Effect of Process Parameters on the Geometry of Single-Track Deposits of Inconel 718 onto AISI4140 Using Laser Cladding

Effect of Process Parameters on the Geometry of Single-Track Deposits of Inconel 718 onto AISI4140 Using Laser Cladding | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Effect of Process Parameters on the Geometry of Single-Track Deposits of Inconel 718 onto AISI4140 Using Laser Cladding seyedali momeni, Reginaldo Teixeira Coelho, Johan Grass Nuñez, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4086979/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 19 Sep, 2024 Read the published version in The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology → Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract AISI 4140 alloy steel finds extensive applications in industrial settings such as gears and blades owing to its exceptional combination of high strength and ductility. However, prolonged exposure to harsh operating conditions can result in significant mechanical failures, necessitating essential repair techniques to restore functionality and preserve the substantial value of these components. Among the various repair methods, directed energy deposition, an additive manufacturing technique, is gaining prominence for its efficacy in producing and restoring mechanically stressed components. Compared to traditional welding methods and metal spraying, laser cladding offers advantages such as reduced heat input and minimal dilution, resulting in superior metallurgical bonds. This research focuses on depositing Inconel 718 on AISI 4140 substrate using the laser cladding technique to evaluate the feasibility of this alloy for repairing AISI 4140 components. The investigation explores the influence of key laser cladding parameters, including laser power, scanning speed, and mass flow rate, on critical attributes of deposited beads such as width, height, clad angle, and dilution ratio. The results elucidate the effects of varying parameters: increasing scanning speed reduces bead dimensions and clad angle while increasing dilution. Elevating the powder-feeding rate increases bead height and wetting angle, with minimal impact on width and decreased dilution. Augmenting laser power increases bead width and reduces wetting angle, with dilution showing minimal change. Based on the findings, the optimal process parameters for future investigations are identified as a laser power of 950W, a laser scan speed of 300mm/min, and a mass flow rate of 4.31 g/min. Furthermore, the research demonstrates commendable metallurgical bonding at the interface between the two dissimilar materials, affirming the feasibility of integrating them through laser cladding. Direct Energy Deposition Laser cladding Inconel718 AISI4140 Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 1 Introduction In recent decades, Additive Manufacturing (AM) has undergone rapid development, demonstrating superior characteristics such as near-net shape capability and the capacity to manufacture small, intricately structured parts. This sets it apart from traditional manufacturing technologies. [ 1 – 3 ].On the other hand, laser-directed energy deposition (LDED) stands out as one of the most efficient processes among metal AM techniques. In LDED, metal powders/wire are fed into a melt pool generated by a laser beam. This technique, known for its ability to print a wide range of materials at a low cost with high production rates, has found applications in repair and coating[ 4 – 7 ], rapid prototyping, manufacturing[ 8 , 9 ] moderately large and complex geometries[ 10 , 11 ], in-situ alloying, and the creation of multi-material functionally graded structures[ 12 – 19 ]. Laser cladding, also recognized as directed energy deposition, is currently a focal point of global research due to its advanced capabilities in manufacturing and repairing metal parts[ 20 ]. This technology is extensively utilized in diverse industries such as aeronautics[ 21 , 22 ], astronautics, shipping [ 23 ], automotive, petrochemical, power plants [ 24 ], oil and gas, and mining sectors[ 25 ]. Its application serves to safeguard components from damage in harsh working environments by applying protective coatings[ 26 ]. A prevalent and effective method for improving the performance of components involves the use of coating hard-surfacing alloys on their surfaces, significantly extending their service life [ 12 , 27 , 28 ]. In contrast to both conventional and advanced methods that are faced with drawbacks such as low mechanical bonding, weak adhesion strength, high operational costs, negative environmental impact, and prolonged process time[ 28 – 31 ], laser cladding stands out for its precision and speed, producing an exceptionally dense, crack-free, and non-porous structure[ 32 ] with a superior metallurgical bond to the base material[ 33 ]. It also offers smaller heat-affected zones, low dilution[ 34 ], and low heat input to the component, addressing many limitations and challenges present in existing metal manufacturing technologies[ 27 , 31 ]. On the other hand, one of the other crucial aspect of laser cladding's application is in the restoration and refurbishment of industrial components, a field that is rapidly expanding globally[ 10 , 35 , 36 ]. When a part is damaged, an evaluation must be made from a repair perspective to determine whether the damaged part can be repaired, discarded, or sent for recycling. It is noteworthy that the remanufacturing process is more cost-effective than manufacturing; for instance, remanufacturing an engine requires only 55% of the energy and 67% of the labor needed for the production of a new engine [ 37 ]. As a result, it is essential to view repair and remanufacturing processes as exceptionally effective approaches that preserve and repurpose resources, ultimately playing a role in fostering the economic progress [ 4 ]. A significant proportion of industrial components, such as blades and gears, are constructed from AISI 4140 alloy[ 38 ]. This choice is driven by the material's notable combination of high strength and ductility, particularly advantageous when these components are subjected to harsh working conditions such as high temperature, dynamic contact, vibration and abrasion [ 39 , 40 ]. Moreover, it is imperative to employ repair techniques to ensure the sustained functionality and added value of these components [ 12 , 29 , 41 ]. For the repairing of high performance component, such as gears, blades, the mechanical properties of as-fabricated part with AISI 4140 powder cannot reach the industrial requirement due to its relatively lower tensile and hardness property[ 29 ]. Therefore, as a prospective candidate material for surface coating and repair applications of AISI 4140 can be addressed to deposit of Inconel 718 by laser cladding to investigate the compatibility between two dissimilar materials with a focus on obtaining optimum process parameters to cladding Inconel 718 on AISI4140 [ 29 , 41 ]. Inconel 718 is widely used in the aerospace, automotive and energy industries such as manufacturing of aero-engine turbine blades, turbine disks, and engine combustion chambers due to their good high temperature strength, fatigue performance creep, and rupture strength, oxidation resistance, and thermal corrosion resistance up to 700 ◦C [ 1 , 4 , 19 , 20 , 42 – 44 ]. Inconel 718, strengthened by the ordered D022 body-centered tetragonal phase of γ″ (Ni3Nb) and ordered L12 intermetallic phase of γ′ (Ni3(Al, Ti))[ 45 , 46 ].It has high strength and hardness because of solid-solution hardening, carbide strengthening, and precipitation hardening, as well as good corrosion resistance due to the addition of chromium[ 47 ]. Researchers have examined the laser-directed energy deposition of Inconel 718 in combination with other materials, exploring its microstructure and mechanical properties in detail. However, limited research has been conducted on the laser cladding of IN718 powders onto AISI 4140 alloy steel substrates in the existing literature. For instance, Onuike et al .[ 19 ] developed a novel approach to processing a bimetallic structure of Inconel 718 and Ti64 using LENS™. Several build strategies such as direct deposition of Inconel 718 on Ti64, compositional gradation of the two alloys and use of NiCr as an intermediate bond layer were attempted. Onuike et al. [ 14 ] to understand processing ability and measure resultant interfacial and thermal properties of Inconel 718 and copper alloy GRCop-84 employed laser engineering net shaping (LENS™) to fabricate of bimetallic structures. Two approaches were used the direct deposition of GRCop-84 on Inconel 718 and the compositional gradation of the two alloys. Alizadeh et al.[ 46 ] presented an empirical-statistical approach to predict solidification cracking during laser cladding of Inconel 718 powder on A-286 Fe-based super-alloy. Khorram et al. [ 28 ] utilized response surface methodology (RSM) by laser cladding of Inconel 718 super-alloy with 75Cr3C2 + 25(80Ni20Cr) powder to investigate the effects of process parameters on the geometry of the deposition. Paul et al.[ 27 ]used a pulsed Nd:YAG laser to deposit multi-layer overlapped cladding on low carbon steel substrate using dynamic powder blowing technique. Gonzalez et al. [ 48 ] has utilized fiber laser cladding of nickel-based on cast Iron. Liu et al.[ 29 ] Conducted an experimental analysis for exploring the feasibility of super-alloys used in the AISI 4140 steel repairing with LENS technique .Kim et al.[ 41 ], has been employed IN718 powder to deposit on AISI 4140 substrates using LENS to investigate the compatibility between two dissimilar materials with a focus on interface bonding and tensile fracture behavior of the hybrid specimens. Eventually, due to the widespread utilization of AISI 4140 in industrial components and the paramount importance of repairing this material, obtaining optimal process parameters for depositing Inconel 718 onto AISI 4140 becomes imperative. The laser cladding is constrained by the spot diameter, necessitating the creation of extensive cladding layers through the amalgamation of numerous single-track cladding layers. Consequently, the morphology of each individual single-track cladding layer plays a pivotal role in determining the ultimate quality of the formed structure[ 49 ]. Inhence, The morphology of the single-track cladding layer is directly influenced by the process parameters[ 50 ]. To elucidate the intricate nonlinear mapping relationship between morphology and process parameters, numerous scholars have established this connection using conventional techniques such as variance analysis, data fitting, and regression analysis. [ 28 , 51 – 55 ]. Although extensive research has delved into laser cladding of Inconel 718, significant hurdles persist in the application to nickel-based super-alloys due to uneven metal distribution. Moreover, limited studies have addressed the deposition of Inconel 718 onto AISI 4140, particularly focusing on evaluating the mechanical properties of this bimetallic structure. Hence, this study aims to assess the impact of process parameters on single-track geometry to determine optimal conditions for defect-free production of dissimilar structures, such as crack or porosity. To achieve this objective, a full factorial design, utilized as a method within the framework of design of experiments, was employed. 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Material The materials employed in this study comprise Inconel718 powder for deposition and AISI 4140 as the substrate. The Inconel718 powder, produced via the gas atomization method by Hoganas Powders Inc., is depicted in (Fig. 1 a) and 1b)). Through SEM micrograph, showing a spherical shape with some satellites attached to certain particles. The particle size distribution ranges from Ø 45 µm to 90 µm. Furthermore, element contents obtained by EDS are shown in Fig. 2 . The substrate dimensions are 10mm in thickness and 50mm in diameter. Prior to the deposition process, the Inconel718 powder undergoes drying at 100°C for one day in a furnace, ensuring thorough removal of any residual water vapor. 2.2 Laser cladding system In this study, laser cladding was performed using Romi D800 Hybrid machine. The heating source is a continuous fiber laser Nd:YAG with a maximum power of 1000 W, a wavelength of 1080 nm and a beam diameter of 2 mm. Powder particles were injected into the molten pool using a disc hopper feeder through an coaxial high rate nozzle by Argon gas(Fig. 3 ). Argon gas was applied as the shielding gas during deposition to prevent oxidation of the deposited material as well as to protect the optical system as a nozzle gas. The movement of the substrate was realized by a 2-axis worktable and nozzle moved in Z direction. According to the design of powder injection nozzle, the angle of powder injection with the laser beam is 30° 2.3 Experimental procedure In the laser cladding process, processing parameters including laser power ( P ), laser scan speed ( V ), and powder feed rate ( F ) are primary factors that significantly affect the properties of the deposition [ 12 ]. Hence, these parameters have been documented in Table 1 . To obtain these key parameters, the design of experiments (DOE) method has been employed using the full factorial technique (2 levels and 3 factors). Table 1 Summary of the key laser cladding process parameters levels Sample No. Input Variables Laser power(W) Laser scan(mm/min) Mass flow(g/min) Shielding gas flow(l/min) Nozzel gas flow(l/min) Carrier gas flow(l/min) Hatch spacing% 1 800 300 4.31 7 4 3 45% 2 800 500 3 950 300 4 950 500 5 800 300 6.31 6 800 500 7 950 300 8 950 500 2.4 Sample characterization To assess the geometric attributes, we examined the transverse cross-sections of individual track deposits. Initially, the deposited specimens underwent cutting, followed by grinding with SiC papers (400, 600, 800, 1200 grit), and subsequent polishing using a 1 µm alumina-DI water suspension. After polishing, the samples were subjected to etching using a Marble reagent solution (consisting of 50 mL HCl, 50 mL distilled water, and 10 g CuSO4) to unveil the microstructural details of the Inconel 718 coating. The geometric parameters of the single track, namely height ( H ), width ( W ), clad angle ( α ), and dilution ratio ( %D ), are depicted in Fig. 4 . These parameters were measured across all samples utilizing software integrated with an optical microscope (Olympus 4100). Dilution was computed based on predefined parameters using Eq. ( 1 ).[ 26 ]. $$D\left(\%\right)=\frac{b}{b+h}$$ 1 3 Results and discussion In the realm of additive manufacturing, meticulous control over the geometrical dimensions of deposited beads and their resulting microstructure is paramount. Figure 5 displays cross-sections of single clad corresponding to various process parameters detailed in Table 1 . The use of OLS4100 Ver.3.1.15 Software facilitated accurate measurements of geometric dimensions, revealing defect-free conditions with no cracks or porosity, especially at the interface bonding. A detailed exploration of the geometric characteristics of single-track deposits is undertaken, focusing on parameters such as bead height, bead width, dilution, and clad angle. In order to analyze the impact of key parameters ( P, V, F ) individually, all other variables were held at constant levels detailed in Table 1 . It should be noted that when comparing the results, reference should be made to Fig. 6 , where one variable changes while other variables remain consistently considered 3.1 Effect of process parameters on Clad height The influence of laser power on height, as deduced from the experimental results, does not exhibit a clear ascending or descending trend. Although Jelvani et al.[ 56 ] suggested that increasing in laser power could lead to greater height, the experimental results reveal a more intricate relationship. Figure 7 (a) illustrates the height measured after the experiment, while Fig. 7 b depicts the changes in height based on varying laser power under other constant parameters. As observed, an elevation in laser power led to a reduction in height with F = 4.31g/min & V = 300mm/min (comparison of samples 1 & 3). Conversely, this rise in laser power caused a height increase with F = 4.31 g/min & V = 500mm/min (comparison of samples 2 & 4).However, for the other two conditions, the impact of increasing laser power on height was negligible (sample 5&7-sample 6&8). Additionally, the height exhibited an uptick with consistent laser power, decreasing scan speed, and increasing mass flow. This phenomenon can be attributed to the extended interaction time and the higher volume of powder injected into the molten pool, resulting in an upsurge in bead height. As a result, the peak value recorded is 963µm, corresponding to specific parameters ( P = 950W (maximum laser power), V = 300mm/min(minimum scan speed), and F = 6.31g/min(maximum mas flow)). Figure 8 (a) and (b) demonstrate the variations in clad height in response to changes in scan speed and mass flow, respectively. The data shows a descending trend: as the scan speed increases, the clad height decreases. This trend is explained by the reduced interaction time due to the faster scan speed, resulting in less molten powder being deposited and thus a decrease in bead height. Conversely, increasing the powder-feeding rate leads to higher clad heights. This is because a greater amount of powder undergoes melting, resulting in an overall increase in the deposited material's height. 3.2 Effect of process parameters on Clad width The measured width values for various samples have been included in Fig. 9 a. As can be seen in Fig. 9 b expansion in width correlates with higher laser power. Increasing laser power leads to an increase in width. In contrast, a rising in scanning speed leads to diminishing in width (Fig. 10 a). The observed outcomes can be attributed to a combination of external and internal forces influencing the melt pool in laser-assisted processes. External forces, determined by factors like nozzle design and the pressure of the carrier and shielding gas, interact with internal forces, including buoyancy and Marangoni forces. In the Laser cladding process, the laser heat source causes the central melt pool to be warmer than the edges, leading to a surface tension gradient. This gradient prompts molten metal to flow from the center to the edges, expanding the melt pool width with increasing laser power. A decrease in scanning speed increases interaction time, elevating input energy and widening the melt pool due to the established surface tension gradient between the center and edges[ 56 ]. On the other hand, based on Fig. 10 b, it is clear that the powder-feeding rate has a negligible impact on width variation. When the laser power and scanning speed are held constant while adjusting the mass flow rate, the width of deposits shows minimal variation. This is evident in the overlapping of data points, indicating the minimal influence of the mass flow rate on width. The comparison of this study with previous research studies indicates that laser power and scanning speed are most effective on the width while the effect of powder-feeding rate is negligible [ 28 , 54 , 56 , 57 ]. In order to assess the uniformity of penetration, the ratio of (w 1 /w) was measured. The parameter w 1 has been shown in Fig. 11 (a) while Fig. 11 (b) presents measured values of (w 1 /w) covering sample 1to 8. For sample 3, that characterized by the parameters (P = 950W, V = 300mm/min, F = 4.31g/min), achieves the maximum ratio of w 1 /w, indicating these parameters provide the best uniformity of penetration compared to other process parameters. 3.3 Effect of laser process parameters on dilution ratio Dilution plays a pivotal role in the laser cladding process, significantly affecting the microstructure and resulting hardness of the clad zone. This significance arises from the substantial impact of the melted material on the underlying deposit during the process. Ensuring proper penetration of the upper deposit into the underlying layer and maintaining adequate dilution are crucial for establishing a metallurgical bond between deposits, ensuring their adhesion. It is crucial to achieve a balance between the dilution ratio and the dimensions of the deposited bead to ensure optimal conditions. The dilution measured values are presented in Fig. 12 a, while Fig. 12 b indicates that laser power has a minimal impact on dilution. Notably, certain empirical-statistical studies have reported similar findings, indicating that laser power was an ineffective parameter [ 54 , 56 , 57 ] . Laser scan speed and mass flow rate have a reverse impact on dilution, as shown in Fig. 13 , where an increase in scan speed and a decrease in mass flow result in greater dilution. A comparative analysis of experimental results reveals that higher laser power, higher powder-feeding rates, and lower scanning speeds lead to larger clad track dimensions with lower dilution. For instance, in sample7 with process parameters (P = 950W, V = 300mm/min, and F = 6.31g/min), the height, width, and dilution are 963µm, 1944µm, and 0.17, respectively. 3.4 Effect of laser process parameters on clad angle Figure 14 (a) illustrates the range of clad angle values, ranging from 47º to 87º. The analysis of the results reveals a direct relationship between θ and the associated parameters. As depicted in Fig. 14 (b) and Fig. 15(a), an increase in laser power and scan speed lead to corresponding to a reduction in θ . Conversely, Fig. 15 (b) highlights that higher in mass flow, result in an increasing in θ . . Figure 15a) Impact of scan speed on clad angle b) Impact of mass flow on clad angle 3.5 Discussion In this section, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of the experimental results to identify the most effective process parameters, which will be further employed in subsequent investigations. Concerning the height of the bead, sample 7 exhibited the maximum value at approximately 0.96mm, while sample 5 closely followed with a value of 0.93mm. In contrast, samples 1 and 3 yielded values of 0.7mm and 0.6mm, respectively, falling within the mid-range of values illustrated in Fig. 7 (a).For the width of the bead, the highest values were observed in sample 7 (1.94 mm) and sample 3 (1.91 mm). In terms of dilution, an optimal ratio of 10–30% has been suggested by several researchers [ 35 , 58 ]to ensure proper dilution between the initial layer and the substrate. Therefore, samples 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7 achieved suitable dilution ratios, as depicted in Fig. 12 (a).As depicted in Fig. 11 (b) the w 1 /w ratio was measured to assess the uniformity of deposition. The highest values were recorded for samples 3, 2, and 1, with corresponding of 0.84, 0.69, and 0.67, respectively. As a result, the parameters linked to sample 3 achieved the optimal uniformity. Comparing wetting angles, samples 2, 3, and 4 exhibited angles within the range of 47 º to 52 º , rendering them more suitable than other parameters. Consequently, the parameters associated with sample 3 (Laser power 950W, laser scan speed 300 mm/min, and mass flow 4.31 g/min) produced the optimal clad geometry with a single crack. These parameters are considered the optimal process condition for future investigations. Furthermore, an examination of interface bonding through the utilization of an optical microscope (the Olympus 4100), revealed a robust metallurgical bond devoid of any imperfections such as cracks or porosity at the interface between Inconel 718 and the AISI 4140 substrate. Figure 16 (b) and (d) illustrates the interface bonding for both Sample 1 and Sample 3, captured at a magnification of 50X using the Olympus 4100 laser microscope. 4 Conclusions In this study, Inconel 718 powder was deposited onto AISI 4140 steel as the substrate through coaxial laser cladding. Three key process parameters were examined to understand their impact on the geometric characteristics of single-track deposition. The optimization of these process parameters was carried out, and the selected settings will be employed for further investigations. The main results are summarized as follows: An increase in scanning speed resulted in a reduction in height, width, and wetting angle, accompanied by an increase in dilution. Elevating the powder-feeding rate led to an increase in height and wetting angle, while dilution decreased. However, the impact on width was negligible. Increasing laser power was observed to enhance width, but it led to a reduction in wetting angle, with minimal impact on dilution. Optimal process parameters for further investigation were identified as laser power 950W, laser scan speed 300 mm/min, and mass flow rate 4.31 g/min. This study demonstrates the feasibility of achieving pore and crack-free, minimally diluted, and well-bonded Inconel 718 through laser cladding using these process parameters. Declarations Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests. References DebRoy T et al Additive manufacturing of metallic components – Process, structure and properties. Prog Mater Sci, 92, pp. 112–224, 2018/03/01/ 2018, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2017.10.001 Bandyopadhyay A, Zhang Y, Onuike B (2022) Additive manufacturing of bimetallic structures. Virtual Phys Prototyp 17(2):256–294 Bandyopadhyay A, Zhang Y, Bose S (2020) Recent developments in metal additive manufacturing. Curr Opin Chem Eng 28:96–104 Saboori A, Aversa A, Marchese G, Biamino S, Lombardi M, Fino P (2019) Application of Directed Energy Deposition-Based Additive Manufacturing in Repair, Applied Sciences , vol. 9, no. 16, p. 3316, [Online]. Available: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/9/16/3316 Satoh T, Koike R, Kakinuma Y, Hirono Y, Mori T, Oda Y Optimization of process parameters for hardness in high speed coating by Directed Energy Deposition. Procedia CIRP, 111, pp. 214–217, 2022/01/01/ 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2022.08.051 Nie MH, Zhang S, Wang ZY, Zhang HF, Zhang CH, Chen HT Development of a novel method for measuring the interfacial bonding strength of laser cladding coatings. Opt Laser Technol, 148, p. 107699, 2022/04/01/ 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.107699 Svetlizky D et al (2022) Laser-based directed energy deposition (DED-LB) of advanced materials. Mater Sci Engineering: A 840:142967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2022.142967 . /04/18/ 2022, doi Guo N, Leu MC (2013) Additive manufacturing: technology, applications and research needs. Front Mech Eng 8:215–243 Gao W et al (2015) The status, challenges, and future of additive manufacturing in engineering. Comput Aided Des 69:65–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cad.2015.04.001 . 12/01/ 2015, doi Svetlizky D et al (2021) Directed energy deposition (DED) additive manufacturing: Physical characteristics, defects, challenges and applications. Mater Today 49:271–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2021.03.020 . 10/01/ 2021, doi Gradl PR, Protz CS, Cooper K, Ellis DL, Evans LJ, Garcia CP (2019) GRCop-42 Development and Hot-fire Testing Using Additive Manufacturing Powder Bed Fusion for Channel-cooled Combustion Chambers. AIAA Propuls Energy 2019 Forum Zhang X, Li W, Liou F Additive manufacturing of cobalt-based alloy on tool steel by directed energy deposition. Opt Laser Technol, 148, p. 107738, 2022/04/01/ 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.107738 Zhang X et al Additive manufacturing of copper – H13 tool steel bi-metallic structures via Ni-based multi-interlayer. Additive Manuf, 36, p. 101474, 2020/12/01/ 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101474 Onuike B, Heer B, Bandyopadhyay A Additive manufacturing of Inconel 718—Copper alloy bimetallic structure using laser engineered net shaping (LENS™), Additive Manufacturing , vol. 21, pp. 133–140, 2018/05/01/ 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.02.007 Yang SW, Yoon J, Lee H, Shim DS Defect of functionally graded material of inconel 718 and STS 316L fabricated by directed energy deposition and its effect on mechanical properties. J Mater Res Technol, 17, pp. 478–497, 2022/03/01/ 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.01.029 Mahamood RM, Akinlabi ET (2017) Introduction to Functionally Graded Materials, in Functionally Graded Materials , R. M. Mahamood and E. T. Akinlabi Eds. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–8 Li P, Gong Y, Xu Y, Qi Y, Sun Y, Zhang H Inconel-steel functionally bimetal materials by hybrid directed energy deposition and thermal milling: Microstructure and mechanical properties. Archives Civil Mech Eng, 19, 3, pp. 820–831, 2019/05/01/ 2019, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2019.03.002 Balkan ME, Aydoğan E, Işık M, Derin B, Koç B (2021) Directed energy deposition process development for functionally gradient Copper-Inconel 718 materials. J Additive Manuf Technol 1(3):581–581 Onuike B, Bandyopadhyay A Additive manufacturing of Inconel 718 – Ti6Al4V bimetallic structures. Additive Manuf, 22, pp. 844–851, 2018/08/01/ 2018, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.06.025 Zhu L et al Microstructure and mechanical properties of parts formed by ultrasonic vibration-assisted laser cladding of Inconel 718. Surf Coat Technol, 410, p. 126964, 2021/03/25/ 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2021.126964 Zhao H et al Research Progress of Laser Cladding on the Surface of Titanium and Its Alloys, Materials , vol. 16, no. 8, p. 3250, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/16/8/3250 Ge MZ, Tang Y, Zhang YK, Wang Y Enhancement in fatigue property of Ti-6Al-4V alloy remanufactured by combined laser cladding and laser shock peening processes. Surf Coat Technol, 444, p. 128671, 2022/08/25/ 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2022.128671 Wang C, Zhou J, Zhang T, Meng X, Li P, Huang S Numerical simulation and solidification characteristics for laser cladding of Inconel 718. Opt Laser Technol, 149, p. 107843, 2022/05/01/ 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.107843 Zhu L et al Recent research and development status of laser cladding: A review. Opt Laser Technol, 138, p. 106915, 2021/06/01/ 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.106915 Wang P-z, Yang Y-s, Ding G, Qu J-x, Shao H-s (1997) Laser cladding coating against erosion-corrosion wear and its application to mining machine parts, Wear , vol. 209, no. 1, pp. 96–100, 1997/08/01/ https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1648(97)00018-5 Toyserkani E, Khajepour A, Corbin SF (2004) Laser cladding. CRC Paul CP, Alemohammad H, Toyserkani E, Khajepour A, Corbin S (2007) Cladding of WC–12 Co on low carbon steel using a pulsed Nd:YAG laser. Mater Sci Engineering: A 464(1):170–176 2007/08/25/. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2007.01.132 Khorram A, Davoodi Jamaloei A, Paidar M, Cao X Laser cladding of Inconel 718 with 75Cr3C2 + 25(80Ni20Cr) powder: Statistical modeling and optimization. Surf Coat Technol, 378, p. 124933, 2019/11/25/ 2019, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2019.124933 Liu Z et al Feasibility Exploration of Superalloys for AISI 4140 Steel Repairing using Laser Engineered Net Shaping, Procedia Manufacturing , vol. 10, pp. 912–922, 2017/01/01/ 2017, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2017.07.080 Janicki D Laser cladding of Inconel 625-based composite coatings reinforced by porous chromium carbide particles. Opt Laser Technol, 94, pp. 6–14, 2017/09/01/ 2017, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2017.03.007 Jiang W, Kovacevic R (2007) Laser deposited TiC/H13 tool steel composite coatings and their erosion resistance. J Mater Process Technol 186:1–3 Li M, Han B, Song L, He Q Enhanced surface layers by laser cladding and ion sulfurization processing towards improved wear-resistance and self-lubrication performances. Appl Surf Sci, 503, p. 144226, 2020/02/15/ 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.144226 Wang Q, Zhai LL, Zhang L, Zhang JW, Ban CY (2022) Effect of steady magnetic field on microstructure and properties of laser cladding Ni-based alloy coating. J Mater Res Technol 17:2145–2157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.01.160 . 03/01/ 2022, doi Liu H, Hu Z, Qin X, Wang Y, Zhang J, Huang S (2017) Parameter optimization and experimental study of the sprocket repairing using laser cladding. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 91(9):3967–3975. 10.1007/s00170-017-0066-y . /08/01 2017 Ahn D-G (2021) Directed energy deposition (DED) process: State of the art. Int J Precision Eng Manufacturing-Green Technol 8:703–742 Zhu L, Wang S, Pan H, Yuan C, Chen X (2020) Research on remanufacturing strategy for 45 steel gear using H13 steel powder based on laser cladding technology. J Manuf Process 49:344–354 Wilson JM, Piya C, Shin YC, Zhao F, Ramani K Remanufacturing of turbine blades by laser direct deposition with its energy and environmental impact analysis. J Clean Prod, 80, pp. 170–178, 2014/10/01/ 2014, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.05.084 Wang L, Qian D, Guo J, Pan Y (2013) Austenite Grain Growth Behavior of AISI 4140 Alloy Steel. Adv Mech Eng 5:762890. 10.1155/2013/762890 Glodež S, Šraml M, Kramberger J A computational model for determination of service life of gears. Int J Fatigue, 24, 10, pp. 1013–1020, 2002/10/01/ 2002, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0142-1123(02)00024-5 Li CJ, Lee H Gear fatigue crack prognosis using embedded model, gear dynamic model and fracture mechanics. Mech Syst Signal Process, 19, 4, pp. 836–846, 2005/07/01/ 2005, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2004.06.007 Kim H, Cong W, Zhang H-C, Liu Z (2017) Laser Engineered Net Shaping of Nickel-Based Superalloy Inconel 718 Powders onto AISI 4140 Alloy Steel Substrates: Interface Bond and Fracture Failure Mechanism, Materials , vol. 10, no. 4, p. 341, [Online]. Available: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/10/4/341 Wang Z et al Influence of powder characteristics on microstructure and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 superalloy manufactured by direct energy deposition. Appl Surf Sci, 583, p. 152545, 2022/05/01/ 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2022.152545 Zhang J et al Research on the evolution mechanism of solidified structure during laser cladding IN718 alloy. Appl Therm Eng, 215, p. 118925, 2022/10/01/ 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118925 Jia T, Zou B, Liu W, Lei T, Ding H (2023) Effect of process parameters on mechanical properties of Inconel718 superalloy fabricated by directional energy deposition. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 128(7):2863–2883. 10.1007/s00170-023-10854-y . /10/01 2023 Chen Y, Zhang K, Huang J, Hosseini SRE, Li Z Characterization of heat affected zone liquation cracking in laser additive manufacturing of Inconel 718. Mater Design, 90, pp. 586–594, 2016/01/15/ 2016, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.10.155 Alizadeh-Sh M, Marashi SPH, Ranjbarnodeh E, Shoja-Razavi R, Oliveira JP Prediction of solidification cracking by an empirical-statistical analysis for laser cladding of Inconel 718 powder on a non-weldable substrate. Opt Laser Technol, 128, p. 106244, 2020/08/01/ 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106244 Chang JH, Chang CP, Chou JM, Hsieh RI, Lee JL (2010) Microstructure and bonding behavior on the interface of an induction-melted Ni-based alloy coating and AISI 4140 steel substrate. Surf Coat Technol 204:3173–3181 2010/07/15/. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2010.03.002 Arias-González F et al (2016) Fiber laser cladding of nickel-based alloy on cast iron. Appl Surf Sci 374:197–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.11.023 . 06/30/ 2016, doi Martínez S, Lamikiz A, Ukar E, Calleja A, Arrizubieta JA, Lopez de Lacalle LN Analysis of the regimes in the scanner-based laser hardening process. Opt Lasers Eng, 90, pp. 72–80, 2017/03/01/ 2017, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2016.10.005 Li Z, Du Y, He G, Liang Q Parameters optimization for single-track laser cladding based on MPA-SVR and A-NSGA-III. Opt Laser Technol, 169, p. 110069, 2024/02/01/ 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2023.110069 Meng G, Zhu L, Zhang J, Yang Z, Xue P Statistical analysis and multi-objective process optimization of laser cladding TiC-Inconel718 composite coating, Optik , vol. 240, p. 166828, 2021/08/01/ 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2021.166828 Liu H, Qin X, Huang S, Hu Z, Ni M Geometry modeling of single track cladding deposited by high power diode laser with rectangular beam spot. Opt Lasers Eng, 100, pp. 38–46, 2018/01/01/ 2018, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2017.07.008 Alam MK, Urbanic RJ, Nazemi N, Edrisy A Predictive modeling and the effect of process parameters on the hardness and bead characteristics for laser-cladded stainless steel. Int J Adv Manuf Technol, 94, 1, pp. 397–413, 2018/01/01 2018, 10.1007/s00170-017-0898-5 Nabhani M, Razavi RS, Barekat M An empirical-statistical model for laser cladding of Ti-6Al-4V powder on Ti-6Al-4V substrate. Opt Laser Technol, 100, pp. 265–271, 2018/03/01/ 2018, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2017.10.015 Li Z, Du Y, He G, Zhou Z, Liang Q, Shu L (2023) Optimization of the Overlap Rate of Multi-track Laser Cladding Based on the Flat-Top Overlapping Model. Trans Indian Inst Met 76(10):2773–2782. 10.1007/s12666-023-02972-8 . /10/01 2023 Jelvani S, Shoja Razavi R, Barekat M, Dehnavi M Empirical-Statistical Modeling and Prediction of Geometric Characteristics for Laser-Aided Direct Metal Deposition of Inconel 718 Superalloy. Met Mater Int, 26, 5, pp. 668–681, 2020/05/01 2020, 10.1007/s12540-019-00355-7 Ansari M, Shoja Razavi R, Barekat M An empirical-statistical model for coaxial laser cladding of NiCrAlY powder on Inconel 738 superalloy. Opt Laser Technol, 86, pp. 136–144, 2016/12/01/ 2016, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2016.06.014 Dass A, Moridi A (2019) State of the art in directed energy deposition: From additive manufacturing to materials design, Coatings , vol. 9, no. 7, p. 418 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 19 Sep, 2024 Read the published version in The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major Revisions Needed 04 Jul, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 Mar, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 15 Mar, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 15 Mar, 2024 First submitted to journal 12 Mar, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4086979","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":280110009,"identity":"30b5bce6-3852-4320-855e-ff04fab997d6","order_by":0,"name":"seyedali momeni","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA5klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLACHgYLHgjLwAZEshGjRQKmJY14LTDmYcJa5Nt7DB+8qZGQ0W3vTnxcUHA+cf7sBrbHFXi0GJw5Y2w455gEj9mZs5uNZxjcTtxw5wC74Rl8WiRyzKR52IBabuRuk+YBaZFIYJNswOew+W/Mf/P8A2vZ/pvH4Fzi/BkEtDDc4DFj5m2D2MLMY3AgseEGAS0GZ9KKJef2QfwCdFiy8YY7B9sN8Tqs/fDGD2++2dibHe/d+Jnnj53s/NnNxx7idRgDhwGagAQjfg0MDOwP0LUQ0DAKRsEoGAUjDgAAMWlM+yHhfFQAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8935-7641","institution":"University of Sao Paulo: Universidade de Sao Paulo","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"seyedali","middleName":"","lastName":"momeni","suffix":""},{"id":280110010,"identity":"38a32d6f-6dfd-4fb2-9c12-7f66f37faf9e","order_by":1,"name":"Reginaldo Teixeira Coelho","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Reginaldo","middleName":"Teixeira","lastName":"Coelho","suffix":""},{"id":280110011,"identity":"cc9dea50-0d79-4dfd-a7c9-7b1f17a663d1","order_by":2,"name":"Johan Grass Nuñez","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Johan","middleName":"Grass","lastName":"Nuñez","suffix":""},{"id":280110012,"identity":"d85cafb9-11ba-4c52-88e2-0c7e28385d0b","order_by":3,"name":"Renato Goulart Jasinevicius","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Renato","middleName":"Goulart","lastName":"Jasinevicius","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-03-12 18:35:24","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4086979/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4086979/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-024-14276-2","type":"published","date":"2024-09-19T15:58:14+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":53011095,"identity":"e3bd4f6c-b2c5-4ddd-a463-562e965ed8a6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:32:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":90300,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Powder morphology under SEM b) zoom in 2000X\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/376082d6f77a920811f6ce36.jpg"},{"id":53011093,"identity":"2b572df3-d965-4a04-9879-4417043a3689","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:32:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25762,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEDS result of Inconel718\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/dd9489d3c3eb196829c2480c.jpg"},{"id":53013562,"identity":"d221869e-49a4-4a4a-839b-cc91b56e30c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:48:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":56910,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea)\u003c/strong\u003e The schematic view of coaxial nozzle[35] \u003cstrong\u003eb) \u003c/strong\u003eCoaxial high rate nozzle of Romi machine \u003cstrong\u003ec)\u003c/strong\u003e Hopper system\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/a5a2b1fa4057e444967d0c94.jpg"},{"id":53011100,"identity":"37032364-ff41-4b90-8e18-5efaefe833b3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:32:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":21635,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIllustration of single-track deposit; \u003cstrong\u003eh\u003c/strong\u003e is height, \u003cstrong\u003ew\u003c/strong\u003e is width, \u003cstrong\u003eb\u003c/strong\u003eis depth of penetration, and \u003cstrong\u003eθ\u003c/strong\u003e is wetting angle\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/f7aed1856213034de7ac4877.jpg"},{"id":53011094,"identity":"f16373d0-930c-44c0-8033-bafe184a26c5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:32:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":60442,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCross-sectional optical micrographs of single clad tracks for different processing parameters from sample 1(S1) to sample 8 (S8), respectively.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/98ab10f9824104726524d7c3.jpg"},{"id":53011098,"identity":"b69972cd-e018-4181-8cf3-cd3a7ddb9ceb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:32:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28158,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlowchart of samples to compare the impact of \u003cstrong\u003ea)\u003c/strong\u003e laser power \u003cstrong\u003eb) \u003c/strong\u003escan speed \u003cstrong\u003ec)\u003c/strong\u003e mass flow individually.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/31ebcdfcc40fa8ef863fa251.jpg"},{"id":53012384,"identity":"fbf67b99-0e1e-45a0-bbd2-883d068c1609","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:40:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":60166,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea)\u003c/strong\u003e measured heights for sample 1 through 8 \u003cstrong\u003eb)\u003c/strong\u003e Impact of laser power on clad height.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/ece6b3848ee2b6012be59420.jpg"},{"id":53012386,"identity":"f72f982b-9568-437f-ab0b-15296386b5fa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:40:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":49342,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea)\u003c/strong\u003e Influence of Scan speed on clad height \u003cstrong\u003eb)\u003c/strong\u003e Influence of mass flow on clad height\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/52977f115d00676de3d2c6f2.jpg"},{"id":53011104,"identity":"3b36d0a6-8046-40a7-8154-cfa5e69d5a4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:32:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":56448,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) The amounts of clad width \u003cstrong\u003eb)\u003c/strong\u003eImpact of laser power on the clad width\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/a7b6fa812169677d2ca16dea.jpg"},{"id":53013564,"identity":"d12e4b5d-ecc1-4a2b-959f-ba325b1fcbde","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:48:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":45536,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea)\u003c/strong\u003e Impact of scan speed on the clad width \u003cstrong\u003eb)\u003c/strong\u003e Impact of mass flow on the clad width\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/0d0e04f33ff39cd115ed7425.jpg"},{"id":53011107,"identity":"a7c50cc6-96b4-407b-86f5-ff39b4b7f3af","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:32:52","extension":"jpg","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62620,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) View of single clad track defining the parameter w\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e b) The w\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e/w ratio corresponding to the various parameters\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F11.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/a1e7c12995e2d7a9cc256f07.jpg"},{"id":53011102,"identity":"81d3f5c2-fc02-4d4c-a756-34dade9fd858","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:32:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":50116,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Dilution ratio b) Impact of laser power on the dilution\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F12.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/f591ab1075eadd9497da5319.jpg"},{"id":53012389,"identity":"b9109c78-18ff-411d-8e02-a0b0804ab2bc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:40:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":49189,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Influence of scan speed on dilution b) Influence of mass flow on dilution\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F13.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/1efd7890451ff33bfd334da4.jpg"},{"id":53011106,"identity":"37a916bf-60c9-4adc-bc48-c44fd3a93c86","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:32:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":58689,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) The clad angle changes b) Impact of laser power on clad angle\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F14.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/4a61619b667ac512a34014c2.jpg"},{"id":53012388,"identity":"6255dd3f-ae67-456d-b819-fa9cb7a3ac02","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-03-19 15:40:51","extension":"jpg","order_by":15,"title":"Figure 15","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":49952,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Impact of scan speed on clad angle b) Impact of mass flow on clad angle\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"F15.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/5a891fd36384dd95286e9d2e.jpg"},{"id":65104207,"identity":"5a68752d-72aa-4c00-a3ba-a94777b98161","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-23 16:12:37","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1280263,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4086979/v1/fda396bc-b450-4449-8b97-aadac04cb26c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Effect of Process Parameters on the Geometry of Single-Track Deposits of Inconel 718 onto AISI4140 Using Laser Cladding","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn recent decades, Additive Manufacturing (AM) has undergone rapid development, demonstrating superior characteristics such as near-net shape capability and the capacity to manufacture small, intricately structured parts. This sets it apart from traditional manufacturing technologies. [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].On the other hand, laser-directed energy deposition (LDED) stands out as one of the most efficient processes among metal AM techniques. In LDED, metal powders/wire are fed into a melt pool generated by a laser beam. This technique, known for its ability to print a wide range of materials at a low cost with high production rates, has found applications in repair and coating[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR5 CR6\" citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], rapid prototyping, manufacturing[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e] moderately large and complex geometries[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], in-situ alloying, and the creation of multi-material functionally graded structures[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13 CR14 CR15 CR16 CR17 CR18\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaser cladding, also recognized as directed energy deposition, is currently a focal point of global research due to its advanced capabilities in manufacturing and repairing metal parts[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. This technology is extensively utilized in diverse industries such as aeronautics[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e], astronautics, shipping [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], automotive, petrochemical, power plants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], oil and gas, and mining sectors[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Its application serves to safeguard components from damage in harsh working environments by applying protective coatings[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA prevalent and effective method for improving the performance of components involves the use of coating hard-surfacing alloys on their surfaces, significantly extending their service life [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. In contrast to both conventional and advanced methods that are faced with drawbacks such as low mechanical bonding, weak adhesion strength, high operational costs, negative environmental impact, and prolonged process time[\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR29 CR30\" citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], laser cladding stands out for its precision and speed, producing an exceptionally dense, crack-free, and non-porous structure[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] with a superior metallurgical bond to the base material[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. It also offers smaller heat-affected zones, low dilution[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e], and low heat input to the component, addressing many limitations and challenges present in existing metal manufacturing technologies[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, one of the other crucial aspect of laser cladding's application is in the restoration and refurbishment of industrial components, a field that is rapidly expanding globally[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. When a part is damaged, an evaluation must be made from a repair perspective to determine whether the damaged part can be repaired, discarded, or sent for recycling. It is noteworthy that the remanufacturing process is more cost-effective than manufacturing; for instance, remanufacturing an engine requires only 55% of the energy and 67% of the labor needed for the production of a new engine [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. As a result, it is essential to view repair and remanufacturing processes as exceptionally effective approaches that preserve and repurpose resources, ultimately playing a role in fostering the economic progress [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA significant proportion of industrial components, such as blades and gears, are constructed from AISI 4140 alloy[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. This choice is driven by the material's notable combination of high strength and ductility, particularly advantageous when these components are subjected to harsh working conditions such as high temperature, dynamic contact, vibration and abrasion [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Moreover, it is imperative to employ repair techniques to ensure the sustained functionality and added value of these components [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the repairing of high performance component, such as gears, blades, the mechanical properties of as-fabricated part with AISI 4140 powder cannot reach the industrial requirement due to its relatively lower tensile and hardness property[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, as a prospective candidate material for surface coating and repair applications of AISI 4140 can be addressed to deposit of Inconel 718 by laser cladding to investigate the compatibility between two dissimilar materials with a focus on obtaining optimum process parameters to cladding Inconel 718 on AISI4140 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInconel 718 is widely used in the aerospace, automotive and energy industries such as manufacturing of aero-engine turbine blades, turbine disks, and engine combustion chambers due to their good high temperature strength, fatigue performance creep, and rupture strength, oxidation resistance, and thermal corrosion resistance up to 700 ◦C [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR43\" citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. Inconel 718, strengthened by the ordered D022 body-centered tetragonal phase of \u003cem\u003eγ\u0026Prime;\u003c/em\u003e (Ni3Nb) and ordered L12 intermetallic phase of \u003cem\u003eγ\u0026prime;\u003c/em\u003e (Ni3(Al, Ti))[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e].It has high strength and hardness because of solid-solution hardening, carbide strengthening, and precipitation hardening, as well as good corrosion resistance due to the addition of chromium[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearchers have examined the laser-directed energy deposition of Inconel 718 in combination with other materials, exploring its microstructure and mechanical properties in detail. However, limited research has been conducted on the laser cladding of IN718 powders onto AISI 4140 alloy steel substrates in the existing literature. For instance, Onuike et al .[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e] developed a novel approach to processing a bimetallic structure of Inconel 718 and Ti64 using LENS\u0026trade;. Several build strategies such as direct deposition of Inconel 718 on Ti64, compositional gradation of the two alloys and use of NiCr as an intermediate bond layer were attempted. Onuike et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e] to understand processing ability and measure resultant interfacial and thermal properties of Inconel 718 and copper alloy GRCop-84 employed laser engineering net shaping (LENS\u0026trade;) to fabricate of bimetallic structures. Two approaches were used the direct deposition of GRCop-84 on Inconel 718 and the compositional gradation of the two alloys. Alizadeh et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e] presented an empirical-statistical approach to predict solidification cracking during laser cladding of Inconel 718 powder on A-286 Fe-based super-alloy. Khorram et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e] utilized response surface methodology (RSM) by laser cladding of Inconel 718 super-alloy with 75Cr3C2\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;25(80Ni20Cr) powder to investigate the effects of process parameters on the geometry of the deposition. Paul et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]used a pulsed Nd:YAG laser to deposit multi-layer overlapped cladding on low carbon steel substrate using dynamic powder blowing technique. Gonzalez et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e] has utilized fiber laser cladding of nickel-based on cast Iron.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLiu et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e] Conducted an experimental analysis for exploring the feasibility of super-alloys used in the AISI 4140 steel repairing with LENS technique .Kim et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e], has been employed IN718 powder to deposit on AISI 4140 substrates using LENS to investigate the compatibility between two dissimilar materials with a focus on interface bonding and tensile fracture behavior of the hybrid specimens.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEventually, due to the widespread utilization of AISI 4140 in industrial components and the paramount importance of repairing this material, obtaining optimal process parameters for depositing Inconel 718 onto AISI 4140 becomes imperative. The laser cladding is constrained by the spot diameter, necessitating the creation of extensive cladding layers through the amalgamation of numerous single-track cladding layers. Consequently, the morphology of each individual single-track cladding layer plays a pivotal role in determining the ultimate quality of the formed structure[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. Inhence, The morphology of the single-track cladding layer is directly influenced by the process parameters[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. To elucidate the intricate nonlinear mapping relationship between morphology and process parameters, numerous scholars have established this connection using conventional techniques such as variance analysis, data fitting, and regression analysis. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR52 CR53 CR54\" citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough extensive research has delved into laser cladding of Inconel 718, significant hurdles persist in the application to nickel-based super-alloys due to uneven metal distribution. Moreover, limited studies have addressed the deposition of Inconel 718 onto AISI 4140, particularly focusing on evaluating the mechanical properties of this bimetallic structure. Hence, this study aims to assess the impact of process parameters on single-track geometry to determine optimal conditions for defect-free production of dissimilar structures, such as crack or porosity. To achieve this objective, a full factorial design, utilized as a method within the framework of design of experiments, was employed.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Material\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe materials employed in this study comprise Inconel718 powder for deposition and AISI 4140 as the substrate. The Inconel718 powder, produced via the gas atomization method by Hoganas Powders Inc., is depicted in (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003ea) and 1b)). Through SEM micrograph, showing a spherical shape with some satellites attached to certain particles. The particle size distribution ranges from \u0026Oslash; 45 \u0026micro;m to 90 \u0026micro;m. Furthermore, element contents obtained by EDS are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The substrate dimensions are 10mm in thickness and 50mm in diameter. Prior to the deposition process, the Inconel718 powder undergoes drying at 100\u0026deg;C for one day in a furnace, ensuring thorough removal of any residual water vapor.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Laser cladding system\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, laser cladding was performed using Romi D800 Hybrid machine. The heating source is a continuous fiber laser Nd:YAG with a maximum power of 1000 W, a wavelength of 1080 nm and a beam diameter of 2 mm. Powder particles were injected into the molten pool using a disc hopper feeder through an coaxial high rate nozzle by Argon gas(Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Argon gas was applied as the shielding gas during deposition to prevent oxidation of the deposited material as well as to protect the optical system as a nozzle gas. The movement of the substrate was realized by a 2-axis worktable and nozzle moved in Z direction. According to the design of powder injection nozzle, the angle of powder injection with the laser beam is 30\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Experimental procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the laser cladding process, processing parameters including laser power (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e), laser scan speed (\u003cem\u003eV\u003c/em\u003e), and powder feed rate (\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e) are primary factors that significantly affect the properties of the deposition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Hence, these parameters have been documented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. To obtain these key parameters, the design of experiments (DOE) method has been employed using the full factorial technique (2 levels and 3 factors).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSummary of the key laser cladding process parameters levels\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInput Variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaser power(W)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaser scan(mm/min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMass flow(g/min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShielding gas flow(l/min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNozzel gas flow(l/min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarrier gas flow(l/min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHatch spacing%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e950\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e950\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e950\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e950\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Sample characterization\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo assess the geometric attributes, we examined the transverse cross-sections of individual track deposits. Initially, the deposited specimens underwent cutting, followed by grinding with SiC papers (400, 600, 800, 1200 grit), and subsequent polishing using a 1 \u0026micro;m alumina-DI water suspension. After polishing, the samples were subjected to etching using a Marble reagent solution (consisting of 50 mL HCl, 50 mL distilled water, and 10 g CuSO4) to unveil the microstructural details of the Inconel 718 coating. The geometric parameters of the single track, namely height (\u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e), width (\u003cem\u003eW\u003c/em\u003e), clad angle (\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e), and dilution ratio (\u003cem\u003e%D\u003c/em\u003e), are depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. These parameters were measured across all samples utilizing software integrated with an optical microscope (Olympus 4100). Dilution was computed based on predefined parameters using Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$D\\left(\\%\\right)=\\frac{b}{b+h}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the realm of additive manufacturing, meticulous control over the geometrical dimensions of deposited beads and their resulting microstructure is paramount. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e displays cross-sections of single clad corresponding to various process parameters detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The use of OLS4100 Ver.3.1.15 Software facilitated accurate measurements of geometric dimensions, revealing defect-free conditions with no cracks or porosity, especially at the interface bonding. A detailed exploration of the geometric characteristics of single-track deposits is undertaken, focusing on parameters such as bead height, bead width, dilution, and clad angle. In order to analyze the impact of key parameters (\u003cem\u003eP, V, F\u003c/em\u003e) individually, all other variables were held at constant levels detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. It should be noted that when comparing the results, reference should be made to Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, where one variable changes while other variables remain consistently considered\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Effect of process parameters on Clad height\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe influence of laser power on height, as deduced from the experimental results, does not exhibit a clear ascending or descending trend. Although Jelvani et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e] suggested that increasing in laser power could lead to greater height, the experimental results reveal a more intricate relationship. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e(a) illustrates the height measured after the experiment, while Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003eb depicts the changes in height based on varying laser power under other constant parameters. As observed, an elevation in laser power led to a reduction in height with \u003cem\u003eF\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;4.31g/min \u0026amp; \u003cem\u003eV\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;300mm/min (comparison of samples 1 \u0026amp; 3). Conversely, this rise in laser power caused a height increase with \u003cem\u003eF\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;4.31 g/min \u0026amp; \u003cem\u003eV\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;500mm/min (comparison of samples 2 \u0026amp; 4).However, for the other two conditions, the impact of increasing laser power on height was negligible (sample 5\u0026amp;7-sample 6\u0026amp;8). Additionally, the height exhibited an uptick with consistent laser power, decreasing scan speed, and increasing mass flow. This phenomenon can be attributed to the extended interaction time and the higher volume of powder injected into the molten pool, resulting in an upsurge in bead height. As a result, the peak value recorded is 963\u0026micro;m, corresponding to specific parameters (\u003cem\u003eP\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;950W (maximum laser power), \u003cem\u003eV\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;300mm/min(minimum scan speed), and \u003cem\u003eF\u0026thinsp;=\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;6.31g/min(maximum mas flow)).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e (a) and (b) demonstrate the variations in clad height in response to changes in scan speed and mass flow, respectively. The data shows a descending trend: as the scan speed increases, the clad height decreases. This trend is explained by the reduced interaction time due to the faster scan speed, resulting in less molten powder being deposited and thus a decrease in bead height. Conversely, increasing the powder-feeding rate leads to higher clad heights. This is because a greater amount of powder undergoes melting, resulting in an overall increase in the deposited material's height.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Effect of process parameters on Clad width\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe measured width values for various samples have been included in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003ea. As can be seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003eb expansion in width correlates with higher laser power. Increasing laser power leads to an increase in width. In contrast, a rising in scanning speed leads to diminishing in width (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003ea). The observed outcomes can be attributed to a combination of external and internal forces influencing the melt pool in laser-assisted processes. External forces, determined by factors like nozzle design and the pressure of the carrier and shielding gas, interact with internal forces, including buoyancy and Marangoni forces. In the Laser cladding process, the laser heat source causes the central melt pool to be warmer than the edges, leading to a surface tension gradient. This gradient prompts molten metal to flow from the center to the edges, expanding the melt pool width with increasing laser power. A decrease in scanning speed increases interaction time, elevating input energy and widening the melt pool due to the established surface tension gradient between the center and edges[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, based on Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003eb, it is clear that the powder-feeding rate has a negligible impact on width variation. When the laser power and scanning speed are held constant while adjusting the mass flow rate, the width of deposits shows minimal variation. This is evident in the overlapping of data points, indicating the minimal influence of the mass flow rate on width. The comparison of this study with previous research studies indicates that laser power and scanning speed are most effective on the width while the effect of powder-feeding rate is negligible [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn order to assess the uniformity of penetration, the ratio of (w\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e/w) was measured. The parameter w\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e has been shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e(a) while Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e(b) presents measured values of (w\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e/w) covering sample 1to 8. For sample 3, that characterized by the parameters (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;950W, V\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;300mm/min, F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.31g/min), achieves the maximum ratio of w\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e/w, indicating these parameters provide the best uniformity of penetration compared to other process parameters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Effect of laser process parameters on dilution ratio\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDilution plays a pivotal role in the laser cladding process, significantly affecting the microstructure and resulting hardness of the clad zone. This significance arises from the substantial impact of the melted material on the underlying deposit during the process. Ensuring proper penetration of the upper deposit into the underlying layer and maintaining adequate dilution are crucial for establishing a metallurgical bond between deposits, ensuring their adhesion. It is crucial to achieve a balance between the dilution ratio and the dimensions of the deposited bead to ensure optimal conditions. The dilution measured values are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003ea, while Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003eb indicates that laser power has a minimal impact on dilution. Notably, certain empirical-statistical studies have reported similar findings, indicating that laser power was an ineffective parameter [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e] .\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaser scan speed and mass flow rate have a reverse impact on dilution, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, where an increase in scan speed and a decrease in mass flow result in greater dilution. A comparative analysis of experimental results reveals that higher laser power, higher powder-feeding rates, and lower scanning speeds lead to larger clad track dimensions with lower dilution. For instance, in sample7 with process parameters (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;950W, V\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;300mm/min, and F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.31g/min), the height, width, and dilution are 963\u0026micro;m, 1944\u0026micro;m, and 0.17, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Effect of laser process parameters on clad angle\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig14\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e(a) illustrates the range of clad angle values, ranging from 47\u0026ordm; to 87\u0026ordm;. The analysis of the results reveals a direct relationship between \u003cem\u003eθ\u003c/em\u003e and the associated parameters. As depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig14\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e(b) and Fig.\u0026nbsp;15(a), an increase in laser power and scan speed lead to corresponding to a reduction in \u003cem\u003eθ\u003c/em\u003e. Conversely, Fig.\u0026nbsp;15 (b) highlights that higher in mass flow, result in an increasing in \u003cem\u003eθ\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e. \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;15a) Impact of scan speed on clad angle b) Impact of mass flow on clad angle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Discussion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this section, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of the experimental results to identify the most effective process parameters, which will be further employed in subsequent investigations. Concerning the height of the bead, sample 7 exhibited the maximum value at approximately 0.96mm, while sample 5 closely followed with a value of 0.93mm. In contrast, samples 1 and 3 yielded values of 0.7mm and 0.6mm, respectively, falling within the mid-range of values illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e(a).For the width of the bead, the highest values were observed in sample 7 (1.94 mm) and sample 3 (1.91 mm).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of dilution, an optimal ratio of 10\u0026ndash;30% has been suggested by several researchers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]to ensure proper dilution between the initial layer and the substrate. Therefore, samples 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7 achieved suitable dilution ratios, as depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e(a).As depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e (b) the w\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e/w ratio was measured to assess the uniformity of deposition. The highest values were recorded for samples 3, 2, and 1, with corresponding of 0.84, 0.69, and 0.67, respectively. As a result, the parameters linked to sample 3 achieved the optimal uniformity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparing wetting angles, samples 2, 3, and 4 exhibited angles within the range of 47 \u003csup\u003e\u0026ordm;\u003c/sup\u003e to 52\u003csup\u003e\u0026ordm;\u003c/sup\u003e, rendering them more suitable than other parameters. Consequently, the parameters associated with sample 3 (Laser power 950W, laser scan speed 300 mm/min, and mass flow 4.31 g/min) produced the optimal clad geometry with a single crack. These parameters are considered the optimal process condition for future investigations. Furthermore, an examination of interface bonding through the utilization of an optical microscope (the Olympus 4100), revealed a robust metallurgical bond devoid of any imperfections such as cracks or porosity at the interface between Inconel 718 and the AISI 4140 substrate. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig15\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e(b) and (d) illustrates the interface bonding for both Sample 1 and Sample 3, captured at a magnification of 50X using the Olympus 4100 laser microscope.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, Inconel 718 powder was deposited onto AISI 4140 steel as the substrate through coaxial laser cladding. Three key process parameters were examined to understand their impact on the geometric characteristics of single-track deposition. The optimization of these process parameters was carried out, and the selected settings will be employed for further investigations. The main results are summarized as follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn increase in scanning speed resulted in a reduction in height, width, and wetting angle, accompanied by an increase in dilution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eElevating the powder-feeding rate led to an increase in height and wetting angle, while dilution decreased. However, the impact on width was negligible.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreasing laser power was observed to enhance width, but it led to a reduction in wetting angle, with minimal impact on dilution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eOptimal process parameters for further investigation were identified as laser power 950W, laser scan speed 300 mm/min, and mass flow rate 4.31 g/min.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates the feasibility of achieving pore and crack-free, minimally diluted, and well-bonded Inconel 718 through laser cladding using these process parameters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDebRoy T et al Additive manufacturing of metallic components \u0026ndash; Process, structure and properties. Prog Mater Sci, 92, pp. 112\u0026ndash;224, 2018/03/01/ 2018, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2017.10.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.pmatsci.2017.10.001\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBandyopadhyay A, Zhang Y, Onuike B (2022) Additive manufacturing of bimetallic structures. Virtual Phys Prototyp 17(2):256\u0026ndash;294\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBandyopadhyay A, Zhang Y, Bose S (2020) Recent developments in metal additive manufacturing. Curr Opin Chem Eng 28:96\u0026ndash;104\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSaboori A, Aversa A, Marchese G, Biamino S, Lombardi M, Fino P (2019) Application of Directed Energy Deposition-Based Additive Manufacturing in Repair, \u003cem\u003eApplied Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 9, no. 16, p. 3316, [Online]. Available: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/9/16/3316\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/9/16/3316\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSatoh T, Koike R, Kakinuma Y, Hirono Y, Mori T, Oda Y Optimization of process parameters for hardness in high speed coating by Directed Energy Deposition. Procedia CIRP, 111, pp. 214\u0026ndash;217, 2022/01/01/ 2022, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2022.08.051\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.procir.2022.08.051\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNie MH, Zhang S, Wang ZY, Zhang HF, Zhang CH, Chen HT Development of a novel method for measuring the interfacial bonding strength of laser cladding coatings. Opt Laser Technol, 148, p. 107699, 2022/04/01/ 2022, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.107699\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.107699\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSvetlizky D et al (2022) Laser-based directed energy deposition (DED-LB) of advanced materials. Mater Sci Engineering: A 840:142967. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2022.142967\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.msea.2022.142967\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. /04/18/ 2022, doi\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGuo N, Leu MC (2013) Additive manufacturing: technology, applications and research needs. Front Mech Eng 8:215\u0026ndash;243\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGao W et al (2015) The status, challenges, and future of additive manufacturing in engineering. Comput Aided Des 69:65\u0026ndash;89. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.cad.2015.04.001\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.cad.2015.04.001\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. 12/01/ 2015, doi\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSvetlizky D et al (2021) Directed energy deposition (DED) additive manufacturing: Physical characteristics, defects, challenges and applications. Mater Today 49:271\u0026ndash;295. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.mattod.2021.03.020\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.mattod.2021.03.020\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. 10/01/ 2021, doi\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGradl PR, Protz CS, Cooper K, Ellis DL, Evans LJ, Garcia CP (2019) GRCop-42 Development and Hot-fire Testing Using Additive Manufacturing Powder Bed Fusion for Channel-cooled Combustion Chambers. AIAA Propuls Energy 2019 Forum\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang X, Li W, Liou F Additive manufacturing of cobalt-based alloy on tool steel by directed energy deposition. Opt Laser Technol, 148, p. 107738, 2022/04/01/ 2022, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.107738\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.107738\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang X et al Additive manufacturing of copper \u0026ndash; H13 tool steel bi-metallic structures via Ni-based multi-interlayer. Additive Manuf, 36, p. 101474, 2020/12/01/ 2020, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101474\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.addma.2020.101474\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOnuike B, Heer B, Bandyopadhyay A Additive manufacturing of Inconel 718\u0026mdash;Copper alloy bimetallic structure using laser engineered net shaping (LENS\u0026trade;), \u003cem\u003eAdditive Manufacturing\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 21, pp. 133\u0026ndash;140, 2018/05/01/ 2018, \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.02.007\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.addma.2018.02.007\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYang SW, Yoon J, Lee H, Shim DS Defect of functionally graded material of inconel 718 and STS 316L fabricated by directed energy deposition and its effect on mechanical properties. J Mater Res Technol, 17, pp. 478\u0026ndash;497, 2022/03/01/ 2022, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.01.029\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.01.029\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMahamood RM, Akinlabi ET (2017) Introduction to Functionally Graded Materials, in \u003cem\u003eFunctionally Graded Materials\u003c/em\u003e, R. M. Mahamood and E. T. Akinlabi Eds. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1\u0026ndash;8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi P, Gong Y, Xu Y, Qi Y, Sun Y, Zhang H Inconel-steel functionally bimetal materials by hybrid directed energy deposition and thermal milling: Microstructure and mechanical properties. Archives Civil Mech Eng, 19, 3, pp. 820\u0026ndash;831, 2019/05/01/ 2019, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2019.03.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.acme.2019.03.002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBalkan ME, Aydoğan E, Işık M, Derin B, Ko\u0026ccedil; B (2021) Directed energy deposition process development for functionally gradient Copper-Inconel 718 materials. J Additive Manuf Technol 1(3):581\u0026ndash;581\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOnuike B, Bandyopadhyay A Additive manufacturing of Inconel 718 \u0026ndash; Ti6Al4V bimetallic structures. Additive Manuf, 22, pp. 844\u0026ndash;851, 2018/08/01/ 2018, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.06.025\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.addma.2018.06.025\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhu L et al Microstructure and mechanical properties of parts formed by ultrasonic vibration-assisted laser cladding of Inconel 718. Surf Coat Technol, 410, p. 126964, 2021/03/25/ 2021, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2021.126964\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.surfcoat.2021.126964\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhao H et al Research Progress of Laser Cladding on the Surface of Titanium and Its Alloys, \u003cem\u003eMaterials\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 16, no. 8, p. 3250, 2023. [Online]. Available: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/16/8/3250\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/16/8/3250\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGe MZ, Tang Y, Zhang YK, Wang Y Enhancement in fatigue property of Ti-6Al-4V alloy remanufactured by combined laser cladding and laser shock peening processes. Surf Coat Technol, 444, p. 128671, 2022/08/25/ 2022, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2022.128671\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.surfcoat.2022.128671\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang C, Zhou J, Zhang T, Meng X, Li P, Huang S Numerical simulation and solidification characteristics for laser cladding of Inconel 718. Opt Laser Technol, 149, p. 107843, 2022/05/01/ 2022, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.107843\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.107843\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhu L et al Recent research and development status of laser cladding: A review. Opt Laser Technol, 138, p. 106915, 2021/06/01/ 2021, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.106915\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.106915\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang P-z, Yang Y-s, Ding G, Qu J-x, Shao H-s (1997) Laser cladding coating against erosion-corrosion wear and its application to mining machine parts, \u003cem\u003eWear\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 209, no. 1, pp. 96\u0026ndash;100, 1997/08/01/ \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1648(97)00018-5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/S0043-1648(97)00018-5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eToyserkani E, Khajepour A, Corbin SF (2004) Laser cladding. CRC\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePaul CP, Alemohammad H, Toyserkani E, Khajepour A, Corbin S (2007) Cladding of WC\u0026ndash;12 Co on low carbon steel using a pulsed Nd:YAG laser. Mater Sci Engineering: A 464(1):170\u0026ndash;176 2007/08/25/. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2007.01.132\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.msea.2007.01.132\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKhorram A, Davoodi Jamaloei A, Paidar M, Cao X Laser cladding of Inconel 718 with 75Cr3C2\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;25(80Ni20Cr) powder: Statistical modeling and optimization. Surf Coat Technol, 378, p. 124933, 2019/11/25/ 2019, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2019.124933\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.surfcoat.2019.124933\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu Z et al Feasibility Exploration of Superalloys for AISI 4140 Steel Repairing using Laser Engineered Net Shaping, \u003cem\u003eProcedia Manufacturing\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 10, pp. 912\u0026ndash;922, 2017/01/01/ 2017, \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2017.07.080\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.promfg.2017.07.080\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJanicki D Laser cladding of Inconel 625-based composite coatings reinforced by porous chromium carbide particles. Opt Laser Technol, 94, pp. 6\u0026ndash;14, 2017/09/01/ 2017, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2017.03.007\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.optlastec.2017.03.007\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJiang W, Kovacevic R (2007) Laser deposited TiC/H13 tool steel composite coatings and their erosion resistance. J Mater Process Technol 186:1\u0026ndash;3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi M, Han B, Song L, He Q Enhanced surface layers by laser cladding and ion sulfurization processing towards improved wear-resistance and self-lubrication performances. Appl Surf Sci, 503, p. 144226, 2020/02/15/ 2020, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.144226\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.144226\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang Q, Zhai LL, Zhang L, Zhang JW, Ban CY (2022) Effect of steady magnetic field on microstructure and properties of laser cladding Ni-based alloy coating. J Mater Res Technol 17:2145\u0026ndash;2157. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.01.160\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.01.160\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. 03/01/ 2022, doi\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu H, Hu Z, Qin X, Wang Y, Zhang J, Huang S (2017) Parameter optimization and experimental study of the sprocket repairing using laser cladding. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 91(9):3967\u0026ndash;3975. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s00170-017-0066-y\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s00170-017-0066-y\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. /08/01 2017\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhn D-G (2021) Directed energy deposition (DED) process: State of the art. Int J Precision Eng Manufacturing-Green Technol 8:703\u0026ndash;742\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhu L, Wang S, Pan H, Yuan C, Chen X (2020) Research on remanufacturing strategy for 45 steel gear using H13 steel powder based on laser cladding technology. J Manuf Process 49:344\u0026ndash;354\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWilson JM, Piya C, Shin YC, Zhao F, Ramani K Remanufacturing of turbine blades by laser direct deposition with its energy and environmental impact analysis. J Clean Prod, 80, pp. 170\u0026ndash;178, 2014/10/01/ 2014, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.05.084\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.05.084\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang L, Qian D, Guo J, Pan Y (2013) Austenite Grain Growth Behavior of AISI 4140 Alloy Steel. Adv Mech Eng 5:762890. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1155/2013/762890\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1155/2013/762890\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGlodež S, Šraml M, Kramberger J A computational model for determination of service life of gears. Int J Fatigue, 24, 10, pp. 1013\u0026ndash;1020, 2002/10/01/ 2002, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/S0142-1123(02)00024-5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/S0142-1123(02)00024-5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi CJ, Lee H Gear fatigue crack prognosis using embedded model, gear dynamic model and fracture mechanics. Mech Syst Signal Process, 19, 4, pp. 836\u0026ndash;846, 2005/07/01/ 2005, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2004.06.007\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.ymssp.2004.06.007\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKim H, Cong W, Zhang H-C, Liu Z (2017) Laser Engineered Net Shaping of Nickel-Based Superalloy Inconel 718 Powders onto AISI 4140 Alloy Steel Substrates: Interface Bond and Fracture Failure Mechanism, \u003cem\u003eMaterials\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 341, [Online]. Available: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/10/4/341\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/10/4/341\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWang Z et al Influence of powder characteristics on microstructure and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 superalloy manufactured by direct energy deposition. Appl Surf Sci, 583, p. 152545, 2022/05/01/ 2022, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2022.152545\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.apsusc.2022.152545\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZhang J et al Research on the evolution mechanism of solidified structure during laser cladding IN718 alloy. Appl Therm Eng, 215, p. 118925, 2022/10/01/ 2022, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118925\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118925\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJia T, Zou B, Liu W, Lei T, Ding H (2023) Effect of process parameters on mechanical properties of Inconel718 superalloy fabricated by directional energy deposition. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 128(7):2863\u0026ndash;2883. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s00170-023-10854-y\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s00170-023-10854-y\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. /10/01 2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChen Y, Zhang K, Huang J, Hosseini SRE, Li Z Characterization of heat affected zone liquation cracking in laser additive manufacturing of Inconel 718. Mater Design, 90, pp. 586\u0026ndash;594, 2016/01/15/ 2016, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.10.155\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.matdes.2015.10.155\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlizadeh-Sh M, Marashi SPH, Ranjbarnodeh E, Shoja-Razavi R, Oliveira JP Prediction of solidification cracking by an empirical-statistical analysis for laser cladding of Inconel 718 powder on a non-weldable substrate. Opt Laser Technol, 128, p. 106244, 2020/08/01/ 2020, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106244\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.optlastec.2020.106244\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChang JH, Chang CP, Chou JM, Hsieh RI, Lee JL (2010) Microstructure and bonding behavior on the interface of an induction-melted Ni-based alloy coating and AISI 4140 steel substrate. Surf Coat Technol 204:3173\u0026ndash;3181 2010/07/15/. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2010.03.002\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.surfcoat.2010.03.002\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eArias-Gonz\u0026aacute;lez F et al (2016) Fiber laser cladding of nickel-based alloy on cast iron. Appl Surf Sci 374:197\u0026ndash;205. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.11.023\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.11.023\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. 06/30/ 2016, doi\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMart\u0026iacute;nez S, Lamikiz A, Ukar E, Calleja A, Arrizubieta JA, Lopez de Lacalle LN Analysis of the regimes in the scanner-based laser hardening process. Opt Lasers Eng, 90, pp. 72\u0026ndash;80, 2017/03/01/ 2017, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2016.10.005\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.optlaseng.2016.10.005\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi Z, Du Y, He G, Liang Q Parameters optimization for single-track laser cladding based on MPA-SVR and A-NSGA-III. Opt Laser Technol, 169, p. 110069, 2024/02/01/ 2024, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2023.110069\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.optlastec.2023.110069\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMeng G, Zhu L, Zhang J, Yang Z, Xue P Statistical analysis and multi-objective process optimization of laser cladding TiC-Inconel718 composite coating, \u003cem\u003eOptik\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 240, p. 166828, 2021/08/01/ 2021, \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2021.166828\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.ijleo.2021.166828\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiu H, Qin X, Huang S, Hu Z, Ni M Geometry modeling of single track cladding deposited by high power diode laser with rectangular beam spot. Opt Lasers Eng, 100, pp. 38\u0026ndash;46, 2018/01/01/ 2018, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2017.07.008\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.optlaseng.2017.07.008\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlam MK, Urbanic RJ, Nazemi N, Edrisy A Predictive modeling and the effect of process parameters on the hardness and bead characteristics for laser-cladded stainless steel. Int J Adv Manuf Technol, 94, 1, pp. 397\u0026ndash;413, 2018/01/01 2018, \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s00170-017-0898-5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s00170-017-0898-5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNabhani M, Razavi RS, Barekat M An empirical-statistical model for laser cladding of Ti-6Al-4V powder on Ti-6Al-4V substrate. Opt Laser Technol, 100, pp. 265\u0026ndash;271, 2018/03/01/ 2018, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2017.10.015\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.optlastec.2017.10.015\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi Z, Du Y, He G, Zhou Z, Liang Q, Shu L (2023) Optimization of the Overlap Rate of Multi-track Laser Cladding Based on the Flat-Top Overlapping Model. Trans Indian Inst Met 76(10):2773\u0026ndash;2782. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s12666-023-02972-8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12666-023-02972-8\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. /10/01 2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJelvani S, Shoja Razavi R, Barekat M, Dehnavi M Empirical-Statistical Modeling and Prediction of Geometric Characteristics for Laser-Aided Direct Metal Deposition of Inconel 718 Superalloy. Met Mater Int, 26, 5, pp. 668\u0026ndash;681, 2020/05/01 2020, \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1007/s12540-019-00355-7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12540-019-00355-7\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnsari M, Shoja Razavi R, Barekat M An empirical-statistical model for coaxial laser cladding of NiCrAlY powder on Inconel 738 superalloy. Opt Laser Technol, 86, pp. 136\u0026ndash;144, 2016/12/01/ 2016, doi: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2016.06.014\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.optlastec.2016.06.014\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDass A, Moridi A (2019) State of the art in directed energy deposition: From additive manufacturing to materials design, \u003cem\u003eCoatings\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 9, no. 7, p. 418\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"the-international-journal-of-advanced-manufacturing-technology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jamt","sideBox":"Learn more about [The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology](https://www.springer.com/journal/170)","snPcode":"170","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/170/3","title":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Direct Energy Deposition, Laser cladding, Inconel718, AISI4140","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4086979/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4086979/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAISI 4140 alloy steel finds extensive applications in industrial settings such as gears and blades owing to its exceptional combination of high strength and ductility. However, prolonged exposure to harsh operating conditions can result in significant mechanical failures, necessitating essential repair techniques to restore functionality and preserve the substantial value of these components. Among the various repair methods, directed energy deposition, an additive manufacturing technique, is gaining prominence for its efficacy in producing and restoring mechanically stressed components. Compared to traditional welding methods and metal spraying, laser cladding offers advantages such as reduced heat input and minimal dilution, resulting in superior metallurgical bonds. This research focuses on depositing Inconel 718 on AISI 4140 substrate using the laser cladding technique to evaluate the feasibility of this alloy for repairing AISI 4140 components. The investigation explores the influence of key laser cladding parameters, including laser power, scanning speed, and mass flow rate, on critical attributes of deposited beads such as width, height, clad angle, and dilution ratio. The results elucidate the effects of varying parameters: increasing scanning speed reduces bead dimensions and clad angle while increasing dilution. Elevating the powder-feeding rate increases bead height and wetting angle, with minimal impact on width and decreased dilution. Augmenting laser power increases bead width and reduces wetting angle, with dilution showing minimal change. Based on the findings, the optimal process parameters for future investigations are identified as a laser power of 950W, a laser scan speed of 300mm/min, and a mass flow rate of 4.31 g/min. Furthermore, the research demonstrates commendable metallurgical bonding at the interface between the two dissimilar materials, affirming the feasibility of integrating them through laser cladding.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effect of Process Parameters on the Geometry of Single-Track Deposits of Inconel 718 onto AISI4140 Using Laser Cladding","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-03-19 15:32:46","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4086979/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revisions Needed","date":"2024-07-04T09:41:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2024-03-16T03:45:24+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-03-15T17:09:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-03-15T05:28:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology","date":"2024-03-12T14:35:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"the-international-journal-of-advanced-manufacturing-technology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jamt","sideBox":"Learn more about [The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology](https://www.springer.com/journal/170)","snPcode":"170","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/170/3","title":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c73dfc2c-698d-4567-ab17-bec7e5a6c777","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 19th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-09-23T16:06:55+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4086979","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-024-14276-2","journal":{"identity":"the-international-journal-of-advanced-manufacturing-technology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology"},"publishedOn":"2024-09-19 15:58:14","publishedOnDateReadable":"September 19th, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-03-19 15:32:46","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s00170-024-14276-2","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-024-14276-2","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4086979","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4086979","identity":"rs-4086979","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}