Inclusion of children and youth in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Assessment Reports (AR1-AR6)

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We quantify how frequently these groups are referenced in past Assessment Reports (AR1-AR6) and conduct a thematic analysis of AR6 to unpack how climate impacts on children and youth are and are not included; references to these groups in discussions of mitigation and adaptation strategies; and the conceptual frameworks used when they are referenced. Evidence on children and youth has grown steadily in the IPCC reports, with a notable jump in AR6. In this most recent report, there is an emphasis on climate-related risks to children’s physical health and the power of youth climate activism. There is however a critical need for further funding and inclusion of research on marginalised children’s unique and intersecting vulnerabilities beyond physical health, and on the meaningful participation of both children and youth in climate measures. Scientific community and society/Social sciences/Climate change/Climate-change impacts/Environmental health Scientific community and society/Social sciences/Climate change/Climate-change impacts/Governance Scientific community and society/Social sciences/Climate change/Climate-change mitigation Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 A. Introduction The harmful impacts of climate change on children’s physical health, particularly among the most vulnerable, are well documented. [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] A growing evidence base links the escalating climate crisis with other adverse outcome among children and youth including mental health issues, [6] [7] educational exclusion, [8] [9] exposure to violence, [10] [11] [12] child marriage, [13] and child labour. [14] These impacts are set to intensify and are felt more acutely by those disadvantaged by geography, disability, race, ethnicity, gender, or socioeconomic or citizenship status. [15] [16] In addition to being disproportionately impacted by the climate crisis, [17] [18] [19] children and youth are also central to social movements calling for urgent climate action. [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] Despite their unique vulnerability and adaptive capacity, children and young people are largely excluded from climate policy, legislation, and finance frameworks, [26] [27] including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). [28] Further, climate financing and national budgets do not prioritise the social sectors responsible for children’s education, health and protection, which are critical to their wellbeing. [29] [30] The IPCC reports are the most authoritative distillation of knowledge on climate change, with wide-ranging and significant implications for scientific and popular discourse, [31] funding agendas, [32] policy and legislation, [33] research and evidence generation, [34] and climate-related litigation. [35] It has been well documented that the evidence presented reflects the procedural and political aspects of the drafting process and social and disciplinary backgrounds of the volunteer IPCC authors. [36] [37] [38] [39] Given the IPCC reports’ importance in setting the research and policy agenda for climate action, and the critical knowledge gaps surrounding what climate change means for children and youth, this piece seeks to evaluate how these groups are represented in the IPCC Assessment Reports. First, we quantify how frequently children and youth are referenced in AR1-AR6. Next, we conduct a content analysis of AR6 to assess the references to children and youth, including (i) how the risks of climate change for these groups are included or omitted (ii) the extent to which climate mitigation or adaptation responses explicitly consider them; and (iv) the conceptual lenses used in cases when they are referenced. We conclude by providing recommendations for how climate change researchers and policymakers can improve research and action to centre children’s rights, including their health, well-being and perspectives, and we call for climate policy and practice that is more responsive to the experiences and demands of marginalised children and youth. B. Results I. Historical Inclusion of Children and Youth in the IPCC Reports We find a steady increase in references to children and youth across the six IPCC Assessment Reports between 1990 and 2022 (Figure 1). In the first report (AR1, 1990), there were zero references to either children or youth. Since AR3 (2001), references to children have doubled in every assessment cycle. Meanwhile, evidence directly referencing youth has grown more slowly, with only 24 references in AR5 (2014). In the most recent IPCC report (AR6, 2021/2022), children and youth were mentioned 327 times across nearly 4000 pages. Children were mentioned overall more often ( n =240, 73%) than youth ( n =87, 27%). One quarter (26%) of references to children and one third (32%) of references to youth included them in a list, alongside two or more other groups. Two overarching context codes emerged from our analyses. First was climate risks, both existing and forecasted, making up almost two-thirds (65%, n =213) of references (Figure 2). Second was climate responses, both mitigation and adaptation interventions, making up 35% ( n =114) of references. All references were in the Working Group II report ‘Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability’ (WGII) and Working Group III report ‘Mitigation of Climate Change’ (WGIII), with none in Working Group I on the ‘Physical Science Basis’. Distribution across Working Groups and Chapters In AR6, references to children and youth were mostly in WGII ( n =274, 84%) compared to WGIII ( n =53, 16%). The distribution of references between children and youth also varied by report: in WGII there were approximately three times more references to children ( n= 209) than youth ( n= 65), while the number of references to children ( n =31) and youth ( n =22) was more evenly distributed in WGIII. In each report, the frequencies of references to children and youth varied significantly by Chapter. As shown in Figure 3, in WGII these groups appeared most often in the chapters on ‘Health, Wellbeing and the Changing Structure of Communities’ and ‘Africa’. In WGIII, they were discussed most frequently in the chapters on ‘Buildings’ and ‘Cross-sectoral Perspectives’ (more specifically, the subsection on food systems). Across the summary for policymaker (SPM) sections of these reports–their most visible element and the only section approved by politicians–there were seven references to children and youth. II. Climate risks for children and youth Most of the evidence presented on risks pertained to children (183/213, 86%). As shown in Figure 4, the risks discussed most frequently among children were physical health (35%), nutrition (22%), mortality (11%) and water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) (8%), together making up approximately three-quarters of risks described. In contrast, among youth the most commonly mentioned climate risks were mental health (23%), general burden (23%), livelihoods (17%) and migration. References categorised as general burden did not specify one particular risk, noting, for example, ‘increased vulnerability’ or ‘residual risk’. Evidence linked climate change to increases in water and sanitation-related illnesses, child and maternal malnutrition, vector-borne and infectious diseases, and respiratory illnesses, many creating severe and lifelong health challenges and leading to mortality. Children's heightened vulnerability to heat stress and other extreme weather events was a particular area of focus. Risks to mental health (children: n =10, youth: n =8) included vulnerability to post-traumatic stress following adverse climate events, climate-related anxiety and stress, and long-term cognitive impairment from air pollution and malnutrition. Evidence on livelihood risks included increased unemployment and poverty among children ( n =11) and youth ( n =6). [40] Other risks covered less comprehensively included climate-induced migration (children: n =3, youth: n =4), and risks to education and play (children: n =15, youth: n =3) resulting from extreme weather events, extreme heat and poor air quality, damage to school infrastructure and food systems, water scarcity, family migration and deepening poverty. Evidence on violence and protection-related risks linked climate change to increases in child marriage, child labour, trafficking, physical and sexual violence against children ( n =12), and young men’s involvement in organised violence ( n =1). III. Responses to Climate Change and Children and Youth The second overarching context code identified was ‘climate responses’, which captured mitigation and adaptation measures referencing children and youth. These references, each coded for one response, were split evenly between children and youth (57/114, 50%), and a majority explicitly discussed a co-benefit for these groups (67%). The climate responses most commonly mentioned for children were in the categories of economic/health/social systems and protection (28%), built environment (25%), governance and planning (18%), and community adaptation (12%) (Figure 5a). For youth, the majority of responses related to collective action and social organising (44%), and governance and planning (26%). Evidence on collective action and social organising strategies described primarily youth ( n =25) acting outside formal governance systems to influence climate discourse. Children were rarely mentioned in this context ( n =2). The report primarily references research on social movements such as the School Strikes for Climate; the impacts of advocacy around the UNFCCC negotiations and political lobbying. The reports listed increased voice and political engagement as an explicit co-benefit of these strategies ( n =2). Discussion of children ( n =10) and youth ( n =15) in the context of climate change governance and planning highlighted the importance of youth participation in these processes, and provided select examples for doing so: Children’s Commissions for national climate advocacy (WGII, Ch 6, p 973) and quotas for youth representation in the Seychelles National Climate Council (WGII, Ch 9, p 1310). The reports also underscored the need for governance and planning to account for these groups’ specific vulnerabilities: for example, WGII noted many urban SDG targets omit data on the young (Ch 6, p 912). When specified, evidence of co-benefits from these interventions included increased voice and agency, multiple or general benefits, and adaptation plans that better respond to young people’s needs. Evidence on climate responses in economic, health and social protection systems (children: n =16, youth: n =3) included efforts to improve quality and access to maternal and child health services, social safety nets, access to credit, traditional land management practices, and corporate social responsibility initiatives. Resulting co-benefits included increased health and nutrition and reduced exposure to harm. One example provided is Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Program, which is linked to improved nutrition, reduced poverty and child labour among children (WGII, Ch 7, p 1112). Discussions of climate responses related to the built environment only mentioned children ( n =14). These included electrification, energy-efficient buildings, clean cookstoves, and infrastructure investments for safe travel. This category has the most co-benefits of all those listed here: benefits in education and health, safety, and poverty alleviation. In the only mention of maladaptation from climate action, WGIII highlighted child labour in the supply chains for minerals involved in the clean energy transition (Ch 15, p 1603). Evidence on the impact of community adaptation related to local initiatives including habitat restoration and disaster risk reduction (children: n= 7, youth: n= 4). Co-benefits were most commonly framed in general terms, but health, nutrition and education benefits were also specified. AR6 included evidence on the adaptive potential of climate change education in formal school settings and eco camps for youth, and Indigenous knowledge exchange (children: n= 2, youth: n =7). Regarding food systems responses, WGII includes a standalone box and full-page figure consolidating evidence on youth adaptation in this area (WGII, Ch 5, pp 820-21), and discusses marketing regulations to ensure healthier diets for children that efficiently use natural resources. Finally, AR6 provided two examples of litigation as a response: youth public trust claims in the United States seeking to impose ‘government intergenerational liability’ for inadequate climate action and an Australian regulatory challenge that established a ‘duty of care’ to children. VI. Framing of children and youth in the IPCC reports Finally, we inductively identified nine thematic frames used when the evidence on children and youth was presented in AR6: participation, coloniality, gender, inequality/inequity, intergenerational, justice, intersectionality, rights and vulnerability. [41] We applied at least one frame code to 246 (75%) references: of these, 70% related to children and 30% to youth. The frames most commonly applied to children were inequality (35%), vulnerability (32%) and gender (19%). In contrast, the frames applied most frequently to youth were activism (24%), participation (19%), inequality (16%) and vulnerability (13%). The inequality frame described these groups as unfairly and unequally affected by climate risks compared to other groups, or described adverse impacts on children living in contexts of pre-existing inequality exacerbated by climate change. The vulnerability frame explicitly characterised children and youth as being vulnerable or at risk, without comparison to other groups. The gender frame described impacts on girls and young women, or, in very few cases, on boys and young men. Participation frames (children: n =8, youth: n =20) and activism (children: n =2, youth: n =26) most commonly related to collective action and social organising strategies and governance and planning responses, but occasionally also applied to interventions in education and food systems. C. Discussion The IPCC Assessment Reports represent the state of the art of global knowledge about the impacts of, and responses to, the climate crisis. Our analysis shows a significant increase in the focus on children and youth in AR6 compared to previous reports, and particular emphasis on the importance of youth in climate action. Despite this progress, children and youth remain peripheral: for example, the Summary for Policymakers, the reports’ most high-profile section, children are almost invisible except for two references relating to impacts on mental health and nutrition. The majority of the content relating to children in AR6 disproportionately covers climate impacts relating to physical health, the area where evidence is best developed. References to children in AR6 do not fully account for the unique and intersectional nature of risks facing children, particularly violence and education risks. While the reports repeatedly emphasise the inequitable climate burden children suffer and their overall vulnerability, over a quarter of all references to children simply list them among other marginalised groups. The IPCC itself has previously noted that climate change studies often describe children as “vulnerable” without elaboration. 5 The overall inattention to children in the IPCC reports is consistent with a recent systematic review of the literature on children, climate and health, which found “a striking lack of focus” on children, who are often included as a subpopulation of analysis without disaggregation by age or gender, or consideration of the underlying social, political and economic determinants of health. 2 It is critical that these limitations are addressed; children under 18 alone make up nearly a third of the global population, and their experience of climate impacts varies considerably. Without localised, nuanced evidence on the range of climate risks facing the most marginalized children, climate responses will not fully address their needs. Evidence on climate responses for children in AR6 focuses on the benefits children receive from interventions like clean cookstoves and electrification while the role of structural interventions is rarely mentioned and education for children receives just two mentions. Yet education is a central component of sustainable development, [42] and evidence suggests that education, particularly for girls, is among the most impactful mitigation interventions. [43] Just as children are peripheral to the IPCC reports, they remain so in climate policy and practice, especially in areas beyond health. Of the countries with new or revised climate plans, only one third include provisions addressing children’s needs and priorities. 27 Of 571 projects supported by multilateral climate funds over 17 years, just one targeted education. 30 And country-level cost estimates for climate adaptation allocate merely 2% of financing for health, while overlooking education and social protection entirely. 29 The evidence on youth in AR6 has similarly expanded from previous reports. The progress on including youth relates to climate responses. The section discussing youth and food systems is a positive example of a more holistic treatment of climate risks. Here, WGII includes evidence on the role of youth as employees and innovators in food systems, while also noting the climate risks they face in that sector, from migration to lack of access to education and skills training, and the ways those challenges are shaped by wealth, gender and background. AR6 prominently presents the growing evidence on the power and importance of youth involvement in climate action, including in the Summary for Policymakers. Here, the primary focus is on UNFCCC advocacy and mass mobilizations, reflecting an overemphasis in the underlying literature on activism by mostly White and middle-class youth in the global North. 20 Meanwhile, youth participation is framed in largely aspirational terms. This points to an immense and unjust burden being placed on youth who are systematically marginalised from climate decision-making and relatively absent from the evidence base used to guide climate action, but also relied on to provide “alternative visions of the future” (WGII) and “shift the possibility space of public policy” (WGIII). Children’s climate activism is mentioned just twice in AR6, and there is no reference to the literature on the challenges associated with fulfilling children’s procedural rights in this context, including a lack of voting rights, barriers in access to justice, increasing State pushback to children’s civil and political rights, and their marginalisation from climate decision-making spaces. [44] [45] 19 20 25 26 True ‘empowered inclusion’ [46] requires more than children’s placement in governance processes designed for adults, including cultural changes in attitudes and beliefs. To holistically incorporate children into the climate change evidence base, a child-rights approach is useful. The Convention on the Rights of the Child provides a globally-ratified, enforceable legal framework enumerating children’s entitlements, emphasises that those entitlements are interdependent and interrelated, and draws particular attention to the most marginalised children. A child-rights approach illuminates the structural, economic, social and biological ways in which climate change affects children. [47] [48] Within this approach ‘the process is as important as the result’, meaning that children’s rights to freedom of expression, peaceful assembly, information and education, participation and effective remedies are required for effective action. 19 The IPCC reports indicate how the global community of climate scientists conceptualises the problem of climate change and prioritises solutions. Our findings suggest children and youth are portrayed in AR6 as either peripheral climate victims or climate heroes, similar to the analysis of Indigenous People in AR5 by Ford et al. [49] This analysis reflects the underlying body of evidence on climate change and children and youth, which itself relates to funding priorities and diverse socio-political factors, including these groups’ influence over political and social climate discourse. Our findings are also a product of the IPCC itself, its recent efforts to meaningfully incorporate social science and humanities knowledge into AR6, [50] [51] and the expertise and identities of its volunteer authors. 38 To enhance the comprehensiveness of future IPCC reports, there is a critical need for funding and inclusion of more research on climate change, children and youth. This research should define these groups clearly, and focus on the areas and populations worst impacted, the unique impacts on children and youth that remain understudied, and the ways that the intersections of age, gender, poverty, geography, and other forms of exclusion impact the climate risks and responses. A child rights approach is recommended for this research with a commitment to inequality and intersectionality. There is also scope for increased expertise on children and youth in the IPCC drafting process, and participation of those demographics. These steps would contribute to more effective and nuanced climate action, and recognition of children and youth as valued stakeholders. D. Methods Keyword search (AR1- AR6) First, to identify references to children and youth in AR1 to AR6 reports, we performed keyword searches for children (baby, infant, child, children, girl, boy, minor, minors) and youth (youth, young people, young person, young woman/women, young man/men, adolescent, adolescence, teenager). Content analysis of AR6 We conducted a content analysis of the most recent IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6). We searched the reports of ‘Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis’, ‘Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability’ and ‘Working Group III: Mitigation of Climate Change’. For each AR6 report, we excluded references in the Cross-Chapters, Technical Summaries (which replicated content from elsewhere in the report), Annexes, Indexes, and lists of references. Each paragraph containing one or more keywords related to children or young people was counted as one reference and extracted into an Excel spreadsheet. Multiple references to children or youth in a table, box or figure were counted as unique if they made a different point. Our approach was informed by methods for conventional content analysis, [52] frame analysis approaches, [53] and the methodological approach used by Ford et al. in their analysis of the inclusion of indigenous knowledge and experience in the IPCC assessment report (AR5). 50 To develop codes and coding categories, we read a sample of the references to children and youth, identifying codes inductively through familiarisation. We developed a draft coding framework based on themes emerging from the references to children and youth we reviewed. Coding was completed by three authors (ED, AB, OK) in three stages: (i) Trial round: We trial-coded a small sample of references to children and young people, evaluated the coding framework for accuracy and reliability, and refined the coding categories. (ii) Full coding: we coded all extracted references while revising and defining coding categories. [54] For each coding category, key examples and decision rules were identified. We coded collaboratively to enforce systematicity, clarity and transparency. [55] Combining perspectives allowed for critical reflection and consistency. [56] (iii) Code refinement and quality checking: we reviewed all coded references and merged coding categories, added new coding categories, and cross checked coding categories. For any new coding categories included at this stage, we complete all prior stages of the coding process to ensure new categories were tested before being applied to the full sample of references. Each reference to children or youth was coded by one researcher and reviewed by a second researcher independently reviewing the extracted text to ensure consistency and minimise bias. To ensure consistency, a third researcher checked to see if all data had been accurately coded, with any divergences in interpretation discussed in frequent meetings where the coding framework was refined and finalised. [57] Our coding framework included content, context, and frame codes (Supplementary Table 1). Content codes included the type and location of the reference to children and youth. Context codes identified how content about children and youth was referenced in AR6 and which aspects were salient. Frame codes identified how the content on children and youth was framed and what was made salient. Content code s included the following coding categories: Working group number, chapter, page number, whether the reference was in the Summary for Policymakers or the Technical Summary, and whether the reference mentioned children or youth. References that mentioned both children and youth were counted in both categories. Each reference was assigned a set of content codes. We identified two overarching context codes: climate risks and climate responses. Climate risks included 10 coding categories pertaining to negative climate impacts on outcomes for children and young people: physical health, mental health; mortality; nutrition; water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH); violence and child protection, livelihoods, migration, education and play, and general burden. General burden was used where the reports identified a generalised risk, for example, ‘increased vulnerability’ or ‘residual risk’. Each reference was assigned up to two out of the 10 coding categories for climate risks. The second set of context codes was related to climate responses and co-benefits. Climate responses included 8 coding categories for mitigation and adaptation interventions: food production/systems; litigation, economic/health/social systems and protection, climate-change education; community adaptation, the built environment, and governance and planning. The ‘Co-benefits’ of these climate responses were coded where the response specifically mentioned a positive outcome for children and youth (beyond a generalied mitigation or adaptation benefit). These co-benefits included: education and play; general benefits, health; livelihoods, nutrition, violence and child protection, and; voice and political engagement. Each reference was assigned one climate response and one co-benefit. In keeping with the Ford et al. (2016) approach, we inductively identified ‘frames’ used to discuss children and youth. 50 Framing shapes how researchers think about an issue, how reactions to the issues, and who is held accountable. We identified the 10 frame codes: activism, coloniality, gender, inequality/inequity, intersectionality, intergenerational justice, justice, participation, rights, and vulnerability. Each reference was assigned a maximum of two frame codes. Analysis We conducted descriptive analyses stratified by children and youth. We calculated the total count of references related to children and youth across the entirety of each report, AR1-AR6, to assess the changes in references to children and youth between AR1 (1990) and AR6 (2021/22). Our primary analysis focused on the AR6 report. First, we then described content code frequencies to show the distribution of references for each AR6 Working Group and by Chapter. To answer our first two research questions, on which climate risks and responses in AR6 included children and youth, we counted the total number of references to children and youth which related to the two context codes -- risks and responses. For each context code, we described each of the coding categories and calculated the frequency and percentage of references within each context code in each coding category. For the climate responses context code, we additionally included illustrative quotations for each coding category and a description and count of the co-benefits for each climate response coding category. Our final research question related to frames used when children and youth were referenced. We report frequencies and percentages of the frame codes are distributed across the ten coding categories. Limitations and strengths Our approach has several key limitations. Our coding approach was generous -- we included any mention of the keywords related to children and youth, including in a list of other groups, and in cases where there was limited substantive content referring to children and youth specifically. If we had applied more stringent criteria to our definition of referring to a child, we would have found fewer mentions. We may, therefore, overestimate the number of references to children. The sample sizes were not large enough to disaggregate by sex, gender, disability or other axes of discrimination and marginalisation. The Analysis only includes evidence in the IPCC reports published in 2021 and 2022, which do not reflect all existing evidence of climate change and children. Other key documents, including those at the national level also shape climate policy and climate finance are not included in this analysis and are a key area for future research and analysis. Our approach also has several key strengths. We comprehensively review every reference to children and youth in the AR6 report in a consistent manner and outline all the climate risks and responses that relate to children and youth as well as the frames used to discuss children and young people. Our analysis can be used to both describe the current state of evidence on children and youth in the AR6 IPCC report and to identify gaps and silences in the evidence included in the AR6 report. Footnotes [1] Bunyavanich, S., Landrigan, C. P., McMichael, A. J. & Epstein, P. R. The Impact of Climate Change on Child Health. Ambulatory Pediatrics 3 , (2003). [2] Helldén, D., Andersson, C., Nilsson, M., Ebi, K. L., Friberg, P. & Alfvén, T. Climate change and child health: a scoping review and an expanded conceptual framework. The Lancet Planetary Health 5 , 164-175 (2021). 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Substantive guidance from United Nations Committee on international law obligations for a child rights-based approach to environmental protection. [20] Neas, S., Ward, A. & Bowman, B. Young people's climate activism: A review of the literature. Front. Polit. Sci . 4 (2022). [21] Lawson, D., Stevenson, K., Peterson, M., Carrier, S., Strnad, R. & Seekamp, E. Children can foster climate change concern among their parents. Nature Clim. Change 9 , 458-462 (2019). [22] The last hope for the climate. Lancet Child & Adolescent Health 5 , P837 (2021). [23] Thew, H., Middlemiss, L. & Paavola, J. Youth is not a political position: exploring justice claims-making in the UN climate change negotiations. Glob. Environ. Change 61 (2020). [24] Donger, E. Children and youth in strategic climate litigation: advancing rights through legal argument and legal mobilization. Transnational Environ. Law 11 , 263-289 (2022). [25] Ritchie, J. Movement from the margins to global recognition: climate change activism by young people and in particular indigenous youth. International Studies in Sociology of Education 30 , 1-20 (2020). [26] Pegram, J. Overlooked and undermined: child rights and climate change in Routledge Handbook of Human Rights and Climate Governance (eds. Duyck, S., Jodoin, S. & Johl, A.) 259-26 (Routledge 2018). [27] Making Climate and Environment Policies for & with Children and Young People (UNICEF, 2021). A report that evaluates published Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for “child sensitivity.” [28] Incorporating Child Rights Into Climate Action: Position Paper for Cop 27 by Children’s Environmental Rights Initiative (CERI, 2022). [29] Agg, C. Monitoring the Social Costs of Climate Change for Low- and Middle-income Countries: Social Spending Monitor Policy Brief (UNICEF, 2022). [30] Falling short: addressing the climate finance gap for children by Children’s Environmental Rights Initiative (CERI, 2023). A study that evaluates key financial mechanisms serving the UNFCCC. [31] Boykoff, M. & Pearman, O. Now or never: how media coverage of the IPCC special report on 1.5°C shaped climate-action deadlines. One Earth 1 , 285-288 (2019). [32] Hulme, M. 1.5°C and Climate Research after the Paris Agreement. Nat. Clim. Chang. 6 , 222–224 (2016). [33] Ravindranath, N. H. IPCC: accomplishments, controversies and challenges. Curr. Sci. 99 , 26–35 (2010). [34] Vasileiadou, E., Heimeriks, G. & Petersen, A. C. Exploring the impact of the IPCC assessment reports on science. Environ. Sci. Policy 14 , 1052–1061 (2011). [35] Stuart-Smith, R.F., Otto, F.E.L., Saad, A.I., Lisi, G., Minnerop, P., Lauta, K. C., van Zwieten, K & Wetzer, T. Filling the evidentiary gap in climate litigation. Nat. Clim. Chang . 11 , 651–655 (2021). [36] Standring, A. Participant Diversity in A Critical Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds. De Pryck K. & Hulme M.) 61-70 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2021). [37] Borie, M., et al. Knowing like a global expert organisation: Comparative insights from the IPCC and IPBES. Glob. Environ. Change 68 (2021). [38] Corbera, E., Calvet-Mir, L., Hughes, H. and Paterson, M. Patterns of authorship in the IPCC Working Group III report. Nat. Clim. Change 6 , 94–99 (2016). [39] Though the IPCC does not define these demographics, children are defined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child as anybody under age 18, and while youth are defined variably, this group is generally understood to encompass people ages 15-24, up to 35 in some cases. See United Nations. Global Issues: Youth. https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/youth . Yona, L. et al. Applying a Leverage Points Framework to the United Nations Climate Negotiations. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene 8 , 36 (2020). [40] Salmeron-Gomez, D., Engilbertsdottir, S., Cuesta Leiva, J. A., Newhouse, D. & Stewart, D. Global Trends in Child Monetary Poverty According to International Poverty Lines (World Bank, 2023). [41] For full details on the frame code development definitions and application, see online methods section. [42] United Nations. Goal 4: Quality education. (2020). [43] Namasivayam, A., Graves, A., Kwauk, C. & Frischmann C. Drawdown’s Health and Education Solution (Project Drawdown, 2022). [44] Principles and barriers for meaningful youth participation (United Nations Major Group for Children and Youth, 2017). [45] Warming, H. Children’s participation and citizenship in a global age: Empowerment, tokenism or discriminatory disciplining? Social Work and Society 9 , 119–134 (2011). [46] Josefsson, J. & Wall, J. Empowered inclusion: theorizing global justice for children and youth. Globalizations 17 , 1043-1060 (2020). [47] Satterthwaite, D. The environment for children: understanding and acting on the environmental hazards that threaten children and their parents (Routledge, 1996). [48] Fitzmaurice, M & Fijalkowski, A (eds). The Right of the Child to a Clean Environment (Routledge, 2017). [49] Ford, J. D., Cameron, J., Rubis, M., Maillet, Douglas N., Willox, A.C. & Pearce, T. Including indigenous knowledge and experience in IPCC assessment reports. Nature Clim Change 6 , 349–353 (2016). [50] IPCC. Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds. Pörtner, H-O. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2022). At 1-3. [51] IPCC. Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Working Group III contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds. Skea, J. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2022). At 5-8. [52] Hsieh, H.-F. & Shannon, S. E. Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research 15 , 1277–1288 (2005). [53] Entman, R. M. Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. J. of Commun. 43 , 51–58 (1993). [54] Schreier, M. Qualitative content analysis in practice (Sage Publications, 2012). [55] Hall, W., Long, B., Bermbach, N., Jordan, S. & Patterson, K. Qualitative teamwork issues and strategies: coordination through mutual adjustment. Qualitative Health Research 15 , 394-410 (2005). [56] Gillespie, A. Position exchange: the social development of agency. New Ideas in Psychology 30 , 32-46 (2012). [57] Gaskell, G. & Bauer, M. Towards public accountability: beyond sampling, reliability and validity in Qualitative researching with text, image and sound (eds. Gaskell, G. & Bauer, M) 336-350 (Sage Publications, 2000). Supplementary Table Supplementary Table 1: Coding framework Research questions Type of code Coding categories To what extent is content related to children and youth included in AR1- AR6? In which working groups and chapters of AR6 is content on children and youth most frequently included? Content codes Children (key words: baby, infant, child, children, girl, boy, minor, minors) Youth (key words: youth, young people, young person, young woman/women, young man/men, adolescent, adolescence, teenager) Working group information (WG number, chapter title, page number) Summary for policymakers (Yes/no) Technical summary (Yes/no) Text (key paragraph or table/figure number and information extracted which contained the key words related to children/youth) To what extent are the risks of climate change to children and young people included or omitted in the IPCC AR6 report? What kinds of risks to children and youth are included? To what extent does the IPCC AR6 report include evidence on children and youth in relation to mitigation or adaptation interventions? In the context of which climate responses do references to children and youth most frequently occur? Context codes Climate risks . Up to two of the following coding categories were selected: Education and play (enrolment, attendance, loss of education, risk to education, school participation, schooling, play_ General burden (no definition of specific risks, or reference to additional risk(s) or harm(s) to children/youth) Livelihoods (loss of or risk to livelihoods, poverty, income loss, employment) Mental health Migration Mortality Nutrition (food systems, food insecurity, malnutrition, obesity) Physical health (diarrhoea, malaria, pneumonia) Violence & child protection (child labour, child marriage, violence, exploitation) WASH (access to water, water scarcity, distance to water, sanitation, water related hazards) Climate responses . One of the following coding categories were selected: Built environment (infrastructure, buildings, distribution systems that provide water, fuel, electricity (including at the household level), roads, bridges, and transportation systems) Climate-change education (awareness raising, informal and formal education, workshops and sensitisation) Collective action and social organising (social movements, civic engagement, activism, non-violent civil disobedience include strikes) Community adaptation (community and grassroots adaptation efforts) Economic/health/social systems and protection (cash transfers, economic development, CSR initiatives, health promotion, health systems) Food production/systems Governance and planning (inclusion of children and young people -- among other actors -- in designing or providing feedback on adaptation and mitigation efforts) Litigation Co-benefits. One of the following coding categories were selected: Additional/multiple benefits (multiple additional benefits) Education and play (enrollment, attendance, loss of education, risk to education, play) General benefit (no definition of specific benefit, or reference to general benefit to children/youth) Health (diarrhoea, malaria, pneumonia, health) Livelihoods Nutrition (food systems, food insecurity, malnutrition, obseity) Violence & child protection (child labour, child marriage, violence, exploitation) Voice and political engagement No co-benefit specified Which conceptual lenses and frameworks are used in cases when children and youth are referenced? Frame codes Lenses/frameworks . Up to two of the following coding categories were selected: Activism (reference to children or youth leading or participating in climate activism) Coloniality (reference to colonial/ coloniality) Gender (uses one of the following terms; gender, gender norms, women's empowerment, GBV, girls, or reference to improved outcomes/disproportionate impacts for girls/young women or boys/young men) Inequality/inequity (reference to equity, equality, inequality, inequity, worst off/worse off, or worst/worse off compared to another group) Intersectionality (reference to intersectionality or intersections of multiple intersecting risks/harms) Intergenerational justice (reference to (inter)generation/ generational or references changes between generations and ideas of justice across generations) Justice (reference to justice or legal challenges) Participation (reference to children or young people participating in climate responses) Rights (a reference to child rights, human rights, rights based governance) Vulnerability/vulnerable group (reference to vulnerable/vulnerability, high risk group, or a list of groups that are impacted without stating if they are worse off) . Notes: References in the Technical Summaries were excluded as they were repetitive with the chapter. All text that related to the content about children or youth was included. As much as possible we extracted the full paragraph, or row of a table. If key words for children or youth were referenced multiple times in this text section, we coded for children or youth only once. "Younger populations" and "younger generations" and "younger individuals" and "younger age groups" were not included. Sometimes we did not code for “vulnerability” frame if other frames (inequality) were more salient, even if terms relevant to vulnerability were used. Reference List Agg, C. Monitoring the Social Costs of Climate Change for Low- and Middle-income Countries: Social Spending Monitor Policy Brief (UNICEF, 2022). Borie, M., et al. Knowing like a global expert organisation: Comparative insights from the IPCC and IPBES. Glob. Environ. Change 68 (2021). Boykoff, M. & Pearman, O. Now or never: how media coverage of the IPCC special report on 1.5°C shaped climate-action deadlines. One Earth 1 , 285-288 (2019). Bunyavanich, S., Landrigan, C. P., McMichael, A. J. & Epstein, P. R. The Impact of Climate Change on Child Health. Ambulatory Pediatrics 3 , (2003). Corbera, E., Calvet-Mir, L., Hughes, H. and Paterson, M. Patterns of authorship in the IPCC Working Group III report. Nat. Clim. Change 6 , 94–99 (2016). Committee on the Rights of the Child, General comment No. 26 on children’s rights and the environment with a special focus on climate change, UN Doc. CRC/C/GC/26 (2023). Crandon, T.J., Scott, J.G., Charlson, F.J. et al. A social–ecological perspective on climate anxiety in children and adolescents. Nat. Clim. Chang . 12 , 123–131 (2022). Cuartas, J. et al. The climate crisis and violence against children. Lancet Child Adolesc. Health (2023). Cutter-Mackenzie, A., & Rousell, D. Education for what? shaping the field of climate change education with children and young people as co-researchers. Children’s Geographies 17 , 90–104 (2018). Donger, E. Children and youth in strategic climate litigation: advancing rights through legal argument and legal mobilization. Transnational Environ. Law 11 , 263-289 (2022). Ebi, K.L. & Paulson J. A. Climate change and children. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 54 , 213-226 (2007). Entman, R. M. Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. J. of Commun. 43 , 51–58 (1993). Fitzmaurice, M & Fijalkowski, A (eds). The Right of the Child to a Clean Environment (Routledge, 2017). Falling short: addressing the climate finance gap for children by Children’s Environmental Rights Initiative (CERI, 2023). Ford, J. D., Cameron, J., Rubis, M., Maillet, Douglas N., Willox, A.C. & Pearce, T. Including indigenous knowledge and experience in IPCC assessment reports. Nature Clim Change 6 , 349–353 (2016). Gaskell, G. & Bauer, M. Towards public accountability: beyond sampling, reliability and validity in Qualitative researching with text, image and sound (eds. Gaskell, G. & Bauer, M) 336-350 (Sage Publications, 2000). Gillespie, A. Position exchange: the social development of agency. New Ideas in Psychology 30 , 32-46 (2012). Greenfield, M. H. An urgent need to reassess climate change and child labour in agriculture. The Lancet Planetary Health 6 , E456-E457 (2022). Hall, W., Long, B., Bermbach, N., Jordan, S. & Patterson, K. Qualitative teamwork issues and strategies: coordination through mutual adjustment. Qualitative Health Research 15 , 394-410 (2005). Helldén, D., Andersson, C., Nilsson, M., Ebi, K. L., Friberg, P. & Alfvén, T. Climate change and child health: a scoping review and an expanded conceptual framework. The Lancet Planetary Health 5 , 164-175 (2021). Hickman, C., Marks, E., Pihkala, P., Clayton, S., Lewandowski, R. E., Mayall, E. E., Wray, B., Mellor, C. & van Susteren, L. Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: a global survey. The Lancet 15 , 863-873 (2021). Hsieh, H.-F. & Shannon, S. E. Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research 15 , 1277–1288 (2005). Hulme, M. 1.5°C and Climate Research after the Paris Agreement. Nat. Clim. Chang. 6 , 222–224 (2016). Human Rights Watch. Marry before your house is swept away: child marriage in Bangladesh (2015). Incorporating Child Rights Into Climate Action: Position Paper for Cop 27 by Children’s Environmental Rights Initiative (CERI, 2022). IPCC. Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (eds. Field, C. B. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2012). IPCC. Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds. Pörtner, H-O. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2022). At 1-3. IPCC. Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Working Group III contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds. Skea, J. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2022). At 5-8. Josefsson, J. & Wall, J. Empowered inclusion: theorizing global justice for children and youth. Globalizations 17 , 1043-1060 (2020). Lawson, D., Stevenson, K., Peterson, M., Carrier, S., Strnad, R. & Seekamp, E. Children can foster climate change concern among their parents. Nature Clim. Change 9 , 458-462 (2019). Lloyd, S. J., Bangalore, M., Chalabi, Z., Kovats, R. S., Hallegatte, S., Rozenberg, J., Valin, H. & Havlík, P. A global-level model of the potential impacts of climate change on child stunting via income and food price in 2030. Environ. Health Perspect. 126 , (2018). Lori, P. Children and disasters: understanding vulnerability, developing capacities, and promoting resilience: an introduction. Child Youth Environ. 18 , 1–29 (2008). Making Climate and Environment Policies for & with Children and Young People (UNICEF, 2021). Namasivayam, A., Graves, A., Kwauk, C. & Frischmann C. Drawdown’s Health and Education Solution (Project Drawdown, 2022). Neas, S., Ward, A. & Bowman, B. Young people's climate activism: A review of the literature. Front. Polit. Sci . 4 (2022). Peek, L. & Stough, L.M. Children with disabilities in the context of disaster: a social vulnerability perspective. Child Development 81 , 1260-1270 (2010). Pegram, J. Overlooked and undermined: child rights and climate change in Routledge Handbook of Human Rights and Climate Governance (eds. Duyck, S., Jodoin, S. & Johl, A.) 259-26 (Routledge 2018). Principles and barriers for meaningful youth participation (United Nations Major Group for Children and Youth, 2017). Ravindranath, N. H. IPCC: accomplishments, controversies and challenges. Curr. Sci. 99 , 26–35 (2010). Ritchie, J. Movement from the margins to global recognition: climate change activism by young people and in particular indigenous youth. International Studies in Sociology of Education 30 , 1-20 (2020). Salmeron-Gomez, D., Engilbertsdottir, S., Cuesta Leiva, J. A., Newhouse, D. & Stewart, D. Global Trends in Child Monetary Poverty According to International Poverty Lines (World Bank, 2023). Satterthwaite, D. The environment for children: understanding and acting on the environmental hazards that threaten children and their parents (Routledge, 1996). Schreier, M. Qualitative content analysis in practice (Sage Publications, 2012). Seddighi, S., Salamani, I., Javadi Seddighi, M. H., & Seddighi, S. Child abuse in natural disasters and conflicts: a systematic review. Trauma, Violence & Abuse 22 , 176–185 (2019) Sheffield P. E., Landrigan P. J. Global climate change and children’s health: threats and strategies for prevention. Environ. Health Perspect. 119 , 291-298 (2011) Standring, A. Participant Diversity in A Critical Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds. De Pryck K. & Hulme M.) 61-70 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2021). Stuart-Smith, R.F., Otto, F.E.L., Saad, A.I., Lisi, G., Minnerop, P., Lauta, K. C., van Zwieten, K & Wetzer, T. Filling the evidentiary gap in climate litigation. Nat. Clim. Chang . 11 , 651–655 (2021). The Climate Crisis is a Child Rights Crisis: Introducing the Children’s Climate Risk Index (UNICEF, 2021). The last hope for the climate. Lancet Child & Adolescent Health 5 , P837 (2021). Thew, H., Middlemiss, L. & Paavola, J. Youth is not a political position: exploring justice claims-making in the UN climate change negotiations. Glob. Environ. Change 61 (2020). United Nations. Global Issues: Youth. https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/youth . United Nations. Goal 4: Quality education. (2020). Vasileiadou, E., Heimeriks, G. & Petersen, A. C. Exploring the impact of the IPCC assessment reports on science. Environ. Sci. Policy 14 , 1052–1061 (2011). Ward, M. E., Shelley, K., Kaase, K., & Pane, J. F. Hurricane Katrina: a longitudinal study of the achievement and behavior of displaced students. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk 13 , 297-317 (2008) Warming, H. Children’s participation and citizenship in a global age: Empowerment, tokenism or discriminatory disciplining? Social Work and Society 9 , 119–134 (2011). Watts, N., Amann, M., Arnell, N., Ayeb-Karlsson, S., Belesova, K., Boykoff, M., Byass, P., Cai, W., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Capstick, S. & Chambers, J. The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate. The Lancet 394 , 1836-1878 (2019). Yona, L. et al. Applying a Leverage Points Framework to the United Nations Climate Negotiations. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene 8 , 36 (2020). Additional Declarations There is NO Competing Interest. Supplementary Files FINALNCCSuppInfoDataset.xlsx Supplementary Data Set 1 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 04 Jul, 2025 Read the published version in Nature Communications → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4192923","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":325827013,"identity":"d91e4ac8-24c7-440c-b584-5a5bf539b0bf","order_by":0,"name":"Elizabeth Donger","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAuElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCQbDhx8qbCAcHiK1GBtLnEkjTYuZBG/bYRK08Es3b5CQbDufZ3AjgfHB2zYitEjOOVZgUHDudjFQC7PhXGK0GNzIMUiQKLuduOFGAps0LzFa7IFaDvCwnQNpYf9NlBYDiRzDBp62A2BbmInSInEjrZhZ4kxy4swzD5sl55wjQgv/jOTtPz9U2CX2HU8++OFNGRFa4EDhAGMDKeqBQJ5UDaNgFIyCUTByAABOwzttKLeHEAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"New York University School of Law","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Elizabeth","middleName":"","lastName":"Donger","suffix":""},{"id":325827014,"identity":"2c96bbbc-3361-4c0d-8c43-c35ee20a348a","order_by":1,"name":"Amiya Bhatia","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Department of Social Policy and Intervention, Oxford University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Amiya","middleName":"","lastName":"Bhatia","suffix":""},{"id":325827015,"identity":"d2c54110-5a3b-4af3-83da-7a23a36df739","order_by":2,"name":"Joni Pegram","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Project Dryad and Children’s Environmental Rights Initiative (CERI)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Joni","middleName":"","lastName":"Pegram","suffix":""},{"id":325827016,"identity":"51787e25-c575-48ab-a41a-8896418b6339","order_by":3,"name":"Orla Kelly","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University College Dublin","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Orla","middleName":"","lastName":"Kelly","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-03-30 16:05:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4192923/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4192923/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-60266-7","type":"published","date":"2025-07-04T04:00:00+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":61808159,"identity":"a2fea9b2-abb4-46c1-9272-263866143d14","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-05 19:59:50","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":63576,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eReferences to children in past IPCC reports\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 1 shows counts for children (including baby, infant, child, children, girl, boy, minor, minors) and youth (including youth, young people, young person, young woman/women, young man/men, adolescent, adolescence, teenager) across past IPCC Assessment Reports (AR1 – AR6), excluding all Cross-Chapters, the Technical Summary, Annexes, Index, and References.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4192923/v1/2a0a4ae88728130d23524c56.png"},{"id":61808152,"identity":"791c208c-bb60-46e0-98e7-8c6e3103f58b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-05 19:59:49","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":73485,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSummary of references to children and youth in AR6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 2 shows the distribution of total references to children and youth (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=327) in AR6 by climate risks and responses. Paragraphs/text extracts referring to both children and youth (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=19) are included in both categories. Image created using SankeyMATIC.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4192923/v1/8312fd0b565f6e8a35bc463c.png"},{"id":61808448,"identity":"3b9fc112-f823-4f53-9202-75395a2493cc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-05 20:07:49","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":221250,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of references to children and youth in AR6 WGII and WGIII by chapter\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4192923/v1/721f2ab152f5f68ec629c854.png"},{"id":61808446,"identity":"fc70b110-e612-4f7d-9740-7e467a4d8e83","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-05 20:07:49","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":69156,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eClimate-related risks for children and youth in AR6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e213 references to children and youth in IPCC AR6 (2021) discussed climate-related risks. Each of these references was coded for up to two risks. The graph shows the type of risks discussed as a percentage of the total number of risks related to children (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=273) and young people (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=35)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4192923/v1/fef5770032e7014061d9461b.png"},{"id":61809650,"identity":"21ec3336-3b91-471a-bbfa-51fb481c3d21","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-05 20:15:49","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":477112,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResponses (5a) and co-benefits (5b) described for children and youth in AR6\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4192923/v1/8236fb2a001281478591329e.png"},{"id":61811180,"identity":"bfab92aa-79ec-4d47-805b-891e9b6fc52d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-05 20:23:49","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":93728,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFraming of references discussing children and youth in AR6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEach of the 327 references to children and youth in IPCC AR6 was coded for up to two frames. The graph shows frames as a percentage of the total frames applied to children (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=243) and youth (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=107).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4192923/v1/eeff3ab324194a37cfddb3c7.png"},{"id":86057364,"identity":"45f447f2-17ea-4971-973d-4a2f50b54f5b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-05 07:06:54","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2023928,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4192923/v1/98b773ab-e4ad-42da-9a17-d851161f0377.pdf"},{"id":61808155,"identity":"a73de14a-cbb8-4c9f-8762-e5e47d9d5879","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-05 19:59:49","extension":"xlsx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":479619,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"Supplementary Data Set 1","description":"","filename":"FINALNCCSuppInfoDataset.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4192923/v1/49e7e1b0df0aec0755b7ab9e.xlsx"}],"financialInterests":"There is \u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e Competing Interest.","formattedTitle":"Inclusion of children and youth in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Assessment Reports (AR1-AR6)","fulltext":[{"header":"A. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe harmful impacts of climate change on children’s physical health, particularly among the most vulnerable, are well documented.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn1\" name=\"_ftnref1\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[1]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn2\" name=\"_ftnref2\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[2]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn3\" name=\"_ftnref3\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[3]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn4\" name=\"_ftnref4\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[4]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn5\" name=\"_ftnref5\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[5]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e A growing evidence base links the escalating climate crisis with other adverse outcome among children and youth including mental health issues,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn6\" name=\"_ftnref6\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[6]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn7\" name=\"_ftnref7\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[7]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e educational exclusion,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn8\" name=\"_ftnref8\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[8]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn9\" name=\"_ftnref9\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[9]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e exposure to violence,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn10\" name=\"_ftnref10\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[10]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn11\" name=\"_ftnref11\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[11]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ca href=\"#_ftn12\" name=\"_ftnref12\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[12]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e child marriage,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn13\" name=\"_ftnref13\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[13]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e and child labour.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn14\" name=\"_ftnref14\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[14]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e These impacts are set to intensify and are felt more acutely by those disadvantaged by geography, disability, race, ethnicity, gender, or socioeconomic or citizenship status.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn15\" name=\"_ftnref15\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[15]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn16\" name=\"_ftnref16\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[16]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e In addition to being disproportionately impacted by the climate crisis,\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ca href=\"#_ftn17\" name=\"_ftnref17\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[17]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn18\" name=\"_ftnref18\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[18]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ca href=\"#_ftn19\" name=\"_ftnref19\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[19]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003echildren and youth are also central to social movements calling for urgent climate action.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn20\" name=\"_ftnref20\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[20]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn21\" name=\"_ftnref21\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[21]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn22\" name=\"_ftnref22\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[22]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn23\" name=\"_ftnref23\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[23]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn24\" name=\"_ftnref24\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[24]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn25\" name=\"_ftnref25\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[25]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite their unique vulnerability and adaptive capacity, children and young people are largely excluded from climate policy, legislation, and finance frameworks,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn26\" name=\"_ftnref26\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[26]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ca href=\"#_ftn27\" name=\"_ftnref27\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[27]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).\u003ca href=\"#_ftn28\" name=\"_ftnref28\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[28]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e Further, climate financing and national budgets do not prioritise the social sectors responsible for children’s education, health and protection, which are critical to their wellbeing.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn29\" name=\"_ftnref29\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[29]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn30\" name=\"_ftnref30\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[30]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe IPCC reports are the most authoritative distillation of knowledge on climate change, with wide-ranging and significant implications for scientific and popular discourse,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn31\" name=\"_ftnref31\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[31]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e funding agendas,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn32\" name=\"_ftnref32\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[32]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e policy and legislation,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn33\" name=\"_ftnref33\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[33]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e research and evidence generation,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn34\" name=\"_ftnref34\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[34]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e and climate-related litigation.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn35\" name=\"_ftnref35\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[35]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e It has been well documented that the evidence presented reflects the procedural and political aspects of the drafting process and social and disciplinary backgrounds of the volunteer IPCC authors.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn36\" name=\"_ftnref36\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[36]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn37\" name=\"_ftnref37\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[37]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn38\" name=\"_ftnref38\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[38]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn39\" name=\"_ftnref39\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[39]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGiven the IPCC reports’ importance in setting the research and policy agenda for climate action, and the critical knowledge gaps surrounding what climate change means for children and youth, this piece seeks to evaluate how these groups are represented in the IPCC Assessment Reports. First, we quantify how frequently children and youth are referenced in AR1-AR6. Next, we conduct a content analysis of AR6 to assess the references to children and youth, including (i) how the risks of climate change for these groups are included or omitted (ii) the extent to which climate mitigation or adaptation responses explicitly consider them; and (iv) the conceptual lenses used in cases when they are referenced. We conclude by providing recommendations for how climate change researchers and policymakers can improve research and action to centre children’s rights, including their health, well-being and perspectives, and we call for climate policy and practice that is more responsive to the experiences and demands of marginalised children and youth.\u003c/p\u003e\n"},{"header":"B. Results ","content":"\u003ch2\u003eI. Historical Inclusion of Children and Youth in the IPCC Reports\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe find a steady increase in references to children and youth across the six IPCC Assessment Reports between 1990 and 2022 (Figure 1). In the first report (AR1, 1990), there were zero references to either children or youth. Since AR3 (2001), references to children have doubled in every assessment cycle. Meanwhile, evidence directly referencing youth has grown more slowly, with only 24 references in AR5 (2014).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the most recent IPCC report (AR6, 2021/2022), children and youth were mentioned 327 times across nearly 4000 pages. Children were mentioned overall more often (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=240, 73%) than youth (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=87, 27%). One quarter (26%) of references to children and one third (32%) of references to youth included them in a list, alongside two or more other groups. Two overarching context codes emerged from our analyses. First was climate risks, both existing and forecasted, making up almost two-thirds (65%, \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=213) of references (Figure 2). Second was climate responses, both mitigation and adaptation interventions, making up 35% (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=114) of references. All references were in the Working Group II report ‘Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability’ (WGII) and Working Group III report ‘Mitigation of Climate Change’ (WGIII), with none in Working Group I on the ‘Physical Science Basis’.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDistribution across Working Groups and Chapters\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn AR6, references to children and youth were mostly in WGII (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=274, 84%) compared to WGIII (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=53, 16%). The distribution of references between children and youth also varied by report: in WGII there were approximately three times more references to children (\u003cem\u003en=\u003c/em\u003e209) than youth (\u003cem\u003en=\u003c/em\u003e65), while the number of references to children (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=31) and youth (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=22) was more evenly distributed in WGIII.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn each report, the frequencies of references to children and youth varied significantly by Chapter. As shown in Figure 3, in WGII these groups appeared most often in the chapters on ‘Health, Wellbeing and the Changing Structure of Communities’ and ‘Africa’. In WGIII, they were discussed most frequently in the chapters on ‘Buildings’ and ‘Cross-sectoral Perspectives’ (more specifically, the subsection on food systems). Across the summary for policymaker (SPM) sections of these reports–their most visible element and the only section approved by politicians–there were seven references to children and youth.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eII. Climate risks for children and youth\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost of the evidence presented on risks pertained to children (183/213, 86%). As shown in Figure 4, the risks discussed most frequently among children were physical health (35%), nutrition (22%), mortality (11%) and water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) (8%), together making up approximately three-quarters of risks described. In contrast, among youth the most commonly mentioned climate risks were mental health (23%), general burden (23%), livelihoods (17%) and migration. References categorised as general burden did not specify one particular risk, noting, for example, ‘increased vulnerability’ or ‘residual risk’.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEvidence linked climate change to increases in water and sanitation-related illnesses, child and maternal malnutrition, vector-borne and infectious diseases, and respiratory illnesses, many creating severe and lifelong health challenges and leading to\u0026nbsp;mortality. Children's heightened vulnerability to heat stress and other extreme weather events was a particular area of focus.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRisks to mental health (children: \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=10, youth: \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=8) included vulnerability to post-traumatic stress following adverse climate events, climate-related anxiety and stress, and long-term cognitive impairment from air pollution and malnutrition. Evidence on livelihood risks included increased unemployment and poverty among children (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=11) and youth (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=6).\u003ca href=\"#_ftn40\" name=\"_ftnref40\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[40]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther risks covered less comprehensively included climate-induced migration (children: \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=3, youth: \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=4), and risks to education and play (children: \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=15, youth: \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=3) resulting from extreme weather events, extreme heat and poor air quality, damage to school infrastructure and food systems, water scarcity, family migration and deepening poverty. Evidence on violence and protection-related risks linked climate change to increases in child marriage, child labour, trafficking, physical and sexual violence against children (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=12), and young men’s involvement in organised violence (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=1). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eIII. Responses to Climate Change and Children and Youth\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe second overarching context code identified was ‘climate responses’, which captured mitigation and adaptation measures referencing children and youth. These references, each coded for one response, were split evenly between children and youth (57/114, 50%), and a majority explicitly discussed a co-benefit for these groups (67%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe climate responses most commonly mentioned for children were in the categories of economic/health/social systems and protection (28%), built environment (25%), governance and planning (18%), and community adaptation (12%) (Figure 5a). For youth, the majority of responses related to collective action and social organising (44%), and governance and planning (26%).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEvidence on collective action and social organising strategies described primarily youth (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=25) acting outside formal governance systems to influence climate discourse. Children were rarely mentioned in this context (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=2). The report primarily references research on social movements such as the School Strikes for Climate; the impacts of advocacy around the UNFCCC negotiations and political lobbying. The reports listed increased voice and political engagement as an explicit co-benefit of these strategies (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=2).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiscussion of children (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=10) and youth (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=15) in the context of climate change governance and planning highlighted the importance of youth participation in these processes, and provided select examples for doing so: Children’s Commissions for national climate advocacy (WGII, Ch 6, p 973) and quotas for youth representation in the Seychelles National Climate Council (WGII, Ch 9, p 1310). The reports also underscored the need for governance and planning to account for these groups’ specific vulnerabilities: for example, WGII noted many urban SDG targets omit data on the young (Ch 6, p 912). When specified, evidence of co-benefits from these interventions included increased voice and agency, multiple or general benefits, and adaptation plans that better respond to young people’s needs.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEvidence on climate responses in economic, health and social protection systems (children: \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=16, youth: \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=3) included efforts to improve quality and access to maternal and child health services, social safety nets, access to credit, traditional land management practices, and corporate social responsibility initiatives. Resulting co-benefits included increased health and nutrition and reduced exposure to harm. One example provided is Ethiopia’s Productive Safety Net Program, which is linked to improved nutrition, reduced poverty and child labour among children (WGII, Ch 7, p 1112).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiscussions of climate responses related to the built environment only mentioned children (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=14). These included electrification, energy-efficient buildings, clean cookstoves, and infrastructure investments for safe travel. This category has the most co-benefits of all those listed here: benefits in education and health, safety, and poverty alleviation. In the only mention of maladaptation from climate action, WGIII highlighted child labour in the supply chains for minerals involved in the clean energy transition (Ch 15, p 1603).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEvidence on the impact of community adaptation related to local initiatives including habitat restoration and disaster risk reduction (children: \u003cem\u003en=\u003c/em\u003e7, youth: \u003cem\u003en=\u003c/em\u003e4). Co-benefits were most commonly framed in general terms, but health, nutrition and education benefits were also specified. AR6 included evidence on the adaptive potential of climate change education in formal school settings and eco camps for youth, and Indigenous knowledge exchange (children: \u003cem\u003en=\u003c/em\u003e2, youth: \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=7). Regarding food systems responses, WGII includes a standalone box and full-page figure consolidating evidence on youth adaptation in this area (WGII, Ch 5, pp 820-21), and discusses marketing regulations to ensure healthier diets for children that efficiently use natural resources. Finally, AR6 provided two examples of litigation as a\u0026nbsp;response:\u0026nbsp;youth public trust claims in the United States seeking to impose ‘government intergenerational liability’ for inadequate climate action and an Australian regulatory challenge that established a ‘duty of care’ to children.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eVI. Framing of children and youth in the IPCC reports\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, we inductively identified nine thematic frames used when the evidence on children and youth was presented in AR6: participation, coloniality, gender, inequality/inequity, intergenerational, justice, intersectionality, rights and vulnerability.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn41\" name=\"_ftnref41\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[41]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e We applied at least one frame code to 246 (75%) references: of these, 70% related to children and 30% to youth. The frames most commonly applied to children were inequality (35%), vulnerability (32%) and gender (19%). In contrast, the frames applied most frequently to youth were activism (24%), participation (19%), inequality (16%) and vulnerability (13%).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe inequality frame described these groups as unfairly and unequally affected by climate risks compared to other groups, or described adverse impacts on children living in contexts of pre-existing inequality exacerbated by climate change. The vulnerability frame explicitly characterised children and youth as being vulnerable or at risk, without comparison to other groups. The gender frame described impacts on girls and young women, or, in very few cases, on boys and young men.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipation frames (children: \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=8, youth: \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=20) and activism (children: \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=2, youth: \u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e=26) most commonly related to collective action and social organising strategies and governance and planning responses, but occasionally also applied to interventions in education and food systems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"C. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe IPCC Assessment Reports represent the state of the art of global knowledge about the impacts of, and responses to, the climate crisis. Our analysis shows a significant increase in the focus on children and youth in AR6 compared to previous reports, and particular emphasis on the importance of youth in climate action. Despite this progress, children and youth remain peripheral: for example, the Summary for Policymakers, the reports’ most high-profile section, children are almost invisible except for two references relating to impacts on mental health and nutrition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe majority of the content relating to children in AR6 disproportionately covers climate impacts relating to physical health, the area where evidence is best developed. References to children in AR6 do not fully account for the unique and intersectional nature of risks facing children, particularly violence and education risks. While the reports repeatedly emphasise the inequitable climate burden children suffer and their overall vulnerability, over a quarter of all references to children simply list them among other marginalised groups. The IPCC itself has previously noted that climate change studies often describe children as “vulnerable” without elaboration.\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe overall inattention to children in the IPCC reports is consistent with a recent systematic review of the literature on children, climate and health, which found “a striking lack of focus” on children,\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003ewho are often included as a subpopulation of analysis without disaggregation by age or gender, or consideration of the underlying social, political and economic determinants of health.\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is critical that these limitations are addressed; children under 18 alone make up nearly a third of the global population, and their experience of climate impacts varies considerably. Without localised, nuanced evidence on the range of climate risks facing the most marginalized children, climate responses will not fully address their needs. Evidence on climate responses for children in AR6 focuses on the benefits children receive from interventions like clean cookstoves and electrification while the role of structural interventions is rarely mentioned and education for children receives just two mentions. Yet education is a central component of sustainable development,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn42\" name=\"_ftnref42\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[42]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e and evidence suggests that education, particularly for girls, is among the most impactful mitigation interventions.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn43\" name=\"_ftnref43\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[43]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eJust as children are peripheral to the IPCC reports, they remain so in climate policy and practice, especially in areas beyond health. Of the countries with new or revised climate plans, only one third include provisions addressing children’s needs and priorities.\u003csup\u003e27\u003c/sup\u003e Of 571 projects supported by multilateral climate funds over 17 years, just one targeted education.\u003csup\u003e30\u003c/sup\u003e And country-level cost estimates for climate adaptation allocate merely 2% of financing for health, while overlooking education and social protection entirely.\u003csup\u003e29 \u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe evidence on youth in AR6 has similarly expanded from previous reports. The progress on including youth relates to climate responses. The section discussing youth and food systems is a positive example of a more holistic treatment of climate risks. Here, WGII includes evidence on the role of youth as employees and innovators in food systems, while also noting the climate risks they face in that sector, from migration to lack of access to education and skills training, and the ways those challenges are shaped by wealth, gender and background.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAR6 prominently presents the growing evidence on the power and importance of youth involvement in climate action, including in the Summary for Policymakers. Here, the primary focus is on UNFCCC advocacy and mass mobilizations, reflecting an overemphasis in the underlying literature on activism by mostly White and middle-class youth in the global North.\u003csup\u003e20\u003c/sup\u003e Meanwhile, youth participation is framed in largely aspirational terms. This points to an immense and unjust burden being placed on youth who are systematically marginalised from climate decision-making and relatively absent from the evidence base used to guide climate action, but also relied on to provide “alternative visions of the future” (WGII) and “shift the possibility space of public policy” (WGIII).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChildren’s climate activism is mentioned just twice in AR6, and there is no reference to the literature on the challenges associated with fulfilling children’s procedural rights in this context, including a lack of voting rights, barriers in access to justice, increasing State pushback to children’s civil and political rights, and their marginalisation from climate decision-making spaces.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn44\" name=\"_ftnref44\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[44]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn45\" name=\"_ftnref45\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[45]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003csup\u003e19\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e20\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e25\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e26\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eTrue ‘empowered inclusion’\u003ca href=\"#_ftn46\" name=\"_ftnref46\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[46]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e requires more than children’s placement in governance processes designed for adults, including cultural changes in attitudes and beliefs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo holistically incorporate children into the climate change evidence base, a child-rights approach is useful. The Convention on the Rights of the Child provides a globally-ratified, enforceable legal framework enumerating children’s entitlements, emphasises that those entitlements are interdependent and interrelated, and draws particular attention to the most marginalised children. A child-rights approach illuminates the structural, economic, social and biological ways in which climate change affects children.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn47\" name=\"_ftnref47\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[47]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn48\" name=\"_ftnref48\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[48]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e Within this approach ‘the process is as important as the result’, meaning that children’s rights to freedom of expression, peaceful assembly, information and education, participation and effective remedies are required for effective action.\u003csup\u003e19\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe IPCC reports indicate how the global community of climate scientists conceptualises the problem of climate change and prioritises solutions. Our findings suggest children and youth are portrayed in AR6 as either peripheral climate victims or climate heroes, similar to the analysis of Indigenous People in AR5 by Ford et al.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn49\" name=\"_ftnref49\" title=\"\"\u003e[49]\u003c/a\u003e This analysis reflects the underlying body of evidence on climate change and children and youth, which itself relates to funding priorities and diverse socio-political factors, including these groups’ influence over political and social climate discourse. Our findings are also a product of the IPCC itself, its recent efforts to meaningfully incorporate social science and humanities knowledge into AR6,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn50\" name=\"_ftnref50\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[50]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e \u003ca href=\"#_ftn51\" name=\"_ftnref51\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[51]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e and the expertise and identities of its volunteer authors.\u003csup\u003e38\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo enhance the comprehensiveness of future IPCC reports, there is a critical need for funding and inclusion of more research on climate change, children and youth. This research should define these groups clearly, and focus on the areas and populations worst impacted, the unique impacts on children and youth that remain understudied, and the ways that the intersections of age, gender, poverty, geography, and other forms of exclusion impact the climate risks and responses. A child rights approach is recommended for this research with a commitment to inequality and intersectionality. There is also scope for increased expertise on children and youth in the IPCC drafting process, and participation of those demographics. These steps would contribute to more effective and nuanced climate action, and recognition of children and youth as valued stakeholders.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"D. Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKeyword search (AR1- AR6)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst, to identify references to children and youth in AR1 to AR6 reports, we performed keyword searches for children (baby, infant, child, children, girl, boy, minor, minors) and youth (youth, young people, young person, young woman/women, young man/men, adolescent, adolescence, teenager).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eContent analysis of AR6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe conducted a content analysis of the most recent IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6). We searched the reports of ‘Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis’, ‘Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability’ and ‘Working Group III: Mitigation of Climate Change’. For each AR6 report, we excluded references in the Cross-Chapters, Technical Summaries (which replicated content from elsewhere in the report), Annexes, Indexes, and lists of references. Each paragraph containing one or more keywords related to children or young people was counted as one reference and extracted into an Excel spreadsheet. Multiple references to children or youth in a table, box or figure were counted as unique if they made a different point.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur approach was informed by methods for conventional content analysis,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn52\" name=\"_ftnref52\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[52]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e frame analysis approaches,\u003ca href=\"#_ftn53\" name=\"_ftnref53\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[53]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e and the methodological approach used by Ford et al. in their analysis of the inclusion of indigenous knowledge and experience in the IPCC assessment report (AR5).\u003csup\u003e50\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo develop codes and coding categories, we read a sample of the references to children and youth, identifying codes inductively through familiarisation. We developed a draft coding framework based on themes emerging from the references to children and youth we reviewed. Coding was completed by three authors (ED, AB, OK) in three stages: (i) Trial round: We trial-coded a small sample of references to children and young people, evaluated the coding framework for accuracy and reliability, and refined the coding categories. (ii)\u0026nbsp;Full coding:\u0026nbsp;we coded all extracted references\u0026nbsp;while revising and defining coding categories.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn54\" name=\"_ftnref54\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[54]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003eFor each coding category, key examples and decision rules were identified. We coded collaboratively to enforce systematicity, clarity and transparency.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn55\" name=\"_ftnref55\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[55]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e Combining perspectives allowed for critical reflection and consistency.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn56\" name=\"_ftnref56\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[56]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e (iii) Code refinement and quality checking: we reviewed all coded references and merged coding categories, added new coding categories, and cross checked coding categories. For any new coding categories included at this stage, we complete all prior stages of the coding process to ensure new categories were tested before being applied to the full sample of references. \u0026nbsp;Each reference to children or youth was coded by one researcher and reviewed by a second researcher independently reviewing the extracted text to ensure consistency and minimise bias. To ensure consistency, a third researcher checked to see if all data had been accurately coded, with any divergences in interpretation discussed in frequent meetings where the coding framework was refined and finalised.\u003ca href=\"#_ftn57\" name=\"_ftnref57\" title=\"\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003csup\u003e[57]\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur coding framework included content, context, and frame codes (Supplementary Table 1). Content codes included the type and location of the reference to children and youth. Context codes identified how content about children and youth was referenced in AR6 and which aspects were salient. Frame codes identified how the content on children and youth was framed and what was made salient.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eContent code\u003cstrong\u003es\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eincluded the following coding categories: Working group number, chapter, page number, whether the reference was in the Summary for Policymakers or the Technical Summary, and whether the reference mentioned children or youth. References that mentioned both children and youth were counted in both categories. Each reference was assigned a set of content codes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe identified two overarching context codes: climate risks and climate responses. Climate risks included 10 coding categories pertaining to negative climate impacts on outcomes for children and young people: physical health, mental health; mortality; nutrition; water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH); violence and child protection, livelihoods, migration, education and play, and general burden. General burden was used where the reports identified a generalised risk, for example, ‘increased vulnerability’ or ‘residual risk’. Each reference was assigned up to two out of the 10 coding categories for climate risks.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe second set of context codes was related to climate responses and co-benefits. Climate responses included 8 coding categories for mitigation and adaptation interventions: food production/systems; litigation, economic/health/social systems and protection, climate-change education; community adaptation, the built environment, and governance and planning. The ‘Co-benefits’ of these climate responses were coded where the response specifically mentioned a positive outcome for children and youth (beyond a generalied mitigation or adaptation benefit). These co-benefits included: education and play; general benefits, health; livelihoods, nutrition, violence and child protection, and; voice and political engagement. Each reference was assigned one climate response and one co-benefit.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn keeping with the Ford et al. (2016) approach, we inductively identified ‘frames’ used to discuss children and youth.\u003csup\u003e50\u003c/sup\u003e Framing shapes how researchers think about an issue, how reactions to the issues, and who is held accountable. We identified the 10 frame codes: activism, coloniality, gender, inequality/inequity, intersectionality, intergenerational justice, justice, participation, rights, and vulnerability. Each reference was assigned a maximum of two frame codes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnalysis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe conducted descriptive analyses stratified by children and youth. We calculated the total count of references related to children and youth across the entirety of each report, AR1-AR6, to assess the changes in references to children and youth between AR1 (1990) and AR6 (2021/22).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur primary analysis focused on the AR6 report. First, we then described content code frequencies to show the distribution of references for each AR6 Working Group and by Chapter.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo answer our first two research questions, on which climate risks and responses in AR6 included children and youth, we counted the total number of references to children and youth which related to the two context codes -- risks and responses. For each context code, we described each of the coding categories and calculated the frequency and percentage of references within each context code in each coding category. For the climate responses context code, we additionally included illustrative quotations for each coding category and a description and count of the co-benefits for each climate response coding category.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur final research question related to frames used when children and youth were referenced. We report frequencies and percentages of the frame codes are distributed across the ten coding categories.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLimitations and strengths\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur approach has several key limitations. Our coding approach was generous -- we included any mention of the keywords related to children and youth, including in a list of other groups, and in cases where there was limited substantive content referring to children and youth specifically. \u0026nbsp;If we had applied more stringent criteria to our definition of referring to a child, we would have found fewer mentions. We may, therefore, overestimate the number of references to children. The sample sizes were not large enough to disaggregate by sex, gender, disability or other axes of discrimination and marginalisation. The Analysis only includes evidence in the IPCC reports published in 2021 and 2022, which do not reflect all existing evidence of climate change and children. Other key documents, including those at the national level also shape climate policy and climate finance are not included in this analysis and are a key area for future research and analysis.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur approach also has several key strengths. We comprehensively review every reference to children and youth in the AR6 report in a consistent manner and outline all the climate risks and responses that relate to children and youth as well as the frames used to discuss children and young people. Our analysis can be used to both describe the current state of evidence on children and youth in the AR6 IPCC report and to identify gaps and silences in the evidence included in the AR6 report.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Footnotes","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref1\" name=\"_ftn1\" title=\"\"\u003e[1]\u003c/a\u003e Bunyavanich, S., Landrigan, C. P., McMichael, A. J. \u0026amp; Epstein, P. R. The Impact of Climate Change on Child Health. \u003cem\u003eAmbulatory Pediatrics\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e, (2003).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref2\" name=\"_ftn2\" title=\"\"\u003e[2]\u003c/a\u003e Helldén, D., Andersson, C., Nilsson, M., Ebi, K. L., Friberg, P. \u0026amp; Alfvén, T. Climate change and child health: a scoping review and an expanded conceptual framework. \u003cem\u003eThe Lancet Planetary Health\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e, 164-175 (2021). \u003cstrong\u003eSystematic assessment of literature on the effects of climate change on child health published between 2000 and January 2019, reviewing 371 English language original articles, reviews, and other documents.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref3\" name=\"_ftn3\" title=\"\"\u003e[3]\u003c/a\u003e Sheffield P. E., Landrigan P. J. Global climate change and children’s health: threats and strategies for prevention. \u003cem\u003eEnviron. Health Perspect.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e119\u003c/strong\u003e, 291-298 (2011)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref4\" name=\"_ftn4\" title=\"\"\u003e[4]\u003c/a\u003e Ebi, K.L. \u0026amp; Paulson J. A. Climate change and children. \u003cem\u003ePediatr. Clin. North Am.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e54\u003c/strong\u003e, 213-226 (2007).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref5\" name=\"_ftn5\" title=\"\"\u003e[5]\u003c/a\u003e IPCC. \u003cem\u003eManaging the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation\u003c/em\u003e (eds. Field, C. B. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2012). \u003cstrong\u003eReport summarizing the existing research on children and disasters, pointing to gaps and a bias towards studies on health.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref6\" name=\"_ftn6\" title=\"\"\u003e[6]\u003c/a\u003e Hickman, C., Marks, E., Pihkala, P., Clayton, S., Lewandowski, R. E., Mayall, E. E., Wray, B., Mellor, C. \u0026amp; van Susteren, L. Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: a global survey. \u003cem\u003eThe Lancet\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e, 863-873 (2021).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref7\" name=\"_ftn7\" title=\"\"\u003e[7]\u003c/a\u003e Crandon, T.J., Scott, J.G., Charlson, F.J. et al. A social–ecological perspective on climate anxiety in children and adolescents. \u003cem\u003eNat. Clim. Chang\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cstrong\u003e12\u003c/strong\u003e, 123–131 (2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref8\" name=\"_ftn8\" title=\"\"\u003e[8]\u003c/a\u003e Cutter-Mackenzie, A., \u0026amp; Rousell, D. Education for what? shaping the field of climate change education with children and young people as co-researchers. \u003cem\u003eChildren’s Geographies\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e17\u003c/strong\u003e, 90–104 (2018).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref9\" name=\"_ftn9\" title=\"\"\u003e[9]\u003c/a\u003e Ward, M. E., Shelley, K., Kaase, K., \u0026amp; Pane, J. F. Hurricane Katrina: a longitudinal study of the achievement and behavior of displaced students. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Education for Students Placed at Risk\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e13\u003c/strong\u003e, 297-317 (2008)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref10\" name=\"_ftn10\" title=\"\"\u003e[10]\u003c/a\u003e Cuartas, J. et al. The climate crisis and violence against children. \u003cem\u003eLancet Child Adolesc. Health\u003c/em\u003e (2023).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref11\" name=\"_ftn11\" title=\"\"\u003e[11]\u003c/a\u003e Seddighi, S., Salamani, I., Javadi Seddighi, M. H., \u0026amp; Seddighi, S. Child abuse in natural disasters and conflicts: a systematic review. \u003cem\u003eTrauma, Violence \u0026amp; Abuse\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e22\u003c/strong\u003e, 176–185 (2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref12\" name=\"_ftn12\" title=\"\"\u003e[12]\u003c/a\u003e Lori, P. Children and disasters: understanding vulnerability, developing capacities, and promoting resilience: an introduction. \u003cem\u003eChild Youth Environ.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e18\u003c/strong\u003e, 1–29 (2008).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref13\" name=\"_ftn13\" title=\"\"\u003e[13]\u003c/a\u003e Human Rights Watch. \u003cem\u003eMarry before your house is swept away: child marriage in Bangladesh\u003c/em\u003e (2015).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref14\" name=\"_ftn14\" title=\"\"\u003e[14]\u003c/a\u003e Greenfield, M. H. An urgent need to reassess climate change and child labour in agriculture. \u003cem\u003eThe Lancet Planetary Health\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e, E456-E457 (2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref15\" name=\"_ftn15\" title=\"\"\u003e[15]\u003c/a\u003e Peek, L. \u0026amp; Stough, L.M. Children with disabilities in the context of disaster: a social vulnerability perspective. \u003cem\u003eChild Development\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e81\u003c/strong\u003e, 1260-1270 (2010).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref16\" name=\"_ftn16\" title=\"\"\u003e[16]\u003c/a\u003e Lloyd, S. J., Bangalore, M., Chalabi, Z., Kovats, R. S., Hallegatte, S., Rozenberg, J., Valin, H. \u0026amp; Havlík, P. A global-level model of the potential impacts of climate change on child stunting via income and food price in 2030. \u003cem\u003eEnviron. Health Perspect.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e126\u003c/strong\u003e, (2018).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref17\" name=\"_ftn17\" title=\"\"\u003e[17]\u003c/a\u003e \u003cem\u003eThe Climate Crisis is a Child Rights Crisis: Introducing the Children’s Climate Risk Index\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(UNICEF, 2021). \u003cstrong\u003eReport presenting results of a global index that overlays national-level data on children’s exposure to climate and environmental shocks, as well as their vulnerability to those shocks, based on their access to essential services.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref18\" name=\"_ftn18\" title=\"\"\u003e[18]\u003c/a\u003e Watts, N., Amann, M., Arnell, N., Ayeb-Karlsson, S., Belesova, K., Boykoff, M., Byass, P., Cai, W., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Capstick, S. \u0026amp; Chambers, J. The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate. \u003cem\u003eThe Lancet\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e394\u003c/strong\u003e, 1836-1878 (2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref19\" name=\"_ftn19\" title=\"\"\u003e[19]\u003c/a\u003e Committee on the Rights of the Child, General comment No. 26 on children’s rights and the environment with a special focus on climate change, UN Doc. CRC/C/GC/26 (2023). \u003cstrong\u003eSubstantive guidance from United Nations Committee on international law obligations for a child rights-based approach to environmental protection.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref20\" name=\"_ftn20\" title=\"\"\u003e[20]\u003c/a\u003e Neas, S., Ward, A. \u0026amp; Bowman, B. Young people's climate activism: A review of the literature. \u003cem\u003eFront. Polit. Sci\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e (2022).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref21\" name=\"_ftn21\" title=\"\"\u003e[21]\u003c/a\u003e Lawson, D., Stevenson, K., Peterson, M., Carrier, S., Strnad, R. \u0026amp; Seekamp, E. Children can foster climate change concern among their parents. \u003cem\u003eNature Clim. Change\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e, 458-462 (2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref22\" name=\"_ftn22\" title=\"\"\u003e[22]\u003c/a\u003e The last hope for the climate. \u003cem\u003eLancet Child \u0026amp; Adolescent Health\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e5\u003c/strong\u003e, P837 (2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref23\" name=\"_ftn23\" title=\"\"\u003e[23]\u003c/a\u003e Thew, H., Middlemiss, L. \u0026amp; Paavola, J. Youth is not a political position: exploring justice claims-making in the UN climate change negotiations. \u003cem\u003eGlob. Environ. Change\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e61\u003c/strong\u003e (2020).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref24\" name=\"_ftn24\" title=\"\"\u003e[24]\u003c/a\u003e Donger, E. Children and youth in strategic climate litigation: advancing rights through legal argument and legal mobilization. \u003cem\u003eTransnational Environ. Law\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e, 263-289 (2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref25\" name=\"_ftn25\" title=\"\"\u003e[25]\u003c/a\u003e Ritchie, J. Movement from the margins to global recognition: climate change activism by young people and in particular indigenous youth. \u003cem\u003eInternational Studies in Sociology of Education\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e30\u003c/strong\u003e, 1-20 (2020).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref26\" name=\"_ftn26\" title=\"\"\u003e[26]\u003c/a\u003e Pegram, J. Overlooked and undermined: child rights and climate change in \u003cem\u003eRoutledge Handbook of Human Rights and Climate Governance\u003c/em\u003e (eds. Duyck, S., Jodoin, S. \u0026amp; Johl, A.) 259-26 (Routledge 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref27\" name=\"_ftn27\" title=\"\"\u003e[27]\u003c/a\u003e \u003cem\u003eMaking Climate and Environment Policies for \u0026amp; with Children and Young People\u003c/em\u003e (UNICEF, 2021). \u003cstrong\u003eA report that evaluates published Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for “child sensitivity.”\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref28\" name=\"_ftn28\" title=\"\"\u003e[28]\u003c/a\u003e \u003cem\u003eIncorporating Child Rights Into Climate Action: Position Paper for Cop 27 by Children’s Environmental Rights Initiative\u003c/em\u003e (CERI, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref29\" name=\"_ftn29\" title=\"\"\u003e[29]\u003c/a\u003e Agg, C. \u003cem\u003eMonitoring the Social Costs of Climate Change for Low- and Middle-income Countries: Social Spending Monitor Policy Brief\u003c/em\u003e (UNICEF, 2022).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref30\" name=\"_ftn30\" title=\"\"\u003e[30]\u003c/a\u003e \u003cem\u003eFalling short: addressing the climate finance gap for children by Children’s Environmental Rights Initiative\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(CERI, 2023). \u003cstrong\u003eA study that evaluates\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003ekey financial mechanisms serving the UNFCCC.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref31\" name=\"_ftn31\" title=\"\"\u003e[31]\u003c/a\u003e Boykoff, M. \u0026amp; Pearman, O. Now or never: how media coverage of the IPCC special report on 1.5°C shaped climate-action deadlines. \u003cem\u003eOne Earth\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e, 285-288 (2019).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref32\" name=\"_ftn32\" title=\"\"\u003e[32]\u003c/a\u003e Hulme, M. 1.5°C and Climate Research after the Paris Agreement. \u003cem\u003eNat. Clim. Chang.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e, 222–224 (2016).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref33\" name=\"_ftn33\" title=\"\"\u003e[33]\u003c/a\u003e Ravindranath, N. H. IPCC: accomplishments, controversies and challenges. \u003cem\u003eCurr. Sci.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e99\u003c/strong\u003e, 26–35 (2010).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref34\" name=\"_ftn34\" title=\"\"\u003e[34]\u003c/a\u003e Vasileiadou, E., Heimeriks, G. \u0026amp; Petersen, A. C. Exploring the impact of the IPCC assessment reports on science. \u003cem\u003eEnviron. Sci. Policy\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e14\u003c/strong\u003e, 1052–1061 (2011).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref35\" name=\"_ftn35\" title=\"\"\u003e[35]\u003c/a\u003e Stuart-Smith, R.F., Otto, F.E.L., Saad, A.I., Lisi, G., Minnerop, P., Lauta, K. C., van Zwieten, K \u0026amp; Wetzer, T. Filling the evidentiary gap in climate litigation. \u003cem\u003eNat. Clim. Chang\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cstrong\u003e11\u003c/strong\u003e, 651–655 (2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref36\" name=\"_ftn36\" title=\"\"\u003e[36]\u003c/a\u003e Standring, A. Participant Diversity in \u003cem\u003eA Critical Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\u003c/em\u003e (eds. De Pryck K. \u0026amp; Hulme M.) 61-70 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref37\" name=\"_ftn37\" title=\"\"\u003e[37]\u003c/a\u003e Borie, M., et al. Knowing like a global expert organisation: Comparative insights from the IPCC and IPBES. \u003cem\u003eGlob. Environ. Change\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e68\u003c/strong\u003e (2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref38\" name=\"_ftn38\" title=\"\"\u003e[38]\u003c/a\u003e Corbera, E., Calvet-Mir, L., Hughes, H. and Paterson, M. Patterns of authorship in the IPCC Working Group III report. \u003cem\u003eNat. Clim. Change\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e, 94–99 (2016).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref39\" name=\"_ftn39\" title=\"\"\u003e[39]\u003c/a\u003e Though the IPCC does not define these demographics, children are defined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child as anybody under age 18, and while youth are defined variably, this group is generally understood to encompass people ages 15-24, up to 35 in some cases. \u003cem\u003eSee\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eUnited Nations. Global Issues: Youth. \u003ca href=\"https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/youth\"\u003ehttps://www.un.org/en/global-issues/youth\u003c/a\u003e. Yona, L. et al. Applying a Leverage Points Framework to the United Nations Climate Negotiations. \u003cem\u003eElementa: Science of the Anthropocene\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e, 36 (2020).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref40\" name=\"_ftn40\" title=\"\"\u003e[40]\u003c/a\u003e Salmeron-Gomez, D., Engilbertsdottir, S., Cuesta Leiva, J. A., Newhouse, D. \u0026amp; Stewart, D. \u003cem\u003eGlobal Trends in Child Monetary Poverty According to International Poverty Lines\u003c/em\u003e (World Bank, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref41\" name=\"_ftn41\" title=\"\"\u003e[41]\u003c/a\u003e For full details on the frame code development definitions and application, see online methods section.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref42\" name=\"_ftn42\" title=\"\"\u003e[42]\u003c/a\u003e United Nations. Goal 4: Quality education. (2020).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref43\" name=\"_ftn43\" title=\"\"\u003e[43]\u003c/a\u003e Namasivayam, A., Graves, A., Kwauk, C. \u0026amp; Frischmann C. Drawdown’s Health and Education Solution (Project Drawdown, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref44\" name=\"_ftn44\" title=\"\"\u003e[44]\u003c/a\u003e \u003cem\u003ePrinciples and barriers for meaningful youth participation\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(United Nations Major Group for Children and Youth, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref45\" name=\"_ftn45\" title=\"\"\u003e[45]\u003c/a\u003e Warming, H. Children’s participation and citizenship in a global age: Empowerment, tokenism or discriminatory disciplining? \u003cem\u003eSocial Work and Society\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e, 119–134 (2011).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref46\" name=\"_ftn46\" title=\"\"\u003e[46]\u003c/a\u003e Josefsson, J. \u0026amp; Wall, J. Empowered inclusion: theorizing global justice for children and youth. \u003cem\u003eGlobalizations\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e17\u003c/strong\u003e, 1043-1060 (2020).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref47\" name=\"_ftn47\" title=\"\"\u003e[47]\u003c/a\u003e Satterthwaite, D. \u003cem\u003eThe environment for children: understanding and acting on the environmental hazards that threaten children and their parents\u003c/em\u003e (Routledge, 1996).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref48\" name=\"_ftn48\" title=\"\"\u003e[48]\u003c/a\u003e Fitzmaurice, M \u0026amp; Fijalkowski, A (eds). \u003cem\u003eThe Right of the Child to a Clean Environment\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e(Routledge, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref49\" name=\"_ftn49\" title=\"\"\u003e[49]\u003c/a\u003e Ford, J. D., Cameron, J., Rubis, M., Maillet, Douglas N., Willox, A.C. \u0026amp; Pearce, T. Including indigenous knowledge and experience in IPCC assessment reports. \u003cem\u003eNature Clim Change\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6\u003c/strong\u003e, 349–353 (2016).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref50\" name=\"_ftn50\" title=\"\"\u003e[50]\u003c/a\u003e IPCC. \u003cem\u003eClimate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\u003c/em\u003e (eds. Pörtner, H-O. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2022). At 1-3.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref51\" name=\"_ftn51\" title=\"\"\u003e[51]\u003c/a\u003e IPCC. \u003cem\u003eClimate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Working Group III contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change\u003c/em\u003e (eds. Skea, J. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2022). At 5-8.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref52\" name=\"_ftn52\" title=\"\"\u003e[52]\u003c/a\u003e Hsieh, H.-F. \u0026amp; Shannon, S. E. Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. \u003cem\u003eQualitative Health Research\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e, 1277–1288 (2005).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref53\" name=\"_ftn53\" title=\"\"\u003e[53]\u003c/a\u003e Entman, R. M. Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;J. of Commun.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e43\u003c/strong\u003e, 51–58 (1993).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref54\" name=\"_ftn54\" title=\"\"\u003e[54]\u003c/a\u003e Schreier, M. \u003cem\u003eQualitative content analysis in practice\u003c/em\u003e (Sage Publications, 2012).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref55\" name=\"_ftn55\" title=\"\"\u003e[55]\u003c/a\u003e Hall, W., Long, B., Bermbach, N., Jordan, S. \u0026amp; Patterson, K. Qualitative teamwork issues and strategies: coordination through mutual adjustment. \u003cem\u003eQualitative Health Research\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e15\u003c/strong\u003e, 394-410 (2005).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref56\" name=\"_ftn56\" title=\"\"\u003e[56]\u003c/a\u003e Gillespie, A. Position exchange: the social development of agency. \u003cem\u003eNew Ideas in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e30\u003c/strong\u003e, 32-46 (2012).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#_ftnref57\" name=\"_ftn57\" title=\"\"\u003e[57]\u003c/a\u003e Gaskell, G. \u0026amp; Bauer, M. Towards public accountability: beyond sampling, reliability and validity in \u003cem\u003eQualitative researching with text, image and sound\u003c/em\u003e (eds. Gaskell, G. \u0026amp; Bauer, M) 336-350 (Sage Publications, 2000).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Supplementary Table","content":"\u003ch2 style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:15px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003eSupplementary Table 1: Coding framework\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable style=\"width: 4.7e+2pt;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 124.55pt;border-width: 1pt;border-style: solid;border-color: rgb(204, 204, 204) rgb(204, 204, 204) black;border-image: initial;padding: 0in 2pt;height: 15pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eResearch questions\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42.9pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 15pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eType of code\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 300.55pt;border-top: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 15pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eCoding categories\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 124.55pt;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-left: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 0in 2pt;height: 15pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eTo what extent is content related to children and youth\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eincluded in AR1- AR6?\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eIn which working groups and chapters of AR6 is content on children and youth most frequently included?\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 42.9pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 15pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eContent codes\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 300.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 15pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eChildren (key words: baby, infant, child, children, girl, boy, minor, minors)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 300.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 15pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eYouth (key words: youth, young people, young person, young woman/women, young man/men, adolescent, adolescence, teenager)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 300.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 15pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eWorking group information (WG number, chapter title, page number)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 300.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 15pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eSummary for policymakers (Yes/no)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 300.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 15pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eTechnical summary (Yes/no)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 300.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 15pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eText (key paragraph or table/figure number and information extracted which contained the key words related to children/youth)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 124.55pt;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-left: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 0in 2pt;height: 131.25pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eTo what extent are the risks of climate change to children and young people included or omitted in the IPCC AR6 report?\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eWhat kinds of risks to children and youth are included?\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eTo what extent does the IPCC AR6 report include evidence on children and youth in relation to mitigation or adaptation interventions? In the context of which climate responses do references to children and youth most frequently occur?\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 42.9pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 131.25pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eContext codes\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 300.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 131.25pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eClimate risks\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e. Up to two of the following coding categories were selected:\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\n \u003col style=\"margin-bottom:0in;list-style-type: decimal;margin-left:0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eEducation and play (enrolment, attendance, loss of education, risk to education, school participation, schooling, play_\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eGeneral burden (no definition of specific risks, or reference to additional risk(s) or harm(s) to children/youth)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eLivelihoods (loss of or risk to livelihoods, poverty, income loss, employment)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eMental health\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eMigration\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eMortality\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eNutrition (food systems, food insecurity, malnutrition, obesity)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003ePhysical health (diarrhoea, malaria, pneumonia)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eViolence \u0026amp; child protection (child labour, child marriage, violence, exploitation)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eWASH (access to water, water scarcity, distance to water, sanitation, water related hazards)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;margin-left:.5in;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 300.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 131.25pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eClimate responses\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e. One of the following coding categories were selected:\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\n \u003col style=\"margin-bottom:0in;list-style-type: decimal;margin-left:0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eBuilt environment (infrastructure, buildings, distribution systems that provide water, fuel, electricity (including at the household level), roads, bridges, and transportation systems)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eClimate-change education (awareness raising, informal and formal education, workshops and sensitisation)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eCollective action and social organising (social movements, civic engagement, activism, non-violent civil disobedience include strikes)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eCommunity adaptation (community and grassroots adaptation efforts)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eEconomic/health/social systems and protection (cash transfers, economic development, CSR initiatives, health promotion, health systems)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eFood production/systems\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eGovernance and planning (inclusion of children and young people -- among other actors -- in designing or providing feedback on adaptation and mitigation efforts)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eLitigation\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;margin-left:.5in;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 300.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 120.75pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eCo-benefits.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;One of the following coding categories were selected:\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\n \u003col style=\"margin-bottom:0in;list-style-type: decimal;margin-left:0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eAdditional/multiple benefits (multiple additional benefits)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eEducation and play (enrollment, attendance, loss of education, risk to education, play)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eGeneral benefit (no definition of specific benefit, or reference to general benefit to children/youth)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eHealth (diarrhoea, malaria, pneumonia, health)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eLivelihoods\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eNutrition (food systems, food insecurity, malnutrition, obseity)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eViolence \u0026amp; child protection (child labour, child marriage, violence, exploitation)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eVoice and political engagement\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eNo co-benefit specified\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;margin-left:.5in;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 124.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 164.25pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eWhich conceptual lenses and frameworks are used in cases when children and youth are referenced?\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 42.9pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 164.25pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eFrame codes\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 300.55pt;border-top: none;border-left: none;border-bottom: 1pt solid black;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);padding: 0in 2pt;height: 164.25pt;vertical-align: top;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eLenses/frameworks\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e. Up to two of the following coding categories were selected:\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\n \u003col style=\"margin-bottom:0in;list-style-type: decimal;margin-left:0in;\"\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eActivism (reference to children or youth leading or participating in climate activism)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eColoniality (reference to colonial/ coloniality)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eGender (uses one of the following terms; gender, gender norms, women\u0026apos;s empowerment, GBV, girls, or reference to improved outcomes/disproportionate impacts for girls/young women or boys/young men)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eInequality/inequity (reference to equity, equality, inequality, inequity, worst off/worse off, or worst/worse off compared to another group)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eIntersectionality (reference to intersectionality or intersections of multiple intersecting risks/harms)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eIntergenerational justice (reference to (inter)generation/ generational or references changes between generations and ideas of justice across generations)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eJustice (reference to justice or legal challenges)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eParticipation (reference to children or young people participating in climate responses)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eRights (a reference to child rights, human rights, rights based governance)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli style='margin:0in;line-height:115%;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eVulnerability/vulnerable group (reference to vulnerable/vulnerability, high risk group, or a list of groups that are impacted without stating if they are worse off)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ol\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;margin-left:.5in;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 6.5in;border-right: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-bottom: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-left: 1pt solid rgb(204, 204, 204);border-image: initial;border-top: none;padding: 0in 2pt;height: 33.75pt;vertical-align: bottom;\"\u003e\n \u003cp style='margin:0in;line-height:normal;font-size:13px;font-family:\"Times New Roman\",serif;'\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size:11px;\"\u003eNotes: References in the Technical Summaries were excluded as they were repetitive with the chapter. All text that related to the content about children or youth was included. As much as possible we extracted the full paragraph, or row of a table. If key words for children or youth were referenced multiple times in this text section, we coded for children or youth only once. \u0026quot;Younger populations\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;younger generations\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;younger individuals\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;younger age groups\u0026quot; were not included. Sometimes we did not code for \u0026ldquo;vulnerability\u0026rdquo; frame if other frames (inequality) were more salient, even if terms relevant to vulnerability were used.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"},{"header":"Reference List","content":"\u003cp\u003eAgg, C. \u003cem\u003eMonitoring the Social Costs of Climate Change for Low- and Middle-income Countries: Social Spending Monitor Policy Brief\u003c/em\u003e (UNICEF, 2022).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorie, M., et al. Knowing like a global expert organisation: Comparative insights from the IPCC and IPBES. \u003cem\u003eGlob. Environ. Change\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e68\u003c/strong\u003e (2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoykoff, M. \u0026amp; Pearman, O. 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Children\u0026rsquo;s participation and citizenship in a global age: Empowerment, tokenism or discriminatory disciplining? \u003cem\u003eSocial Work and Society\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e9\u003c/strong\u003e, 119\u0026ndash;134 (2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWatts, N., Amann, M., Arnell, N., Ayeb-Karlsson, S., Belesova, K., Boykoff, M., Byass, P., Cai, W., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Capstick, S. \u0026amp; Chambers, J. The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate. \u003cem\u003eThe Lancet\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e394\u003c/strong\u003e, 1836-1878 (2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYona, L. et al.\u0026nbsp;Applying a Leverage Points Framework to the United Nations Climate Negotiations. \u003cem\u003eElementa: Science of the Anthropocene\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8\u003c/strong\u003e, 36 (2020).\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"nature-portfolio","isNatureJournal":true,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Nature Portfolio","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":false,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4192923/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4192923/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis Analysis assesses how children and youth are included in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Reports. We quantify how frequently these groups are referenced in past Assessment Reports (AR1-AR6) and conduct a thematic analysis of AR6 to unpack how climate impacts on children and youth are and are not included; references to these groups in discussions of mitigation and adaptation strategies; and the conceptual frameworks used when they are referenced. Evidence on children and youth has grown steadily in the IPCC reports, with a notable jump in AR6. In this most recent report, there is an emphasis on climate-related risks to children’s physical health and the power of youth climate activism. There is however a critical need for further funding and inclusion of research on marginalised children’s unique and intersecting vulnerabilities beyond physical health, and on the meaningful participation of both children and youth in climate measures.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Inclusion of children and youth in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Assessment Reports (AR1-AR6)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-08-05 19:59:44","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4192923/v1","editorialEvents":[],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"nature-communications","isNatureJournal":true,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"NCOMMS","sideBox":"Learn more about [Nature Communications](http://www.nature.com/ncomms/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://mts-ncomms.nature.com/","title":"Nature Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Nature Communications","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"2bcef74c-5d8f-48a2-a4db-dc928e012697","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 5th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":34475017,"name":"Scientific community and society/Social sciences/Climate change/Climate-change impacts/Environmental health"},{"id":34475018,"name":"Scientific community and society/Social sciences/Climate change/Climate-change impacts/Governance"},{"id":34475019,"name":"Scientific community and society/Social sciences/Climate change/Climate-change mitigation"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-05T07:06:44+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4192923","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-60266-7","journal":{"identity":"nature-communications","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Nature Communications"},"publishedOn":"2025-07-04 04:00:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"July 4th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-08-05 19:59:44","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41467-025-60266-7","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-60266-7","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4192923","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4192923","identity":"rs-4192923","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}