII_H_70_male) expressed this concern:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePredicting the weather is a tough task nowadays. We (old herders) are unable to predict even with years of experience\u0026mdash;how can we teach this (knowledge about weather prediction) to our younger generation?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese gaps in knowledge transmission threaten the resilience of pastoral communities and force them to overexploit available resources (Niamir-Fuller, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e), migrate, and shift to alternative livelihoods (Muhammad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This not only leads to the loss of skilled manpower but also disturbs the traditional community-based resource management system (Berkes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). In fact, nearly one in five respondents (19%) mentioned that the erosion of TEK was a key challenge they were facing now.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNearly half (44%) of the respondents mentioned the disconnection of the younger generation from traditional pastoralism practice and explained this disconnection with urbanization and the influence of modern education systems. Herders further explained the effect of urbanization or modernization with the replacement of traditional medicines with modern ones, such as veterinary medicines. This was highlighted by 61% of the herders as a challenge to the traditional ecological resource use pattern (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Explaining this, one of the oldest herders (KII_H_70_male) said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEverything has changed now; how we (pastoralists) used to treat our livestock before using all plant-based products. But now we must visit the veterinarian as there are so many new diseases observed every year.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdoption of these new resources or technologies changes the traditional resource use techniques and practices (Radeny et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and contributes to the erosion of TEK (Sharifian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These also act as a hurdle in the intergenerational transfer of knowledge (Oteros-Rozas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Sharifian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe impact of modernization was also observed in the changing perspective of pastoral communities. About 5% of the respondents also mentioned that changing cultural attitudes towards traditional practices is the reason for TEK erosion. They further mentioned that changes in climate, environment, and society also changed the cultural attitude toward traditional practices. One herder said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot only weather has changed, disease has changed, pasture has changed, soil has changed, and people have changed; everything has changed. This change not only makes of difficult to rear livestock but also leaves us in a dilemma; whether to do this (pastoralism) or not?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese changes and dilemmas increase youth outmigration and force pastoralist communities to adopt practices that may not align with their cultural values and identity (Rawat et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Sharifian et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Explaining the same situation, one herder (H_P_60_male) said:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVery few young people are involved in herding, and they are here until they get better opportunities. Once they get more money, they will run from here. We are not sure whether herding and pastoralism will remain the same for the next generation or not.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe impacts of these drivers are increasing the vulnerability of traditional pastoral communities and the knowledge of the system they have used for generations. For many pastoral communities, TEK is inseparable from their rituals, oral histories, cosmologies, and social structures. Increasing vulnerability will lead to cultural disintegration and a sense of community sovereignty and resilience. So, safeguarding traditional practices and knowledge is not only necessary for the environmental imperative but also for the human rights and social justice issues of the indigenous communities. TEK requires more than documentation\u0026mdash;it demands recognition, respect, and support for the rights of indigenous and local communities to maintain their traditional practices and territories. For this, validation of indigenous participatory and community-led conservation initiatives, legal protection of customary land rights, and inclusive governance frameworks are essential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eTraditional Ecological Knowledge of pastoral communities plays a vital role in addressing the current challenges of sustainable rangeland management. TEK of pastoral communities consists of practices such as rotational grazing and diversifying livestock, which are based on local knowledge about resources and the environment, promoting effective land and resource management. These practices are typically interconnected through networks of local communities shaped by culture and values. This study also acknowledges the significance of traditional ecological knowledge of pastoral communities in various aspects of sustainable rangeland management practices and highlights climate change and globalization as the two main drivers causing the erosion of this knowledge system. The underlying impacts of climate change, including unpredictable weather patterns, shifting ecological conditions, and increased frequency of extreme events, have disrupted the ecological baselines that TEK relies on. At the same time, globalization\u0026mdash;through cultural homogenization, market integration, and modernization\u0026mdash;has resulted in a decline in the intergenerational transmission of knowledge, outmigration of youth, and devaluation of traditional lifestyles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study contribute to the growing body of evidence supporting the integration of TEK into contemporary natural resource management and policy frameworks. It also emphasizes the necessity of TEK for securing the future resilience of indigenous communities. By documenting local knowledge systems and understanding how they are impacted, this research provides insights into more inclusive, culturally grounded, and ecologically sustainable policy interventions for sustainable rangeland management in the Himalayas. It highlights the importance for policymakers to recognize TEK not just as a knowledge system, but as an expression of cultural identity, governance, and resilience.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHuman Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003enot applicable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003enot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003ePUR-KTM-24-0061\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no conflicts of interest associated with this research to declare.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbbas, K., \u0026amp; Shamim, Q. (2023). 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IUCN.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"human-ecology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"huec","sideBox":"Learn more about [Human Ecology](http://link.springer.com/journal/10745)","snPcode":"10745","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10745/3","title":"Human Ecology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"pastoralism, rangelands, socio-ecological resilience, traditional ecological knowledge","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6816057/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6816057/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eTraditional ecological knowledge (TEK) of pastoralist communities plays a vital role in the sustainable management of rangelands. This study documents the knowledge systems, practices, and governance mechanisms of high-altitude pastoral communities in Nepal and examines how these attributes contribute to rangeland management, biodiversity conservation, livelihood sustainability, and climate change adaptation. Data were gathered through focus group discussions (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12), key informant interviews (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;103), participatory mapping (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12), and direct observations in two rural municipalities of Jumla, District, Nepal. Descriptive analysis was conducted for quantitative data, while thematic analysis was performed for qualitative data. Pastoral communities possess extensive knowledge of medicinal plant species and use them to treat livestock diseases. Herders practice a traditional transhumance system, guided by a customary grazing calendar that includes established 57 routes and 111 stopping locations for certain periods used for generations. They also adopt rotational grazing by dividing pastures into smaller paddocks and systematically moving livestock from one paddock to another, while also diversifying their herd composition. Customary rules, the designation of sacred places, and adherence to certain rituals help conserve ecosystems and foster their connection with nature. Despite the importance of traditional ecological knowledge, the pastoral knowledge system is being weakened by climate change, modernization, and changing perceptions among younger generations, leading to reduced rangeland productivity and decreased reliability of traditional practices. Documenting and preserving TEK not only supports pastoral communities in adapting to environmental and socio-economic changes but also provides valuable insights for policymakers and researchers.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Contribution of Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Pastoral Communities in Sustainable Rangeland Management in Nepal","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-19 17:23:16","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6816057/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-10-03T19:21:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-03T13:36:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"136293301392316217470720704269461732383","date":"2025-08-24T09:01:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-19T14:07:56+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"310769524485013912657827423655275332142","date":"2025-06-22T10:42:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-17T13:42:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-16T04:32:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-06-16T04:30:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Human Ecology","date":"2025-06-04T04:03:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"human-ecology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"huec","sideBox":"Learn more about [Human Ecology](http://link.springer.com/journal/10745)","snPcode":"10745","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10745/3","title":"Human Ecology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3c54a91a-b277-466f-acb2-12ea047838e7","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 19th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-18T11:53:08+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-19 17:23:16","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6816057","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6816057","identity":"rs-6816057","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}