Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Growth Dynamics and Yield Results under Varied Geometry and Fertility Practices

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) 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Growth Dynamics and Yield Results under Varied Geometry and Fertility Practices Pratiksha Raj, Dr. Arunima Paliwal, Ravisankar Dubey, Aditya Raj Bisht, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6628910/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), a native of the Andes, has sparked a worldwide interest due to its unique nutritional value. Quinoa seed with magnificent nutritional food quality has gained global recognition as superfood and also called “the mother grain”. However, toachieve optimal crop yield, farmers have to manage various agronomic factors, ensuring a balanced approach to fertility levels, geometry, irrigation and pest control for maximization of growth and yield. The current investigation was conducted in kharif 2022, with genotype “EC507742” at mid-hill region of Uttarakhand, India comprising of two factors viz ., geometry (S): S1- 20 x10 cm, S2- 30 x 10 cm and S3- 40 x 10 cm in main plot and fertility levels (F): F1- Control, F2- 75% NPKS, F3- 100% NPKS and F4- 125% NPKS in sub plot with total of 12 treatment combinations that were evaluated in split plot design with three replications. The data was analysed using OPSTAT with figures from SAS (proc glm). The 30 x 10 cm spacing (S2) was particularly effective in field conditions compared to other geometries, suggesting it to be more suited for quinoa cultivation under 100% NPKS fertilizer (F3) that produced best growth dynamics, yield characteristics and overall yield for quinoa. This indicates that quinoa responds very well to this complete fertilizer mix. The interaction between the 30 x 10 cm spacing and 100% NPKS fertilizer was especially significant in yielding the highest growth dynamics and yield. Biological sciences/Plant sciences Biological sciences/Plant sciences/Plant development Quinoa Geometry Crop growth rate Yield Growth dynamics Fertility levels Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 INTODUCTION Quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa ) is a remarkable, resilient and versatile crop with deep historical roots dating back over 5,000 years. Indigenous to the Andean region of South America, it was cultivated by ancients and revered sacred status as the "mother grain". Today, quinoa has transformed from a traditional dietary staple into a sought-after superfood, embraced by health-conscious individuals worldwide. One of quinoa's most compelling attributes is its exceptional nutritional content as it is gluten-free and contains all nine essential amino acids, making it a complete protein vital for human well-being. Additionally, it is rich in dietary fibre, vitamins, minerals and antioxidants, making it a powerhouse of nutrition addressing malnutrition concerns besides promoting overall health and vitality. The rising global demand for quinoa has created significant economic opportunities for farmers and exporters in quinoa cultivating regions. As consumers recognize its nutritional benefits, the crop's market value continues to grow, becoming a vital income source for small-scale farmers. This economic advancement empowers local communities in developing areas. Fertility level can play a crucial role in enhancing seed quality of quinoa, which directly enhances the plant growth and development, besides increasing seed yields and better seed quality. Proper nutrient application also influences the nutritional composition of quinoa seeds. The research by Miranda et al., 2012 found that increasing nitrogen levels boosts seed protein content, while higher fertility levels can increase the concentration of essential minerals. However, excessive fertilization should be avoided, as it can compromise seed quality. In addition to fertility, plant geometry is key agronomic factor sympathetic crop yields (Cha et al., 2016 ). Quinoa is sensitive to afferent spacing, fertilizers types and application rate (Siavoshi et al., 2010 ). However, optimal plant density ensures efficient resource utilization like water, nutrients and sunlight resulting in better plant growth and development, higher seed production, and enhanced nutrient accumulation in seeds. Plant geometry can affect the competition for resources among individual plants, which lead to a decrease in stress and promoting more consistent seed yield. To maximize quinoa yields, farmers must adopt an integrated approach that carefully balances fertility management, plant geometry, irrigation and pest control. Optimal spacing and nutrient application ensure uniform seed development and improved germination rates, while adequate nutrient availability contributes to a high germination rate. Moreover, genetic factors and environmental conditions also significantly influence seed quality. By understanding these interconnected factors, farmers can enhance their production systems to achieve higher yields. Sustainable farming practices are essential to maintain quinoa's nutritional value while preserving ecosystem health. Considering these critical aspects, this study was conceived to determine the ideal cropping geometry and fertility levels for optimizing quinoa growth, yield characteristics and productivity in the mid-hill regions of Uttarakhand, India. MATERIALS AND METHODS The field experiment was conducted in kharif 2022 at Research and Extension Centre, Gaja, College of Forestry, Ranichauri (Tehri Garhwal), located in latitude 30 0 16’17’’ N, longitude 78 0 25’21’’ E at an altitude of 1700–1760 m above sea level in the chilly temperature. The experiment was laid out in spilt plot design with three replications having three different geometry (S1: 20 x 10 cm, S2: 30 x 10 cm and S3: 40 x 10 cm) in main plot and four fertility levels (F1: Control, F2: 75% NPKS, F3: 100% NPKS and F4: 125% NPKS) in sub plot under tropical to subtropical zone of Uttarakhand. The mean maximum and minimum temperature, rainfall, relative humidity at morning and afternoon, wind speed and bright sunshine was 24.2 0 C, 13.1 0 C, 7.7 mm, 87.1%, 76.7%, 4.0 kmph and 6.0 hr/day, respectively during the crop growing period (Fig. 1 ). The experimental soil was silty clay loam in texture with medium amount of available nitrogen (242 kg/ha) and phosphorus (22 kg/ha), high amount of available potassium (404 kg/ha) and organic carbon (0.75%) with slightly acidic pH (6.1). The genotype “EC507742” was used for the experiment, sown on 26 May 2022. The crop was supplied with recommended dose of fertilizer i.e. , NPKS 40:20:20:20 in the form of urea, NPK (12:32:16) and Bentonite S, respectively. Entire dose of NPK and S was applied as basal through placement in the furrows made with hand hoes 5 cm away from seed rows and at a depth of 2 cm below the seed zone as per the treatments. Thinning with one irrigation was provided after sowing to facilitate uniform germination of the crop at 25 days after sowing. Two hand weeding was done manually at 30 and 60 DAS to keep the crop free from weeds. During the seed formation stage, crop was attacked by sucking pest which was controlled by spraying the imidacloprid @ 0.2 ml lit − 1 of water. Anthrac nose observed after heavy rainfall in crop that was control by mancozeb @ 2 g lit − 1 of water. Growth dynamics, yield attributes and yield from random selected five plants from each net plot was recorded and the mean value was worked out. The crop was harvested on 02 September 2022. The experimental data obtained during the course of investigation was analysed by using split plot design (SPD) with OPSTAT Programme designed and development by O.P. Sheoran, Computer Programmer at CCS HAU, Hisar, India and figure from SAS (proc glm). RESULTS Growth dynamics Plant Population growth rate Plant population growth rate of quinoa was significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels at different stages of crop growth i.e. 30–60 DAS, 60–90 DAS and 90 DAS-harvest (Table 1 ). Among different geometry, significantly higher plant population growth rate was attained in S2 than other geometry. Among different fertility levels, plant population growth rate was significantly higher in F3 being at par with F4 at 30–60 DAS, F4 which was at par with F3 at 60–90 DAS and significantly higher in F4 at 90 DAS-harvest. Plant population growth rate showed significant variations in interactive effect among geometries with different fertility levels at various stages of crop growth i.e. 30–60 DAS, 60–90 DAS and 90 DAS-harvest as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher plant population growth rate was found in S2F3 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels which was at par with S2F4 and S1F4 as per tukey grouping at 30–60 DAS (Fig. 2 ) and at 60–90 DAS along with S2F2 (Fig. 3 ). However, at 90 DAS-harvest significantly higher plant population growth rate was found in S2F4 being at par with S2F3, S1F4 and S2F2 as per tukey grouping (Fig. 4 ). This significant increase might be potentially attributable to favourable conditions such as ample sunlight, moisture and accessible nutrients which are conducive to promoting rapid plant propagation, a finding corroborated by Parameswari et al. ( 2003 ). The wider spacing between plants resulted in improved growth parameters, primarily because it minimized the competition among plants for crucial resources such as space, light, moisture and nutrients, which are indispensable for their optimal growth and development. This observation concurs with the findings of Sarkar and Malik ( 2004 ). Table 1 Effect and interaction of geometry and fertility levels on growth dynamics of quinoa S. No. Treatments Plant population growth rate Crop growth rate Leaves per plant growth rate Branches per plant growth rate 30–60 DAS 60–90 DAS 90 DAS-harvest 30–60 DAS 60–90 DAS 90 DAS-harvest 30–60 DAS 60–90 DAS 30–60 DAS 60–90 DAS A. Geometry (S) S1- 20 cm x 10 cm 13.2 12.9 13.2 42.4 53.9 72.7 44.2 34.2 26.8 26.3 S2- 30 cm x 10 cm 16.7 15.9 15.7 42.8 53.5 72.4 51.7 40.6 28.3 28.0 S3- 40 cm x 10 cm 12.2 11.8 11.2 41.5 52.7 72.2 41.7 27.8 25.0 24.7 CD (0.05) 1.7 1.6 1.5 NS NS NS 1.3 3.9 0.6 1.0 B. Fertility level (F) F1- Control 9.9 9.9 9.7 33.8 46.7 69.2 31.4 21.8 24.0 23.5 F2- 75% NPKS 13.6 13.6 13.9 46.7 56.4 74.2 47.4 35.5 26.7 26.4 F3- 100% NPKS 16.5 15.2 14.1 40.2 51.6 69.5 52.8 38.7 28.3 28.1 F4- 125% NPKS 16.1 15.4 15.8 48.3 58.9 76.7 51.9 40.7 27.7 27.5 CD (0.05) 1.6 1.4 1.3 2.2 1.8 NS 2.2 3.0 1.2 1.2 Crop growth rate Crop growth rate of quinoa was not significantly influenced by geometry while it was significantly influenced by fertility levels at different stages of crop growth i.e. 30–60 DAS and 60–90 DAS except 90 DAS-harvest. Among different geometry, higher crop growth rate was attained in S2 followed by S1 and S3 at 30–60 DAS and S1 followed by S2 and S3 at 60–90 DAS and at 90 DAS-harvest. Among different fertility levels, crop growth rate was significantly higher in F4 at 30–60 DAS and at 60–90 DAS, which was statistically at par with F2 at 30–60 DAS. However, it was higher in F4 followed by F2, F3 and F1 at 90 DAS-harvest (Table 1 ). Crop growth rate showed significant variations in interactive effect among geometries with different fertility levels at various stages of crop growth i.e. 30–60 DAS and 60–90 DAS except 90 DAS-harvest as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher crop growth rate was found in S2F4 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels which was at par with S3F2 and S1F4 as per tukey grouping at 30–60 DAS (Fig. 5 ). At 60–90 DAS, it was statistically higher in S3F2 being at par with S2F4 and S1F4 (Fig. 6 ). However, at 90 DAS-harvest, there was non-significant variations in interactive effect on crop growth rate were observed among geometries with different fertility levels (Table 1 ). The diminished plant height was observed in narrow spacing that can be attributed to heightened competition among plants for essential resources such as nutrients and light. In contrast, wider spacing alleviates this competition, leading to increased plant height. These findings are in line with the research conducted by Rishi and Galwey ( 1991 ) but contradict the findings of Smitha et al. ( 2011 ). Additionally, it was noted that plant height exhibited a progressive increase with higher NPK levels, with the combination of the highest NPK levels resulting in the greatest plant height. The greater plant height can be ascribed to the abundant availability of nitrogen and phosphorus, facilitating improved photosynthesis and overall vigour. These observations are consistent with the results reported by Balliu et al. ( 2007 ), Abdelaziz et al. ( 2008 ) and Yasuor et al. ( 2013 ). Leaves per plant growth rate Leaves per plant growth rate of quinoa were significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels at different stages of crop growth i.e. 30–60 DAS and 60–90 DAS. Among different geometry, significantly higher leaves per plant growth rate were attained in S2 at different stages of crop growth. Among different fertility levels, leaves per plant growth rate were significantly higher in F3 which was at par with F4 and vice-versa at various crop growth stages (Table 1 ). Leaves per plant growth rate showed significant variations in interactive effect among geometries with different fertility levels at various stages of crop growth i.e. 30–60 DAS and 60–90 DAS as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher leaves per plant growth rate was found in S2F3 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels which was at par with S2F4 as per tukey grouping at 30–60 DAS (Fig. 7 ). At 60–90 DAS, it was statistically higher in S1F4 being at par with S2F3, S2F4 and S2F2 (Fig. 8 ). The results obtained are likely due to the augmented level of fertilizer, which stimulates the synthesis of chlorophyll and fosters vegetative growth, resulting in an increase in the number of leaves and branches in the plants. These findings are consistent with the results reported by Kumar and Sudhavani ( 2004 ). Branches per plant growth rate Branches per plant growth rate of quinoa were significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels at different stages of crop growth i.e. 30–60 DAS and 60–90 DAS. Among different geometry, significantly higher branches per plant growth rate were attained in S2 at different stages of crop growth. Among different fertility levels, branches per plant growth rate were significantly higher in F3 which was statistically at par with F4 at different crop growth stages (Table 1 ). Branches per plant growth rate showed significant variations in interactive effect among geometries with different fertility levels at various stages of crop growth i.e. 30–60 DAS and 60–90 DAS as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher branches per plant growth rate was found in S2F3 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels which was at par with S1F4, S2F4 and S2F2 as per tukey grouping at 30–60 DAS (Fig. 9 ). At 60–90 DAS, it was statistically higher in S2F3 being at par with S2F4, S1F4, S2F2 and S1F3 (Fig. 10 ). In closely spaced crops, the intense competition for light, space, moisture and nutrients leads to reduced branching and a lower leaf count. These conclusions align with the findings reported by Yeboah et al. ( 2014 ). Yield attributes and yield Panicle fresh weight (g) Panicle fresh weight of quinoa was significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels. Among different geometry, significantly higher panicle fresh weight was attained in S2. Among different fertility levels, panicle fresh weight was significantly higher in F4 being at par with F3 (Table 2 ). Significant variations in interactive effect on panicle fresh weight were observed among geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher panicle fresh weight was recorded in S2F3 which was statistically at par with S2F4 and S1F4 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping (Fig. 11 ). This could possibly be attributed to the availability of nutrients to the plants and the improved uptake of elements, especially nitrogen, resulting from the application of fertilizers. Consequently, plants exhibited enhanced nutrient absorption, leading to growth and an increase in the yield attributes and yield. The application of phosphorus may have led to an accumulation of carbohydrates, which were subsequently mobilized to the reproductive parts of the plants. The significance of potassium, a highly mobile nutrient in plants, should not be overlooked, as it plays a vital role in the elongation and division of young tissues and contributes to maintaining turgor pressure. Moreover, it improves both the quality and yield of the plants. These findings are consistent with the research conducted by Nath et al. ( 2008 ) in ajwain, Mehta et al. ( 2011 ) in fennel. Table 2 Effect and interaction of geometry and fertility levels on yield attributes and yield of quinoa S. No. Treatments Panicle fresh weight Number of fingers Finger length Seed yield Biological yield A. Geometry (S) S1- 20 cm x 10 cm 111.3 21.8 22.8 483.8 1863.6 S2- 30 cm x 10 cm 125.8 27.5 26.9 600.0 2111.2 S3- 40 cm x 10 cm 102.7 20.4 20.3 600.0 1647.2 CD (0.05) 9.5 1.7 1.8 32.2 148.3 B. Fertility level (F) F1- Control 95.0 19.0 18.7 289.4 1308.2 F2- 75% NPKS 108.7 22.6 21.6 538.9 1769.2 F3- 100% NPKS 123.9 25.7 28.2 646.5 2149.1 F4- 125% NPKS 125.5 25.7 24.8 605.2 2269.4 CD (0.05) 4.4 2.0 1.7 59.2 195.3 Number of fingers Number of fingers of quinoa was significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels. Among different geometry, significantly higher number of fingers was significantly attained in S2. Among different fertility levels, number of fingers was significantly higher in F3 which was found equal to F4 (Table 2 ). Significant variations in interactive effect on number of fingers were observed among geometries with different fertility levels with significantly higher in S2F3 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels being at par with S2F4 as per tukey grouping (Fig. 12 ). These findings are consistent with the research conducted by Nath et al. ( 2008 ) in ajwain, Mehta et al. ( 2011 ) in fennel. Finger length (cm) Finger length of quinoa was significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels. Among different geometry, higher finger length was significantly attained in S2. Among different fertility levels, finger length was significantly higher in F3 (Table 2 ). Significant variations in interactive effect on finger length were observed among geometries with different fertility levels with significantly higher in S2F3 which was statistically at par with S2F4 and S1F3 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping (Fig. 13 ). This was might be due to the application of phosphorus may have led to an accumulation of carbohydrates, which were subsequently mobilized to the reproductive parts of the plants. The significance of potassium, a highly mobile nutrient in plants, should not be overlooked, as it plays a vital role in the elongation and division of young tissues and contributes to maintaining turgor pressure. Test weight (g) Test weight of quinoa was non-significantly influenced by geometry, while it was significantly influenced by fertility levels. Among different geometry, higher test weight was attained in S2 followed by S1 and S3. Among different fertility levels, test weight was significantly higher in F3 which was found equal to F4 being statistically at par with F2. Non-significant variations in interactive effect on test weight were observed among geometries with different fertility levels (Table 2 ). Seed yield (kg/ha) Seed yield of quinoa was significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels. Among different geometry, higher seed yield was attained in S2 which was significantly equal to S3. Among different fertility levels, seed yield was significantly higher in F3 which was statistically at par with F4 (Table 2 ). Significant variations in interactive effect on seed yield were observed among geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher seed yield was found S2F3 which was statistically at par with S2F4 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping (Fig. 14 ). The application of an increased fertilizer dosage resulted in enhanced growth and yield-related traits, leading to seed yield, crop residue and biological yield. These consistent outcomes correspond to the findings of Okeleye and Okelana ( 1997 ). The lowest values of plant growth parameters were recorded in control with narrower spacing. This might be due to the fact that non-availability of nutrient at early growth period reduced the plant growth significantly. Biological yield (kg/ha) Biological yield of quinoa was significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels. Among different geometry, higher biological yield was attained in S2. Among different fertility levels, biological yield was significantly higher in F4 which was statistically at par with F3 (Table 2 ). Significant variations in interactive effect on biological yield were observed among geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher biological yield was found S2F4 which was statistically at par with S2F3 and S1F4 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping (Fig. 15 ). The enhanced reproductive growth congestion and allowed for an expanded gap between plants, facilitating enhanced sun exposure and increased nourishment. These outcomes correspond to the findings of Patel et al. ( 2008 ). CONCLUSION For maximum growth and yield of quinoa, in mid-hill region of Uttarakhand, optimal plant geometry of 30 x 10 cm with balanced fertilization of 100% NPKS can be preferred. Declarations DISCLAIMER (ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE) Author(s) hereby declare that NO generative AI technologies such as Large Language Models (ChatGPT, COPILOT etc) and text-to-image generators have been used during writing or editing of this manuscript. FUNDING AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors acknowledge the financial support provided by All India Coordinated Research Network- Potential Crops and the institutional support provided by the College of Forestry, V.C.S.G. Uttarakhand University of Horticulture and Forestry, Ranichauri, Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, for the successful conduct of the research. AUTHORS CONTRIBUTIONS PR: Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing—original draft, Investigation. AP: Supervision, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Writing—review and editing. RD: Data curation, Writing—original draft. ARB: Data curation, Writing—original draft. AK: Methodology, Data curation, Writing—review and editing. CONFLICT OF INTEREST On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. References Abdelaziz, M. E., Ahmed, A. H. H., Bekhid, R. S. & Pokluda, R. Response of growth patterns in sweet pepper to different NPK levels. Acta Universitatis Agric. Silvicultural Madelaine Brunensis . 56 (1), 241–244 (2008). Balliu, A., Bani, A. & Sulce, S. Nitrogen effects on the relative growth rate and its components of pepper ( C. annuum ) and eggplant ( Solanum melongena ) seedlings. Acta Universitatis Agric. Silviculture Madeliene Brunensis . 56 (1), 241–244 (2007). Cha, M. K., Jeon, Y. A., Son, J. E. & Cho, Y. Y. Development of planting-density growth harvest (PGH) charts for quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) and sow thistle ( Ixeris dentata Nakai) grown hydroponically in closed-type plant production systems. Hort Environ. Biotechnol. 57 (3), 213–218 (2016). Kumar, R. K. & Sudhavani, V. Effect of plant densities and phosphorus levels on the growth and yield of vegetable cowpea. Department of Horticulture, College of Horticulture, Venkataramannagudem. 534, 101 (2004). Mehta, R. S., Anwer, M. M. & Aishwath, O. P. Growth and yield of fennel ( Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) as influenced by irrigation, nutrient levels and crop geometry. J. Spices Aromatic Crop . 20 (2), 77–80 (2011). Miranda, M. et al. Nutritional aspects of six quinoa ( Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) ecotypes from three geographical areas of Chile. Chil. J. Agri Res. 72 (2), 175 (2012). Nath, P., Jaiswal, R. C., Verma, R. B. & Yadav, G. C. Effect of date of sowing, nitrogen levels and spacing on growth and yield of ajwain ( Trichi spermiammi L). J. Spices Aromatic Crops . 17 (1), 1–4 (2008). Okeleye, K. A. & Okelana, M. A. O. Effect of phosphorus fertilization on nodulation, growth and yield of cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata ) varieties. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 67 (1), 10–12 (1997). Parameswari, K., Vanangamudi, K. & Kavitha, S. Effect of spacing on hybrid seed yield of pigeon pea hybrid COPH2. J. Madras Agric. 90 , 691–696 (2003). Patel, B. S., Patel, J. C. & Sadaria, S. G. Response of blond psyllium ( Plantago ovata ) to irrigation and phosphorus. Indian J. Agronomy . 4 , 311–314 (2008). Rishi, J. & Galwey, N. W. Effect of sowing date and sowing rate on plant development and grain yield in a temperate environment. J. Agri Sci. 117 , 325–332 (1991). Sarkar, R. K. & Malik, G. C. Effect of method of planting and crop geometry on productivity of rainfed upland cotton grown low land rice fallows. Indian J. Agronomy . 49 (4), 278–281 (2004). Siavoshi, M., Nasiri, A. & Laware, S. L. Effect of organic fertilizer on growth and yield components in rice ( Oryza sativa L). J. Agri Sci. 3 (3), 217 (2010). Smitha, P. A. et al. Effect of row spacing and seed rate on growth, fodder productivity and economics of amaranth genotypes. Karnataka J. Agric. Sci. 24 (5), 651–653 (2011). Yasuor, H., Ben Gal, A., Yermiyahu, U., Beit Yannai, E. & Cohen, S. Nitrogen management of greenhouse pepper production: agronomic, Nutritional, and environmental implications. Hortic. Sci. 48 (10), 1241–1249 (2013). Yeboah, S. et al. Influence of planting methods and density on performance of chia and its suitability as an oilseed plant, Agriculture Science , 2(4), 14–26 (2014). (2014). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35798,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlant population growth rate at 30-60 DAS as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/45476bca7d83bc9386284a50.png"},{"id":83010210,"identity":"501316b2-8045-4762-940f-e070beac4d68","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-19 04:39:40","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35855,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlant population growth rate at 60-90 DAS as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/9bd0bd90096ff2952913cbb4.png"},{"id":83009506,"identity":"f39ae5e8-4fd9-4bca-87ea-5eead97a78ff","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-19 04:31:40","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":36339,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlant population growth rate at 90 DAS-harvest as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/4bc4239ecb586a8a483a4354.png"},{"id":83009516,"identity":"978e0c17-de7f-449e-81ca-9ab55a4fc2a4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-19 04:31:40","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":37556,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCrop growth rate at 30-60 DAS as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/3dcea8f8701e81b593b5c7d0.png"},{"id":83009510,"identity":"73df45cc-ab93-4736-999e-a2b6bb2cecdb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-19 04:31:40","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":32894,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCrop growth rate at 60-90 DAS as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/cb024f4bec60d72093babc93.png"},{"id":83010211,"identity":"37524252-ba5f-4cb5-bfb9-eecec7b69110","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-19 04:39:40","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":34377,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLeaves per plant growth rate at 30-60 DAS as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/1a279044e21c9d140536e594.png"},{"id":83009517,"identity":"5634b8da-ae66-4025-baa0-4df4179068d5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-19 04:31:40","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":36225,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLeaves per plant growth rate at 60-90 DAS as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/fe4eed53460d6f345028ee47.png"},{"id":83010217,"identity":"53c34464-909c-4661-9bc4-909f1e840331","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-19 04:39:40","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":38352,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBranches per plant growth rate at 30-60 DAS as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/a14abd2ef904d5167c181b64.png"},{"id":83010216,"identity":"9f7d3b6e-5cfc-465d-92a6-c8d53cf18162","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-19 04:39:40","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":39212,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBranches per plant growth rate at 60-90 DAS as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/53d60c84d8ede679a2198d62.png"},{"id":83009507,"identity":"91d9f837-ea06-499a-9370-2db62439761d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-19 04:31:40","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":37086,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePanicle fresh weight of quinoa as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/b7532cef09ddf8a67b01333f.png"},{"id":83009540,"identity":"38917673-59a0-40ad-bb96-3f37a6ca904e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-19 04:31:41","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35888,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNumber of fingers of quinoa as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/0c5ee4a79291f8cd76bf8591.png"},{"id":83009525,"identity":"6a2072c4-5dcf-4cb5-ae76-1cb6162cde4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-19 04:31:40","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"Figure 13","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35518,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFinger length of quinoa as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/eaef72559c9e70f5d5d25601.png"},{"id":83009538,"identity":"169aee00-1f15-445f-93ad-f6e7c2d232d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-19 04:31:41","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"Figure 14","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35385,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeed yield of quinoa as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"14.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/206079c4974c08f4916ea049.png"},{"id":83009519,"identity":"f2e85c84-1991-432a-b6ad-fb71f5e81358","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-19 04:31:40","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"Figure 15","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":33459,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBiological yield of quinoa as per Tukey grouping of geometry and fertility levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"15.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/24919269e5ef200a3daf1962.png"},{"id":87786344,"identity":"ec14de6e-aaa4-495d-a787-6dc54968166b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-29 04:02:04","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1900404,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6628910/v1/52b8ded2-e1a1-4e8d-b3ce-c788f375ef1f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Growth Dynamics and Yield Results under Varied Geometry and Fertility Practices","fulltext":[{"header":"INTODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eQuinoa (\u003cem\u003eChenopodium quinoa\u003c/em\u003e) is a remarkable, resilient and versatile crop with deep historical roots dating back over 5,000 years. Indigenous to the Andean region of South America, it was cultivated by ancients and revered sacred status as the \"mother grain\". Today, quinoa has transformed from a traditional dietary staple into a sought-after superfood, embraced by health-conscious individuals worldwide. One of quinoa's most compelling attributes is its exceptional nutritional content as it is gluten-free and contains all nine essential amino acids, making it a complete protein vital for human well-being. Additionally, it is rich in dietary fibre, vitamins, minerals and antioxidants, making it a powerhouse of nutrition addressing malnutrition concerns besides promoting overall health and vitality. The rising global demand for quinoa has created significant economic opportunities for farmers and exporters in quinoa cultivating regions. As consumers recognize its nutritional benefits, the crop's market value continues to grow, becoming a vital income source for small-scale farmers. This economic advancement empowers local communities in developing areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFertility level can play a crucial role in enhancing seed quality of quinoa, which directly enhances the plant growth and development, besides increasing seed yields and better seed quality. Proper nutrient application also influences the nutritional composition of quinoa seeds. The research by Miranda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e found that increasing nitrogen levels boosts seed protein content, while higher fertility levels can increase the concentration of essential minerals. However, excessive fertilization should be avoided, as it can compromise seed quality. In addition to fertility, plant geometry is key agronomic factor sympathetic crop yields (Cha et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Quinoa is sensitive to afferent spacing, fertilizers types and application rate (Siavoshi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). However, optimal plant density ensures efficient resource utilization like water, nutrients and sunlight resulting in better plant growth and development, higher seed production, and enhanced nutrient accumulation in seeds. Plant geometry can affect the competition for resources among individual plants, which lead to a decrease in stress and promoting more consistent seed yield.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo maximize quinoa yields, farmers must adopt an integrated approach that carefully balances fertility management, plant geometry, irrigation and pest control. Optimal spacing and nutrient application ensure uniform seed development and improved germination rates, while adequate nutrient availability contributes to a high germination rate. Moreover, genetic factors and environmental conditions also significantly influence seed quality. By understanding these interconnected factors, farmers can enhance their production systems to achieve higher yields. Sustainable farming practices are essential to maintain quinoa's nutritional value while preserving ecosystem health. Considering these critical aspects, this study was conceived to determine the ideal cropping geometry and fertility levels for optimizing quinoa growth, yield characteristics and productivity in the mid-hill regions of Uttarakhand, India.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe field experiment was conducted in \u003cem\u003ekharif\u003c/em\u003e 2022 at Research and Extension Centre, Gaja, College of Forestry, Ranichauri (Tehri Garhwal), located in latitude 30\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e 16\u0026rsquo;17\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo; N, longitude 78\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e 25\u0026rsquo;21\u0026rsquo;\u0026rsquo; E at an altitude of 1700\u0026ndash;1760 m above sea level in the chilly temperature. The experiment was laid out in spilt plot design with three replications having three different geometry (S1: 20 x 10 cm, S2: 30 x 10 cm and S3: 40 x 10 cm) in main plot and four fertility levels (F1: Control, F2: 75% NPKS, F3: 100% NPKS and F4: 125% NPKS) in sub plot under tropical to subtropical zone of Uttarakhand. The mean maximum and minimum temperature, rainfall, relative humidity at morning and afternoon, wind speed and bright sunshine was 24.2\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC, 13.1\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC, 7.7 mm, 87.1%, 76.7%, 4.0 kmph and 6.0 hr/day, respectively during the crop growing period (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experimental soil was silty clay loam in texture with medium amount of available nitrogen (242 kg/ha) and phosphorus (22 kg/ha), high amount of available potassium (404 kg/ha) and organic carbon (0.75%) with slightly acidic pH (6.1). The genotype \u0026ldquo;EC507742\u0026rdquo; was used for the experiment, sown on 26 May 2022. The crop was supplied with recommended dose of fertilizer \u003cem\u003ei.e.\u003c/em\u003e, NPKS 40:20:20:20 in the form of urea, NPK (12:32:16) and Bentonite S, respectively. Entire dose of NPK and S was applied as basal through placement in the furrows made with hand hoes 5 cm away from seed rows and at a depth of 2 cm below the seed zone as per the treatments. Thinning with one irrigation was provided after sowing to facilitate uniform germination of the crop at 25 days after sowing. Two hand weeding was done manually at 30 and 60 DAS to keep the crop free from weeds. During the seed formation stage, crop was attacked by sucking pest which was controlled by spraying the imidacloprid @ 0.2 ml lit\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of water. Anthrac nose observed after heavy rainfall in crop that was control by mancozeb @ 2 g lit\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e of water. Growth dynamics, yield attributes and yield from random selected five plants from each net plot was recorded and the mean value was worked out. The crop was harvested on 02 September 2022. The experimental data obtained during the course of investigation was analysed by using split plot design (SPD) with OPSTAT Programme designed and development by O.P. Sheoran, Computer Programmer at CCS HAU, Hisar, India and figure from SAS (proc glm).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGrowth dynamics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePlant Population growth rate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant population growth rate of quinoa was significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels at different stages of crop growth \u003cem\u003ei.e.\u003c/em\u003e 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS, 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS and 90 DAS-harvest (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Among different geometry, significantly higher plant population growth rate was attained in S2 than other geometry. Among different fertility levels, plant population growth rate was significantly higher in F3 being at par with F4 at 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS, F4 which was at par with F3 at 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS and significantly higher in F4 at 90 DAS-harvest. Plant population growth rate showed significant variations in interactive effect among geometries with different fertility levels at various stages of crop growth \u003cem\u003ei.e.\u003c/em\u003e 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS, 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS and 90 DAS-harvest as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher plant population growth rate was found in S2F3 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels which was at par with S2F4 and S1F4 as per tukey grouping at 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) and at 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS along with S2F2 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). However, at 90 DAS-harvest significantly higher plant population growth rate was found in S2F4 being at par with S2F3, S1F4 and S2F2 as per tukey grouping (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). This significant increase might be potentially attributable to favourable conditions such as ample sunlight, moisture and accessible nutrients which are conducive to promoting rapid plant propagation, a finding corroborated by Parameswari et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). The wider spacing between plants resulted in improved growth parameters, primarily because it minimized the competition among plants for crucial resources such as space, light, moisture and nutrients, which are indispensable for their optimal growth and development. This observation concurs with the findings of Sarkar and Malik (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect and interaction of geometry and fertility levels on growth dynamics of quinoa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS. No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant population growth rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop growth rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves per plant growth rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBranches per plant growth rate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;60 DAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026ndash;90 DAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90 DAS-harvest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;60 DAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026ndash;90 DAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90 DAS-harvest\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;60 DAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026ndash;90 DAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;60 DAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u0026ndash;90 DAS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"12\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA. Geometry (S)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eS1- 20 cm x 10 cm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eS2- 30 cm x 10 cm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eS3- 40 cm x 10 cm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCD (0.05)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"12\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eB. Fertility level (F)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF1- Control\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF2- 75% NPKS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF3- 100% NPKS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF4- 125% NPKS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCD (0.05)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCrop growth rate\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop growth rate of quinoa was not significantly influenced by geometry while it was significantly influenced by fertility levels at different stages of crop growth \u003cem\u003ei.e.\u003c/em\u003e 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS and 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS except 90 DAS-harvest. Among different geometry, higher crop growth rate was attained in S2 followed by S1 and S3 at 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS and S1 followed by S2 and S3 at 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS and at 90 DAS-harvest. Among different fertility levels, crop growth rate was significantly higher in F4 at 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS and at 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS, which was statistically at par with F2 at 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS. However, it was higher in F4 followed by F2, F3 and F1 at 90 DAS-harvest (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop growth rate showed significant variations in interactive effect among geometries with different fertility levels at various stages of crop growth \u003cem\u003ei.e.\u003c/em\u003e 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS and 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS except 90 DAS-harvest as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher crop growth rate was found in S2F4 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels which was at par with S3F2 and S1F4 as per tukey grouping at 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). At 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS, it was statistically higher in S3F2 being at par with S2F4 and S1F4 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). However, at 90 DAS-harvest, there was non-significant variations in interactive effect on crop growth rate were observed among geometries with different fertility levels (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe diminished plant height was observed in narrow spacing that can be attributed to heightened competition among plants for essential resources such as nutrients and light. In contrast, wider spacing alleviates this competition, leading to increased plant height. These findings are in line with the research conducted by Rishi and Galwey (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e) but contradict the findings of Smitha et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, it was noted that plant height exhibited a progressive increase with higher NPK levels, with the combination of the highest NPK levels resulting in the greatest plant height. The greater plant height can be ascribed to the abundant availability of nitrogen and phosphorus, facilitating improved photosynthesis and overall vigour. These observations are consistent with the results reported by Balliu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), Abdelaziz et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) and Yasuor et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLeaves per plant growth rate\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLeaves per plant growth rate of quinoa were significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels at different stages of crop growth \u003cem\u003ei.e.\u003c/em\u003e 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS and 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS. Among different geometry, significantly higher leaves per plant growth rate were attained in S2 at different stages of crop growth. Among different fertility levels, leaves per plant growth rate were significantly higher in F3 which was at par with F4 and vice-versa at various crop growth stages (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Leaves per plant growth rate showed significant variations in interactive effect among geometries with different fertility levels at various stages of crop growth \u003cem\u003ei.e.\u003c/em\u003e 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS and 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher leaves per plant growth rate was found in S2F3 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels which was at par with S2F4 as per tukey grouping at 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). At 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS, it was statistically higher in S1F4 being at par with S2F3, S2F4 and S2F2 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). The results obtained are likely due to the augmented level of fertilizer, which stimulates the synthesis of chlorophyll and fosters vegetative growth, resulting in an increase in the number of leaves and branches in the plants. These findings are consistent with the results reported by Kumar and Sudhavani (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eBranches per plant growth rate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBranches per plant growth rate of quinoa were significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels at different stages of crop growth \u003cem\u003ei.e.\u003c/em\u003e 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS and 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS. Among different geometry, significantly higher branches per plant growth rate were attained in S2 at different stages of crop growth. Among different fertility levels, branches per plant growth rate were significantly higher in F3 which was statistically at par with F4 at different crop growth stages (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Branches per plant growth rate showed significant variations in interactive effect among geometries with different fertility levels at various stages of crop growth \u003cem\u003ei.e.\u003c/em\u003e 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS and 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher branches per plant growth rate was found in S2F3 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels which was at par with S1F4, S2F4 and S2F2 as per tukey grouping at 30\u0026ndash;60 DAS (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). At 60\u0026ndash;90 DAS, it was statistically higher in S2F3 being at par with S2F4, S1F4, S2F2 and S1F3 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). In closely spaced crops, the intense competition for light, space, moisture and nutrients leads to reduced branching and a lower leaf count. These conclusions align with the findings reported by Yeboah et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eYield attributes and yield\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePanicle fresh weight (g)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePanicle fresh weight of quinoa was significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels. Among different geometry, significantly higher panicle fresh weight was attained in S2. Among different fertility levels, panicle fresh weight was significantly higher in F4 being at par with F3 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Significant variations in interactive effect on panicle fresh weight were observed among geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher panicle fresh weight was recorded in S2F3 which was statistically at par with S2F4 and S1F4 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). This could possibly be attributed to the availability of nutrients to the plants and the improved uptake of elements, especially nitrogen, resulting from the application of fertilizers. Consequently, plants exhibited enhanced nutrient absorption, leading to growth and an increase in the yield attributes and yield. The application of phosphorus may have led to an accumulation of carbohydrates, which were subsequently mobilized to the reproductive parts of the plants. The significance of potassium, a highly mobile nutrient in plants, should not be overlooked, as it plays a vital role in the elongation and division of young tissues and contributes to maintaining turgor pressure. Moreover, it improves both the quality and yield of the plants. These findings are consistent with the research conducted by Nath et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) in ajwain, Mehta et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) in fennel.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect and interaction of geometry and fertility levels on yield attributes and yield of quinoa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS. No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePanicle fresh weight\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of fingers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinger length\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeed yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiological yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA. Geometry (S)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eS1- 20 cm x 10 cm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e483.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1863.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eS2- 30 cm x 10 cm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e600.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2111.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eS3- 40 cm x 10 cm\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e600.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1647.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCD (0.05)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e148.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eB. Fertility level (F)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF1- Control\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e289.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1308.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF2- 75% NPKS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e108.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e538.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1769.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF3- 100% NPKS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e123.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e646.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2149.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF4- 125% NPKS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e605.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2269.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCD (0.05)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e195.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eNumber of fingers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of fingers of quinoa was significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels. Among different geometry, significantly higher number of fingers was significantly attained in S2. Among different fertility levels, number of fingers was significantly higher in F3 which was found equal to F4 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Significant variations in interactive effect on number of fingers were observed among geometries with different fertility levels with significantly higher in S2F3 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels being at par with S2F4 as per tukey grouping (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). These findings are consistent with the research conducted by Nath et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) in ajwain, Mehta et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) in fennel.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFinger length (cm)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinger length of quinoa was significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels. Among different geometry, higher finger length was significantly attained in S2. Among different fertility levels, finger length was significantly higher in F3 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Significant variations in interactive effect on finger length were observed among geometries with different fertility levels with significantly higher in S2F3 which was statistically at par with S2F4 and S1F3 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig13\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). This was might be due to the application of phosphorus may have led to an accumulation of carbohydrates, which were subsequently mobilized to the reproductive parts of the plants. The significance of potassium, a highly mobile nutrient in plants, should not be overlooked, as it plays a vital role in the elongation and division of young tissues and contributes to maintaining turgor pressure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTest weight (g)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTest weight of quinoa was non-significantly influenced by geometry, while it was significantly influenced by fertility levels. Among different geometry, higher test weight was attained in S2 followed by S1 and S3. Among different fertility levels, test weight was significantly higher in F3 which was found equal to F4 being statistically at par with F2. Non-significant variations in interactive effect on test weight were observed among geometries with different fertility levels (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSeed yield (kg/ha)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeed yield of quinoa was significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels. Among different geometry, higher seed yield was attained in S2 which was significantly equal to S3. Among different fertility levels, seed yield was significantly higher in F3 which was statistically at par with F4 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Significant variations in interactive effect on seed yield were observed among geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher seed yield was found S2F3 which was statistically at par with S2F4 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig14\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). The application of an increased fertilizer dosage resulted in enhanced growth and yield-related traits, leading to seed yield, crop residue and biological yield. These consistent outcomes correspond to the findings of Okeleye and Okelana (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). The lowest values of plant growth parameters were recorded in control with narrower spacing. This might be due to the fact that non-availability of nutrient at early growth period reduced the plant growth significantly.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eBiological yield (kg/ha)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiological yield of quinoa was significantly influenced by geometry and fertility levels. Among different geometry, higher biological yield was attained in S2. Among different fertility levels, biological yield was significantly higher in F4 which was statistically at par with F3 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Significant variations in interactive effect on biological yield were observed among geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping. The significantly higher biological yield was found S2F4 which was statistically at par with S2F3 and S1F4 among all the interactions between geometries with different fertility levels as per tukey grouping (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig15\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). The enhanced reproductive growth congestion and allowed for an expanded gap between plants, facilitating enhanced sun exposure and increased nourishment. These outcomes correspond to the findings of Patel et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eFor maximum growth and yield of quinoa, in mid-hill region of Uttarakhand, optimal plant geometry of 30 x 10 cm with balanced fertilization of 100% NPKS can be preferred.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDISCLAIMER (ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor(s) hereby declare that NO generative AI technologies such as Large Language Models (ChatGPT, COPILOT etc) and text-to-image generators have been used during writing or editing of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFUNDING \u0026nbsp;AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors acknowledge the financial support provided by All India Coordinated Research Network- Potential Crops and the institutional support provided by the College of Forestry, V.C.S.G. Uttarakhand University of Horticulture and Forestry, Ranichauri, Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, for the successful conduct of the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAUTHORS CONTRIBUTIONS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePR: Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing\u0026mdash;original draft, Investigation. AP: Supervision, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Writing\u0026mdash;review and editing. RD: Data curation, Writing\u0026mdash;original draft. ARB: Data curation, Writing\u0026mdash;original draft. AK: Methodology, Data curation, Writing\u0026mdash;review and editing.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCONFLICT OF INTEREST\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbdelaziz, M. E., Ahmed, A. H. H., Bekhid, R. S. \u0026amp; Pokluda, R. Response of growth patterns in sweet pepper to different NPK levels. \u003cem\u003eActa Universitatis Agric. Silvicultural Madelaine Brunensis\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e56\u003c/b\u003e (1), 241\u0026ndash;244 (2008).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBalliu, A., Bani, A. \u0026amp; Sulce, S. Nitrogen effects on the relative growth rate and its components of pepper (\u003cem\u003eC. annuum\u003c/em\u003e) and eggplant (\u003cem\u003eSolanum melongena\u003c/em\u003e) seedlings. \u003cem\u003eActa Universitatis Agric. Silviculture Madeliene Brunensis\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e56\u003c/b\u003e (1), 241\u0026ndash;244 (2007).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCha, M. K., Jeon, Y. A., Son, J. E. \u0026amp; Cho, Y. Y. 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Spices Aromatic Crop\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e20\u003c/b\u003e (2), 77\u0026ndash;80 (2011).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMiranda, M. et al. Nutritional aspects of six quinoa (\u003cem\u003eChenopodium quinoa\u003c/em\u003e Willd.) ecotypes from three geographical areas of Chile. \u003cem\u003eChil. J. Agri Res.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e72\u003c/b\u003e (2), 175 (2012).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNath, P., Jaiswal, R. C., Verma, R. B. \u0026amp; Yadav, G. C. Effect of date of sowing, nitrogen levels and spacing on growth and yield of ajwain (\u003cem\u003eTrichi spermiammi\u003c/em\u003e L). \u003cem\u003eJ. Spices Aromatic Crops\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e17\u003c/b\u003e (1), 1\u0026ndash;4 (2008).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkeleye, K. A. \u0026amp; Okelana, M. A. O. 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Effect of row spacing and seed rate on growth, fodder productivity and economics of amaranth genotypes. \u003cem\u003eKarnataka J. Agric. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e24\u003c/b\u003e (5), 651\u0026ndash;653 (2011).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYasuor, H., Ben Gal, A., Yermiyahu, U., Beit Yannai, E. \u0026amp; Cohen, S. Nitrogen management of greenhouse pepper production: agronomic, Nutritional, and environmental implications. \u003cem\u003eHortic. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e48\u003c/b\u003e (10), 1241\u0026ndash;1249 (2013).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eYeboah, S. et al. Influence of planting methods and density on performance of chia and its suitability as an oilseed plant, \u003cem\u003eAgriculture Science\u003c/em\u003e, 2(4), 14\u0026ndash;26 (2014). (2014).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Quinoa, Geometry, Crop growth rate, Yield, Growth dynamics, Fertility levels","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6628910/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6628910/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eQuinoa (\u003cem\u003eChenopodium quinoa\u003c/em\u003e Willd.), a native of the Andes, has sparked a worldwide interest due to its unique nutritional value. Quinoa seed with magnificent nutritional food quality has gained global recognition as superfood and also called “the mother grain”. However, toachieve optimal crop yield, farmers have to manage various agronomic factors, ensuring a balanced approach to fertility levels, geometry, irrigation and pest control for maximization of growth and yield. The current investigation was conducted in \u003cem\u003ekharif\u003c/em\u003e 2022, with genotype “EC507742” at mid-hill region of Uttarakhand, India comprising of two factors \u003cem\u003eviz\u003c/em\u003e., geometry (S): S1- 20 x10 cm, S2- 30 x 10 cm and S3- 40 x 10 cm in main plot and fertility levels (F): F1- Control, F2- 75% NPKS, F3- 100% NPKS and F4- 125% NPKS in sub plot with total of 12 treatment combinations that were evaluated in split plot design with three replications. The data was analysed using OPSTAT with figures from SAS (proc glm). The 30 x 10 cm spacing (S2) was particularly effective in field conditions compared to other geometries, suggesting it to be more suited for quinoa cultivation under 100% NPKS fertilizer (F3) that produced best growth dynamics, yield characteristics and overall yield for quinoa. This indicates that quinoa responds very well to this complete fertilizer mix. The interaction between the 30 x 10 cm spacing and 100% NPKS fertilizer was especially significant in yielding the highest growth dynamics and yield.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Growth Dynamics and Yield Results under Varied Geometry and Fertility Practices","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-19 04:31:35","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6628910/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"316009e1-5539-4bdc-8e6e-44d14c4863d2","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 19th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":48575771,"name":"Biological sciences/Plant sciences"},{"id":48575772,"name":"Biological sciences/Plant sciences/Plant development"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-29T03:53:58+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-19 04:31:35","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6628910","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6628910","identity":"rs-6628910","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}