LGBTQ+ Firearm Access and Ownership Across the United States: A Preliminary Geospatial Analysis

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We collected data using an online survey from September to December 2023. Using Geographic Information Systems software, we mapped and identified firearm ownership/access and intentions, and suicidal ideation patterns among an analytic sample of ( n = 1,000) respondents. Responses indicated that (a) most respondents did not personally own firearms; instead, they were more likely to have access via a family member’s firearm than to own one themselves, (b) most did not report increased interest in buying a gun in response to recent anti-LGBTQ+ laws, and (c) higher rates of suicidal ideation were observed among those who had access to a family member’s firearm, compared to other respondents. Although the majority of respondents in our sample were non–firearm owners, individuals with access to firearms through family members had higher rates of suicidal ideation. Respondents who reported more frequent thoughts of suicide tended to reside in urban areas. Furthermore, states with stricter firearm regulations had the highest proportion of respondents without guns, yet these respondents showed the greatest interest in purchasing firearms. As such, mental health professionals treating LGBTQ+ clients should routinely ask about firearm access to reduce the risk of suicide by firearms. Mapping firearm distribution can provide insights into regions and populations where firearm access/ownership and suicidal ideation rates may be higher. gun violence LGBT suicidal ideation geospatial analysis Introduction Recent estimates indicate that the number of firearms in the U.S. increased by 23% from 265 million in 2015 to 326 million in 2019 (Berrigan et al., 2022). This rise in firearm ownership does not reflect a surge in interest across all Americans. Rather, it highlights a pattern of repeated purchases by individuals who already owned firearms (i.e., 87% of the nation’s firearms are owned by those with more than two firearms; Berrigan et al., 2022). Although firearm purchases have been primarily concentrated among existing firearm owners – particularly White men – the COVID-19 pandemic saw an increase in new firearm owners (i.e., 7.5 million people). Many new owners were female, Black, or Hispanic individuals (Miller et al., 2022). Firearm ownership is typically higher in rural areas than in suburban and urban areas (Kadet, 2016; Schaeffer, 2024; Wiebe, 2009). Prior research has highlighted that rural residents generally feel that owning firearms enhances safety, whereas urban residents believe in the opposite effect (Schaeffer, 2024). However, existing evidence supports urban residents' concerns about the risks of widespread firearm ownership. Indeed, in rural areas, where firearm ownership is more common, both suicide rates and violence are higher than in urban areas (Cunningham et al., 2000; Kim et al., 2011; Miller & Hemenway, 2008). Little is known about how these patterns manifest in LGBTQ+ communities. Thus, this study seeks to explore the relationship between geographic region and firearm-related attitudes among LGBTQ+ individuals. Firearm Ownership as Protection The main reason for firearm ownership across the U.S. is self-protection (Ward et al., 2023 , 2024 ). While the predominant profile of American firearm owners remains to be older, White men living in rural areas (Miller et al., 2022 ), researchers note a recent increase in younger people and people of color purchasing firearms, with firearm-purchasing surges following civil unrest between 2019 and 2021 (e.g., the COVID-19 pandemic, the murder of George Floyd, January 6th attack on the U.S. Capitol; Bowen et al., 2023). The recent rise in firearm ownership among young people and minoritized groups could be interpreted as a protective response to political and national turmoil (Light & Boine, 2023 ; Miller et al., 2022 ). Resurgence in firearms purchasing among minoritized groups extends to LGBTQ+ individuals, who may acquire firearms for self-protection in response to a rise in hate crimes towards LGBTQ+ individuals and anti-LGBTQ+ legislation (Bermea, 2024 ). A recent qualitative study of LGBTQ+ firearm owners highlighted how assumptions about and responses to participants’ sexual and gender identities sometimes escalated into violence (Combs, 2022 ). Furthermore, research has highlighted that safety concerns are prominent among LGBTQ+ individuals following incidents of mass violence (Kahan & Braman, 2003 ; Stults et al., 2017 ). Recent hate crimes against LGBTQ+ people include the horrific mass shootings at Club Q in 2022 (in Colorado Springs, CO) and Pulse in 2016 (in Orlando, FL). In a survey of LGBTQ+ individuals following the Orlando shooting, respondents reported concerns for their own safety as well as their peers, particularly among minoritized gender identities (e.g., transgender; Stults et al., 2017 ). A separate survey of LGBTQ+ adults ( n = 232) following this shooting further supported research findings that LGBTQ+ people experienced increased distress about anti-sexual/gender minority hate crimes, with specific safety concerns affecting their well-being (Maduro et al., 2020 ). Reduced feelings of safety and increased emotional distress following violence against LGBTQ+ people have important implications for firearm access and ownership in this population and have not been well-researched to date (Jackson, 2017 ). Firearm Access and Mental Health The recent rise in anti-LGBTQ+ legislation and targeted violence raises concerns for safety among LGBTQ+ individuals. This is particularly critical as LGBTQ+ people already experience higher rates of gender-based bullying and associated mental health problems than their heterosexual counterparts (Ganson & Nagata, 2021 ; Kessler et al., 2013), including elevated rates of suicidal ideation and attempts (Mustanski et al., 2010 ; Parchem et al., 2024 ; Russell & Fish, 2016 ). These mental health challenges could become more lethal given access to a firearm. LGBTQ+ adults are less likely to report firearms in the home than their heterosexual counterparts (Blosnich et al., 2020 ; Conron & Tan, 2024), and there are differences in firearm access and ownership across subgroups of LGBTQ+ people. Research using General Social Survey data from 2010 to 2016 in California revealed notable differences in LGBTQ+ firearm perceptions and ownership (Clark et al., 2020 ): Gay/bisexual men were more likely to endorse supporting firearm safety laws and less likely to report household firearms than heterosexual men; both lesbian/bisexual and heterosexual women endorsed firearm safety laws and reported household firearms, even if they did not personally own firearms. Among women with a household firearm, lesbian/bisexual women were more likely to own the firearm(s) than heterosexual women. Like the overall population’s primary reason for owning firearms, the majority of California LGBTQ+ owners reported owning them for self-protection (Tomsich et al., 2020 ). Though ownership estimates vary across studies, recent research found that risks for firearm-related injury or death were ultimately greater among LGBTQ+ adults than non-LGBTQ+ adults, which included past-year suicidal ideation (15% for LGBTQ + vs. 4.0% non-LGBTQ+) and intimate partner violence (4.1% for LGBTQ + vs. 2.4% non-LGBTQ+; Conron et al., 2018 ; Conron & Tan, 2024). Indeed, LGBTQ+ veterans were more likely than non-LGBTQ+ veterans to have a recent emergency department visit (38.5% vs. 29.8%), with LGBTQ+ veterans significantly more likely to report access to firearms (Goulet et al., 2023). Additionally, LGBTQ+ veterans in the sample were more likely to have diagnoses associated with an increased risk for suicide than non-LGBTQ+ veterans (Goulet et al., 2023). Together, these prior studies illustrate both the high prevalence of mental health disorders among LGBTQ+ people and how fears of anti-LGBTQ+ hate and targeted violence can further their mental distress. The Current Study Despite recent hate crimes and anti-LGBTQ+ legislation, there is a lack of research describing LGBTQ+ firearm access and ownership. This paper aims to fill this gap by using a national sample of LGBTQ+ Americans to illustrate the geographic patterns of (a) firearm access/ownership, (b) interest in buying firearms due to anti-LGBTQ+ laws, and (c) suicidal ideation. Methods Study Design and Participants This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of [blinded university]. These data come from a mixed-methods study of firearm attitudes among LGBTQ+ individuals; here, we focus specifically on mapping the geographic distribution of firearm access/ownership, purchasing interest, and suicidal ideations. This paper aims to provide a foundational understanding of regional patterns and demographic characteristics of firearm access, intentions, and suicidal ideations within this population. This study used a cross-sectional survey, distributed through the online platform Qualtrics, to collect data on firearm-related topics among LGBTQ+ Americans. Study participants were recruited through both active and passive methods. Active recruitment included referrals from healthcare providers, whereas passive strategies involved online outreach through social media platforms, LGBTQ+ community groups, and collaborations with LGBTQ+ advocacy organizations. Recruitment took place from September to December 2023. Individuals were eligible if they self-identified as LGBTQ+, were 18 years or older, and resided within the US. An online screening questionnaire was administered to assess eligibility and obtain informed consent. Throughout the survey, safeguards prevented duplicate and bot responses (e.g., IP address checking, reCAPTCHA test, bot detection tool, HTTP referrer verification, and tools to place cookies in participants’ browsers after completing the survey). Upon completing the survey, participants were given the opportunity to enter a raffle for a chance to win one of twenty $ 50 electronic gift cards. The final survey sample consisted of 1,170 respondents. Of these, 85.5% of respondents’ data ( n = 1,000) included latitude and longitude coordinates generated by Qualtrics, enabling spatial analyses. The remaining 170 respondents (14.5%) did not have coordinate data available. These cases were included in general descriptive analyses but were omitted from geospatial mapping and related analyses. Survey Instrument The survey included a series of questions to assess respondents' attitudes and beliefs about firearm ownership, firearm policies, personal experiences with firearms, and perceptions of firearm violence risk among LGBTQ+ individuals. Demographic questions captured sexual orientation, gender identity, age, and geographic location. Firearm Ownership/Access. The main measures analyzed in this study were firearm ownership and access, intentions toward firearm purchasing, and suicidal ideation. Firearm ownership and access were each assessed through binary yes/no questions: “Do you own a gun?” and “Does anyone in your family own a gun?” Firearm Purchasing Intentions. Attitudes toward future firearm purchasing and ownership were measured by participants' responses to the following statement: “The recent increase in anti-LGBTQ+ laws (e.g., 'Don’t Say Gay,' bathroom bills, etc.) in the United States has…” , with response options: (a) made me more interested in buying a gun, (b) made me less interested in buying a gun, and (c) had no impact on my interest in buying a gun. Suicidal Ideation. Suicidal ideation was assessed using one item from the nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9; Kroenke et al., 2001 ): “ Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by any of the following problems? Thoughts that you would be better off dead or of hurting yourself in some way,” The response options included: (a) not at all, (b) several days, (c) more than half the days, (d) nearly every day. Data Collection and Geocoding Survey respondents provided their residential ZIP code. However, the precise latitude and longitude coordinates used for geospatial analyses were not derived from the ZIP code itself; instead, they were obtained from the IP address recorded at the time of survey completion via Qualtrics. These coordinates allowed for detailed geospatial analyses and mapping. Respondents’ latitude and longitude coordinates were geocoded in ArcGIS Pro and linked to 2023 Census state and county shapefiles (i.e., a publicly available geospatial vector data format used in mapping software). Descriptive and Spatial Analysis Given the study’s focus on understanding the distribution of firearm access/ownership and interest, and suicidal ideation among LGBTQ+ Americans, analyses were descriptive in nature. Simple test statistics (e.g., z-tests for proportion differences) were conducted using STATA 18. We then produced visualizations using Kepler.gl (an open-source mapping software) to map the geographic distribution of firearm ownership and attitudes across the United States. Results Key sociodemographic characteristics of the overall sample of survey respondents ( n = 1,170) are displayed in Table 1. The geographic regions of responses were evenly split across the Midwest, South, Northeast, and West. The mean age of respondents was 36 and the majority of the sample did not own a firearm (79.9%). In terms of sexual orientation, approximately a quarter of our sample identified as queer (26.5%), with others identifying as bisexual (22.1%), gay (19.8%), and lesbian (18.5%). About half of respondents identified as non-cisgender (52.8%, e.g., non-binary, genderqueer, or transgender) and 42.6% as cisgender. The sample was not racially diverse, as most respondents were White (79.9%). Figure 1. Firearm ownership among sample of LGBTQ+ adults. Figure 1 shows the distribution of firearm ownership in our subsample. Nearly half ( n = 449, represented by white points on the map) reported neither personally owning a firearm nor having family ownership. Over a third ( n = 354, shown as red points with a white center) indicated that there was family firearm ownership, even though they themselves did not own a firearm. Fewer respondents reported both personal and family firearm ownership ( n = 148, represented by solid red points), while an even smaller group ( n = 46, shown as white points with a red center) personally owned a firearm without any firearms owned by a family member. Overall, just over half of our subsample ( n = 502) reported having a family member who owns a firearm. Personal firearm ownership appeared as isolated points scattered throughout both urban and rural areas, with no significant concentration, even in regions that have historically been strongly opposed to restrictive firearm policies. Figure 2. Intentions to purchase firearms among sample of LGBTQ+ adults. Figure 2 portrays interest in buying a firearm in response to the recent increase in anti-LGBTQ+ laws in the United States. This figure includes respondents who are not firearm owners themselves but do have access to a firearm through a family member ( n = 998). Most respondents ( n = 730; 73.1%) reported that anti-LGBTQ+ laws had no impact on their interest in buying a firearm. A quarter ( n = 249; 24.9%) of respondents indicated that these laws increased their interest in buying a firearm. Notably, these increases are visually not randomly distributed; rather, they are more frequently observed in certain urban centers. Lastly, a small number of respondents ( n = 19; 1.9%) noted that such laws made them less inclined to make such a purchase. Figure 3. Suicidal ideation among sample of LGBTQ+ adults. Figure 3 shows the relationship between the likelihood of suicidal ideation (i.e., “Thoughts that you would be better off dead or hurting yourself in some way”) and access to firearms through familial ownership. Although most respondents ( n = 789) denied suicidal ideation in the last two weeks, 20% ( n = 207) reported experiencing such thoughts with some frequency, ranging from “several days” ( n = 142) to “nearly every day” ( n = 31) in the past two weeks. Those with family access to a firearm but no personal ownership ( n = 354), were twice as likely as firearm owners ( n = 194) to report recent suicidal ideation (25.4% vs. 12.4%) (z = 3.81, p < 0.001). Discussion This study provides foundational geospatial data on firearm access/ownership, interest in firearm purchasing, and suicidal ideation among LGBTQ+ individuals, addressing a gap in the literature on this understudied population. Our analyses revealed that most respondents neither owned nor reported family firearm ownership ( n = 449). This finding aligns with prior research showing that LGBTQ+ individuals have lower rates of firearm ownership than their heterosexual peers, even after adjusting for sociodemographic factors such as age, race/ethnicity, and military veteran status (Blosnich et al., 2020 ). The second most common response was familial firearm ownership without personal ownership ( n = 354). In other words, a substantial portion of respondents had access to a firearm through a family member even if they did not personally own one. Geographic differences in firearm ownership were notable: respondents from rural areas and small towns reporting higher rates of both personal and family firearm ownership, whereas respondents from large cities and suburbs were more likely to report that neither they nor their family members owned a firearm. This trend mirrors national patterns in firearm ownership. Urban residents are generally less likely to own firearms than those in rural areas, often due to cultural norms, regulatory restrictions, and differences in perceived security threats (Kadet, 2016 ; Ward et al., 2023 , 2024 ). Our data also indicates that respondents in large cities reported slightly higher frequencies of suicidal ideation compared to those in rural areas and small towns. This does not contradict previous research indicating elevated suicide rates in rural areas (Kim et al., 2011 ), but instead suggests that urban LGBTQ+ individuals may experience different mental health stressors, such as discrimination, economic instability, or lack of community support, that contribute to suicidal ideation. Additionally, we found that firearm access through familial ownership was associated with suicidal thoughts. Specifically, LGBTQ+ individuals who did not personally own a firearm but did have access to a firearm through family members reported suicidal ideation at higher rates (25.4%) than both firearm owners (12.4%) and those with no familial firearm access. Personal firearm owners had the lowest rates of suicidal thoughts (12.4%), even though they had direct access to a firearm. These findings raise important considerations about firearm proximity and suicide risk. While previous research has established that firearm access is a risk factor for suicide (Parchem et al., 2024 ), the present study suggests that LGBTQ+ individuals who have access to a family member’s firearm—but do not own one themselves—may represent a particularly vulnerable group. One possible explanation is that a firearm owner might believe their gun is securely stored or hidden, but another person (e.g., a family member in the household) who knows where the firearm is stored could access it. In such cases, that firearm might increase risk for a self-harm or suicide attempt for someone experiencing suicidal ideation, even if that person is not the firearm’s owner. Future studies should investigate how firearm storage practices, access, and mental health intersect in LGBTQ+ populations, particularly among those who may not have formal ownership of the firearms they can access (Correll-King et al., 2025 ). Contrary to some prior research linking firearm ownership with feelings of safety and self-protection (Kadet, 2016 ), most respondents (73.1%) reported that anti-LGBTQ+ laws did not influence their interest firearm purchasing interest. However, 24.9% of respondents expressed increased interest in purchasing a firearm due to these laws, highlighting potentially important firearms-related beliefs among LGBTQ+ individuals. Visual examination of the data indicated that respondents in urban areas (e.g., along the East Coast, in California, and parts of the Midwest) reported slightly higher levels of increased firearm interest than those in rural areas. This finding aligns with reports that LGBTQ+ individuals in cities may feel acutely targeted by legislative threats and hate crimes, prompting them to consider firearm ownership (Stults et al., 2017 ). Notably, this deviates from research in general samples, which suggest that rural residents are more likely to endorse firearms for protection (Kadet, 2016 ; Schaeffer, 2024; Wiebe et al., 2009 ). Our geospatial results also demonstrate that LGBTQ+ individuals across the US may face mental health challenges in diverse regions, not just in areas often perceived as less affirming of LGBTQ+ people. Implications In understanding firearm ownership among LGBTQ+ individuals, our study suggests that the relationship between LGBTQ+ identity and firearm ownership is evolving. Consequently, research and policy discussions should avoid assuming that LGBTQ+ individuals are uniformly opposed to firearm ownership and instead recognize the diverse motivations (e.g., self-protection vs. fear of violence) and safety concerns within this community (Ganson & Nagata, 2021 ). Public health initiatives should be tailored to meet the specific needs of LGBTQ+ individuals in both urban and rural settings, recognizing that different environmental and social stressors may contribute to firearm-related risks. Nevertheless, firearm safety and mental health risk mitigation should be prioritized for LGBTQ+ individual. In particular, our results show that individuals who have firearm access through family members but do not personally own a firearm report higher levels of suicidal ideation compared to those who are firearm owners. It is essential to implement safe storage practices, provide firearm safety education, and develop targeted mental health interventions for families with LGBTQ+ members who may be at elevated risk for suicide (Blosnich et al., 2020 ; Kline, 2020). Policymakers and public health officials should consider adopting strategies that address mental health screening, suicide prevention, and firearm safety training across all states, as LGBTQ+ individuals are widely dispersed throughout the country. For instance, expanding telehealth-based mental health services can ensure consistent access to care in both urban hubs and remote rural areas. Firearm safety campaigns should also include culturally competent messaging that speaks directly to LGBTQ+ communities, emphasizing secure storage practices and harm-reduction strategies. Lastly, local legislators and advocacy organizations could use the maps from this study (and related firearm ownership/access data) to identify areas where anti-LGBTQ+ legislation or social stigma may coincide with increased interest in firearm acquisition. This can inform targeted outreach and intervention efforts to mitigate the risks of suicidal ideation or potential for violence in those areas. Limitations Several limitations in our study should be considered. First, our data were drawn from a national, purposive online sample, which may have introduced selection bias. Potential respondents who were particularly interested in the survey topics or who had firsthand experience with firearms might have been more likely to complete the survey. Thus, a future probability-based national sample may provide more representative data for our population of interest. Additionally, although our analyses assume that family firearm ownership indicates an individual’s potential access to those firearms, this assumption may not hold true in all cases. For example, some respondents may not live with (or even near) their family members with firearms and therefore cannot actually access them. Another limitation is the lack of racial and ethnic diversity in our sample. A disproportionate majority of participants identified as White (79.9%), and a slight majority were non-cisgender (52.8%). To ensure more representative data, future studies should aim to include a more varied sample of racial and ethnic minority participants and employ intersectional variables to better assess the unique intersectional stressors faced by sexual minority people of color (Ward et al., 2023 ). Finally, our cross-sectional design and descriptive statistical analyses limit the causal inferences that can be drawn from participants’ responses. Additional research should employ more specific measures of firearm ownership and access, recruit more diverse samples, and utilize analytic approaches (e.g., regression analyses) to examine relationships between variables in greater depth (Correll-King et al., 2025 ; Jackson, 2017 ; Ramirez et al., 2018 ; Stults et al., 2017 ). Conclusion This descriptive study aimed to outline firearm ownership and access, firearm purchasing interest, and suicidal ideation among LGBTQ+ Americans. We used mapping techniques to illustrate regional patterns and spatial concentrations of firearm-related beliefs among LGBTQ+ adults in the U.S. Our results showed that firearm ownership and access among LGBTQ+ individuals is spread across the country. Notably, more respondents reported that a family member owns a firearm than reported personal firearm ownership. These preliminary spatial observations provide a foundation for future research. Subsequent studies can build on this work by integrating data on local policies, hate crime rates, community supports, and socioeconomic conditions to gain a more nuanced understanding of how geography intersects with LGBTQ+ individuals’ firearm-related attitudes and mental health outcomes. Declarations Funding Statement. This work was supported in part with funding provided by the New Jersey Gun Violence Research Center at Rutgers University, which works in collaboration with and is supported by New Jersey's Office of the Secretary of Higher Education. Conflicts of Interest Statement: We have no conflict of interest to disclose. Analytic code availability. There is not analytic code associated with this study. Author Contributions. [First author]: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing-original draft. [Second author]: Writing-original draft, Writing-review and editing. [Third author]: Writing-original draft. [Fourth author]: Reviewing and editing, Funding acquisition, Project administration. [Fifth author]: Reviewing and editing, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Supervision. References Bermea, A. M. (2024). Hate Crimes, Mass Shootings, and the Pulse . Night Club Massacre. In. The (Mis)Representation of Queer Lives in True Crime (1st ed., Vol. 1, pp. 295–312). 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Firearm Access. and Socio-Structural Factors Related to Suicidality Among Youth With Diverse Sexual, Gender, and Racial Identities. Archives of Suicide Research , 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2024.2347345 Ramirez, J. L., Gonzalez, K. A., & Galupo, M. P. (2018). Invisible During My Own Crisis. Responses of LGBT People of Color to the Orlando Shooting Journal of Homosexuality , 65 (5), 579–599. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2017.1328217 Russell, S. T., & Fish, J. N. (2016). Mental Health in Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender. Youth, L. G. B. T. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology , 12 , 465–487. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093153 Schaeffer, K. (2024, July 24). Key facts about Americans and guns . Pew Research Center. Retrieved, & September (2024). 20, from https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2024/07/24/key-facts-about-americans-and-guns/ Stults, C. B., Kupprat, S. A., Krause, K. D., Kapadia, F., & Halkitis, P. N. (2017). Perceptions of. Safety Among LGBTQ People Following the 2016 Pulse Nightclub Shooting Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity , 4 (3), 251–256. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000240 Tomsich, E. A., Kravitz-Wirtz, N., Pallin, R., & Wintemute, G. J. (2020). Firearm Ownership. Among, L. G. B. T. Adults in California. Violence and Gender , 7 (3), 102–108. https://doi.org/10.1089/vio.2020.0024 Ward, J. A., Uzzi, M., Hudson, T., Webster, D. W., & Crifasi, C. K. (2023). Differences in. Perceptions of Gun-Related Safety by Race and Gun Ownership in the United States The Journal of Law Medicine & Ethics , 51 (1), 14–31. https://doi.org/10.1017/jme.2023.38 Ward, J. A., Valek, R. A., Jones, V. C., & Crifasi, C. K. (2024). Reasons for Gun Ownership. Among Demographically Diverse New and Prior Gun Owners American Journal of Preventive Medicine . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2024.06.026 Wiebe, D. J., Krafty, R. T., Koper, C. S., Nance, M. L., Elliott, M. R., & Branas (2009). C. C. Homicide and geographic access to gun dealers in the United States BMC Public Health , 9 (199), https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-9-199 Tables Tables are available in the Supplementary Files section. Figures Figures are available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Appendix.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9416838","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":623049695,"identity":"673ae547-ddfc-4330-8955-73db5ccb1fe7","order_by":0,"name":"Tanaka Chavanduka","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Graduate Center, CUNY","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tanaka","middleName":"","lastName":"Chavanduka","suffix":""},{"id":623049696,"identity":"6eb02ef7-4b48-480a-8bc8-e97d94522bdd","order_by":1,"name":"Jae Eun Kwak","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA3UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxh4gbvxjw8DADuYnQDFBLQ1pDAzMYB1EaGHgAWs5TIIW5p4zhh9n7jif2M/M/oCZ90caAz97jgF+h/X2GEtuPHM7cWYzjwEzT0IOg2TPGwJa+nk3SD5gu21scJiHAailgsHgBiFb+nk3/3zAdg6oBegwkBZ7glp6e7dJbmw7IGdwmAHiMAMJQlp6zn+znHEmWU4S6JeDc9LSeCTOPCvAq8WwJy35Zk+FHQ8/e/vDB29skuX425M34NfSgMQ5wACOJwJAnqCKUTAKRsEoGAUA80VE3mS2TTkAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Tennessee at Knoxville","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jae","middleName":"Eun","lastName":"Kwak","suffix":""},{"id":623049697,"identity":"e8c7d715-a166-429c-8ab4-e880a0e4dd46","order_by":2,"name":"Devon Ziminski","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Devon","middleName":"","lastName":"Ziminski","suffix":""},{"id":623049698,"identity":"e648075f-18b0-4922-bd09-744442e566b7","order_by":3,"name":"Kristen Krause","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kristen","middleName":"","lastName":"Krause","suffix":""},{"id":623049699,"identity":"dbef62c2-057f-400d-ab57-47ef521e5b18","order_by":4,"name":"Christopher Stults","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Baruch College","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Christopher","middleName":"","lastName":"Stults","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-14 14:38:03","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9416838/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9416838/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":107391597,"identity":"ddd55eec-13b8-4582-bb37-cd7803300c9d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-21 05:25:54","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":341280,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9416838/v1/2d994f2c-9c1e-444c-9d54-6f6b916c0275.pdf"},{"id":106957306,"identity":"aa50fadb-2376-4396-b27f-177d82b89a2d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-15 08:29:04","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":713496,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9416838/v1/955b62ac835dc7cee97f2b98.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"LGBTQ+ Firearm Access and Ownership Across the United States: A Preliminary Geospatial Analysis","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Recent estimates indicate that the number of firearms in the U.S. increased by 23% from 265 million in 2015 to 326 million in 2019 (Berrigan et al., 2022). This rise in firearm ownership does not reflect a surge in interest across all Americans. Rather, it highlights a pattern of repeated purchases by individuals who already owned firearms (i.e., 87% of the nation\u0026rsquo;s firearms are owned by those with more than two firearms; Berrigan et al., 2022). Although firearm purchases have been primarily concentrated among existing firearm owners \u0026ndash; particularly White men \u0026ndash; the COVID-19 pandemic saw an increase in new firearm owners (i.e., 7.5 million people). Many new owners were female, Black, or Hispanic individuals (Miller et al., 2022).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirearm ownership is typically higher in rural areas than in suburban and urban areas (Kadet, 2016; Schaeffer, 2024; Wiebe, 2009). Prior research has highlighted that rural residents generally feel that owning firearms enhances safety, whereas urban residents believe in the opposite effect (Schaeffer, 2024). However, existing evidence supports urban residents\u0026apos; concerns about the risks of widespread firearm ownership. Indeed, in rural areas, where firearm ownership is more common, both suicide rates and violence are higher than in urban areas (Cunningham et al., 2000; Kim et al., 2011; Miller \u0026amp; Hemenway, 2008). Little is known about how these patterns manifest in LGBTQ+ communities. Thus, this study seeks to explore the relationship between geographic region and firearm-related attitudes among LGBTQ+ individuals. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFirearm Ownership as Protection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe main reason for firearm ownership across the U.S. is self-protection (Ward et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). While the predominant profile of American firearm owners remains to be older, White men living in rural areas (Miller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), researchers note a recent increase in younger people and people of color purchasing firearms, with firearm-purchasing surges following civil unrest between 2019 and 2021 (e.g., the COVID-19 pandemic, the murder of George Floyd, January 6th attack on the U.S. Capitol; Bowen et al., 2023). The recent rise in firearm ownership among young people and minoritized groups could be interpreted as a protective response to political and national turmoil (Light \u0026amp; Boine, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Miller et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Resurgence in firearms purchasing among minoritized groups extends to LGBTQ+ individuals, who may acquire firearms for self-protection in response to a rise in hate crimes towards LGBTQ+ individuals and anti-LGBTQ+ legislation (Bermea, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). A recent qualitative study of LGBTQ+ firearm owners highlighted how assumptions about and responses to participants\u0026rsquo; sexual and gender identities sometimes escalated into violence (Combs, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, research has highlighted that safety concerns are prominent among LGBTQ+ individuals following incidents of mass violence (Kahan \u0026amp; Braman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Stults et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Recent hate crimes against LGBTQ+ people include the horrific mass shootings at Club Q in 2022 (in Colorado Springs, CO) and Pulse in 2016 (in Orlando, FL). In a survey of LGBTQ+ individuals following the Orlando shooting, respondents reported concerns for their own safety as well as their peers, particularly among minoritized gender identities (e.g., transgender; Stults et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). A separate survey of LGBTQ+ adults (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;232) following this shooting further supported research findings that LGBTQ+ people experienced increased distress about anti-sexual/gender minority hate crimes, with specific safety concerns affecting their well-being (Maduro et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Reduced feelings of safety and increased emotional distress following violence against LGBTQ+ people have important implications for firearm access and ownership in this population and have not been well-researched to date (Jackson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFirearm Access and Mental Health\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe recent rise in anti-LGBTQ+ legislation and targeted violence raises concerns for safety among LGBTQ+ individuals. This is particularly critical as LGBTQ+ people already experience higher rates of gender-based bullying and associated mental health problems than their heterosexual counterparts (Ganson \u0026amp; Nagata, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Kessler et al., 2013), including elevated rates of suicidal ideation and attempts (Mustanski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Parchem et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Russell \u0026amp; Fish, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). These mental health challenges could become more lethal given access to a firearm. LGBTQ+ adults are less likely to report firearms in the home than their heterosexual counterparts (Blosnich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Conron \u0026amp; Tan, 2024), and there are differences in firearm access and ownership across subgroups of LGBTQ+ people. Research using General Social Survey data from 2010 to 2016 in California revealed notable differences in LGBTQ+ firearm perceptions and ownership (Clark et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e): Gay/bisexual men were more likely to endorse supporting firearm safety laws and less likely to report household firearms than heterosexual men; both lesbian/bisexual and heterosexual women endorsed firearm safety laws and reported household firearms, even if they did not personally own firearms. Among women with a household firearm, lesbian/bisexual women were more likely to own the firearm(s) than heterosexual women. Like the overall population\u0026rsquo;s primary reason for owning firearms, the majority of California LGBTQ+ owners reported owning them for self-protection (Tomsich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThough ownership estimates vary across studies, recent research found that risks for firearm-related injury or death were ultimately greater among LGBTQ+ adults than non-LGBTQ+ adults, which included past-year suicidal ideation (15% for LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;vs. 4.0% non-LGBTQ+) and intimate partner violence (4.1% for LGBTQ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;vs. 2.4% non-LGBTQ+; Conron et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Conron \u0026amp; Tan, 2024). Indeed, LGBTQ+ veterans were more likely than non-LGBTQ+ veterans to have a recent emergency department visit (38.5% vs. 29.8%), with LGBTQ+ veterans significantly more likely to report access to firearms (Goulet et al., 2023). Additionally, LGBTQ+ veterans in the sample were more likely to have diagnoses associated with an increased risk for suicide than non-LGBTQ+ veterans (Goulet et al., 2023). Together, these prior studies illustrate both the high prevalence of mental health disorders among LGBTQ+ people and how fears of anti-LGBTQ+ hate and targeted violence can further their mental distress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe Current Study\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite recent hate crimes and anti-LGBTQ+ legislation, there is a lack of research describing LGBTQ+ firearm access and ownership. This paper aims to fill this gap by using a national sample of LGBTQ+ Americans to illustrate the geographic patterns of (a) firearm access/ownership, (b) interest in buying firearms due to anti-LGBTQ+ laws, and (c) suicidal ideation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Design and Participants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of [blinded university]. These data come from a mixed-methods study of firearm attitudes among LGBTQ+ individuals; here, we focus specifically on mapping the geographic distribution of firearm access/ownership, purchasing interest, and suicidal ideations. This paper aims to provide a foundational understanding of regional patterns and demographic characteristics of firearm access, intentions, and suicidal ideations within this population.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study used a cross-sectional survey, distributed through the online platform Qualtrics, to collect data on firearm-related topics among LGBTQ+ Americans. Study participants were recruited through both active and passive methods. Active recruitment included referrals from healthcare providers, whereas passive strategies involved online outreach through social media platforms, LGBTQ+ community groups, and collaborations with LGBTQ+ advocacy organizations. Recruitment took place from September to December 2023. Individuals were eligible if they self-identified as LGBTQ+, were 18 years or older, and resided within the US. An online screening questionnaire was administered to assess eligibility and obtain informed consent. Throughout the survey, safeguards prevented duplicate and bot responses (e.g., IP address checking, reCAPTCHA test, bot detection tool, HTTP referrer verification, and tools to place cookies in participants\u0026rsquo; browsers after completing the survey). Upon completing the survey, participants were given the opportunity to enter a raffle for a chance to win one of twenty \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e50 electronic gift cards.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe final survey sample consisted of 1,170 respondents. Of these, 85.5% of respondents\u0026rsquo; data (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1,000) included latitude and longitude coordinates generated by Qualtrics, enabling spatial analyses. The remaining 170 respondents (14.5%) did not have coordinate data available. These cases were included in general descriptive analyses but were omitted from geospatial mapping and related analyses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSurvey Instrument\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe survey included a series of questions to assess respondents' attitudes and beliefs about firearm ownership, firearm policies, personal experiences with firearms, and perceptions of firearm violence risk among LGBTQ+ individuals. Demographic questions captured sexual orientation, gender identity, age, and geographic location.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFirearm Ownership/Access.\u003c/b\u003e The main measures analyzed in this study were firearm ownership and access, intentions toward firearm purchasing, and suicidal ideation. Firearm ownership and access were each assessed through binary yes/no questions: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Do you own a gun?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Does anyone in your family own a gun?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFirearm Purchasing Intentions.\u003c/b\u003e Attitudes toward future firearm purchasing and ownership were measured by participants' responses to the following statement: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The recent increase in anti-LGBTQ+ laws (e.g., 'Don\u0026rsquo;t Say Gay,' bathroom bills, etc.) in the United States has\u0026hellip;\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e, with response options: (a) made me more interested in buying a gun, (b) made me less interested in buying a gun, and (c) had no impact on my interest in buying a gun.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSuicidal Ideation.\u003c/b\u003e Suicidal ideation was assessed using one item from the nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9; Kroenke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e): \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eOver the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by any of the following problems? Thoughts that you would be better off dead or of hurting yourself in some way,\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e The response options included: (a) not at all, (b) several days, (c) more than half the days, (d) nearly every day.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Collection and Geocoding\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSurvey respondents provided their residential ZIP code. However, the precise latitude and longitude coordinates used for geospatial analyses were not derived from the ZIP code itself; instead, they were obtained from the IP address recorded at the time of survey completion via Qualtrics. These coordinates allowed for detailed geospatial analyses and mapping. Respondents\u0026rsquo; latitude and longitude coordinates were geocoded in ArcGIS Pro and linked to 2023 Census state and county shapefiles (i.e., a publicly available geospatial vector data format used in mapping software).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDescriptive and Spatial Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the study\u0026rsquo;s focus on understanding the distribution of firearm access/ownership and interest, and suicidal ideation among LGBTQ+ Americans, analyses were descriptive in nature. Simple test statistics (e.g., z-tests for proportion differences) were conducted using STATA 18. We then produced visualizations using Kepler.gl (an open-source mapping software) to map the geographic distribution of firearm ownership and attitudes across the United States.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eKey sociodemographic characteristics of the overall sample of survey respondents (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 1,170) are displayed in Table 1. The geographic regions of responses were evenly split across the Midwest, South, Northeast, and West. The mean age of respondents was 36 and the majority of the sample did not own a firearm (79.9%). In terms of sexual orientation, approximately a quarter of our sample identified as queer (26.5%), with others identifying as bisexual (22.1%), gay (19.8%), and lesbian (18.5%). About half of respondents identified as non-cisgender (52.8%, e.g., non-binary, genderqueer, or transgender) and 42.6% as cisgender. The sample was not racially diverse, as most respondents were White (79.9%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 1. \u003cstrong\u003eFirearm ownership among sample of LGBTQ+ adults.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 1 shows the distribution of firearm ownership in our subsample. Nearly half (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 449, represented by white points on the map) reported neither personally owning a firearm nor having family ownership. Over a third (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 354, shown as red points with a white center) indicated that there was family firearm ownership, even though they themselves did not own a firearm. Fewer respondents reported both personal and family firearm ownership (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 148, represented by solid red points), while an even smaller group (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 46, shown as white points with a red center) personally owned a firearm without any firearms owned by a family member. Overall, just over half of our subsample (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 502) reported having a family member who owns a firearm. Personal firearm ownership appeared as isolated points scattered throughout both urban and rural areas, with no significant concentration, even in regions that have historically been strongly opposed to restrictive firearm policies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 2. \u003cstrong\u003eIntentions to purchase firearms among sample of LGBTQ+ adults.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 2 portrays interest in buying a firearm in response to the recent increase in anti-LGBTQ+ laws in the United States. This figure includes respondents who are not firearm owners themselves but do have access to a firearm through a family member (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 998). Most respondents (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 730; 73.1%) reported that anti-LGBTQ+ laws had no impact on their interest in buying a firearm. A quarter (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 249; 24.9%) of respondents indicated that these laws increased their interest in buying a firearm. Notably, these increases are visually not randomly distributed; rather, they are more frequently observed in certain urban centers. Lastly, a small number of respondents (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 19; 1.9%) noted that such laws made them less inclined to make such a purchase.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 3. \u003cstrong\u003eSuicidal ideation among sample of LGBTQ+ adults.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 3 shows the relationship between the likelihood of suicidal ideation (i.e., \u003cem\u003e“Thoughts that you would be better off dead or hurting yourself in some way”)\u003c/em\u003e and access to firearms through familial ownership. Although most respondents (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 789) denied suicidal ideation in the last two weeks, 20% (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 207) reported experiencing such thoughts with some frequency, ranging from “several days” (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 142) to “nearly every day” (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 31) in the past two weeks. Those with family access to a firearm but no personal ownership (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 354), were twice as likely as firearm owners (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e = 194) to report recent suicidal ideation (25.4% vs. 12.4%) (z = 3.81, p \u0026lt; 0.001).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study provides foundational geospatial data on firearm access/ownership, interest in firearm purchasing, and suicidal ideation among LGBTQ+ individuals, addressing a gap in the literature on this understudied population. Our analyses revealed that most respondents neither owned nor reported family firearm ownership (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;449). This finding aligns with prior research showing that LGBTQ+ individuals have lower rates of firearm ownership than their heterosexual peers, even after adjusting for sociodemographic factors such as age, race/ethnicity, and military veteran status (Blosnich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The second most common response was familial firearm ownership without personal ownership (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;354). In other words, a substantial portion of respondents had access to a firearm through a family member even if they did not personally own one. Geographic differences in firearm ownership were notable: respondents from rural areas and small towns reporting higher rates of both personal and family firearm ownership, whereas respondents from large cities and suburbs were more likely to report that neither they nor their family members owned a firearm. This trend mirrors national patterns in firearm ownership. Urban residents are generally less likely to own firearms than those in rural areas, often due to cultural norms, regulatory restrictions, and differences in perceived security threats (Kadet, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Ward et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur data also indicates that respondents in large cities reported slightly higher frequencies of suicidal ideation compared to those in rural areas and small towns. This does not contradict previous research indicating elevated suicide rates in rural areas (Kim et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), but instead suggests that urban LGBTQ+ individuals may experience different mental health stressors, such as discrimination, economic instability, or lack of community support, that contribute to suicidal ideation. Additionally, we found that firearm access through familial ownership was associated with suicidal thoughts. Specifically, LGBTQ+ individuals who did not personally own a firearm but did have access to a firearm through family members reported suicidal ideation at higher rates (25.4%) than both firearm owners (12.4%) and those with no familial firearm access. Personal firearm owners had the lowest rates of suicidal thoughts (12.4%), even though they had direct access to a firearm. These findings raise important considerations about firearm proximity and suicide risk. While previous research has established that firearm access is a risk factor for suicide (Parchem et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), the present study suggests that LGBTQ+ individuals who have access to a family member\u0026rsquo;s firearm\u0026mdash;but do not own one themselves\u0026mdash;may represent a particularly vulnerable group. One possible explanation is that a firearm owner might believe their gun is securely stored or hidden, but another person (e.g., a family member in the household) who knows where the firearm is stored could access it. In such cases, that firearm might increase risk for a self-harm or suicide attempt for someone experiencing suicidal ideation, even if that person is not the firearm\u0026rsquo;s owner. Future studies should investigate how firearm storage practices, access, and mental health intersect in LGBTQ+ populations, particularly among those who may not have formal ownership of the firearms they can access (Correll-King et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContrary to some prior research linking firearm ownership with feelings of safety and self-protection (Kadet, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), most respondents (73.1%) reported that anti-LGBTQ+ laws did not influence their interest firearm purchasing interest. However, 24.9% of respondents expressed increased interest in purchasing a firearm due to these laws, highlighting potentially important firearms-related beliefs among LGBTQ+ individuals. Visual examination of the data indicated that respondents in urban areas (e.g., along the East Coast, in California, and parts of the Midwest) reported slightly higher levels of increased firearm interest than those in rural areas. This finding aligns with reports that LGBTQ+ individuals in cities may feel acutely targeted by legislative threats and hate crimes, prompting them to consider firearm ownership (Stults et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, this deviates from research in general samples, which suggest that rural residents are more likely to endorse firearms for protection (Kadet, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Schaeffer, 2024; Wiebe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Our geospatial results also demonstrate that LGBTQ+ individuals across the US may face mental health challenges in diverse regions, not just in areas often perceived as less affirming of LGBTQ+ people.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImplications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn understanding firearm ownership among LGBTQ+ individuals, our study suggests that the relationship between LGBTQ+ identity and firearm ownership is evolving. Consequently, research and policy discussions should avoid assuming that LGBTQ+ individuals are uniformly opposed to firearm ownership and instead recognize the diverse motivations (e.g., self-protection vs. fear of violence) and safety concerns within this community (Ganson \u0026amp; Nagata, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Public health initiatives should be tailored to meet the specific needs of LGBTQ+ individuals in both urban and rural settings, recognizing that different environmental and social stressors may contribute to firearm-related risks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNevertheless, firearm safety and mental health risk mitigation should be prioritized for LGBTQ+ individual. In particular, our results show that individuals who have firearm access through family members but do not personally own a firearm report higher levels of suicidal ideation compared to those who are firearm owners. It is essential to implement safe storage practices, provide firearm safety education, and develop targeted mental health interventions for families with LGBTQ+ members who may be at elevated risk for suicide (Blosnich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Kline, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolicymakers and public health officials should consider adopting strategies that address mental health screening, suicide prevention, and firearm safety training across all states, as LGBTQ+ individuals are widely dispersed throughout the country. For instance, expanding telehealth-based mental health services can ensure consistent access to care in both urban hubs and remote rural areas. Firearm safety campaigns should also include culturally competent messaging that speaks directly to LGBTQ+ communities, emphasizing secure storage practices and harm-reduction strategies. Lastly, local legislators and advocacy organizations could use the maps from this study (and related firearm ownership/access data) to identify areas where anti-LGBTQ+ legislation or social stigma may coincide with increased interest in firearm acquisition. This can inform targeted outreach and intervention efforts to mitigate the risks of suicidal ideation or potential for violence in those areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations in our study should be considered. First, our data were drawn from a national, purposive online sample, which may have introduced selection bias. Potential respondents who were particularly interested in the survey topics or who had firsthand experience with firearms might have been more likely to complete the survey. Thus, a future probability-based national sample may provide more representative data for our population of interest. Additionally, although our analyses assume that family firearm ownership indicates an individual\u0026rsquo;s potential access to those firearms, this assumption may not hold true in all cases. For example, some respondents may not live with (or even near) their family members with firearms and therefore cannot actually access them. Another limitation is the lack of racial and ethnic diversity in our sample. A disproportionate majority of participants identified as White (79.9%), and a slight majority were non-cisgender (52.8%). To ensure more representative data, future studies should aim to include a more varied sample of racial and ethnic minority participants and employ intersectional variables to better assess the unique intersectional stressors faced by sexual minority people of color (Ward et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Finally, our cross-sectional design and descriptive statistical analyses limit the causal inferences that can be drawn from participants\u0026rsquo; responses. Additional research should employ more specific measures of firearm ownership and access, recruit more diverse samples, and utilize analytic approaches (e.g., regression analyses) to examine relationships between variables in greater depth (Correll-King et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Jackson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Ramirez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Stults et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis descriptive study aimed to outline firearm ownership and access, firearm purchasing interest, and suicidal ideation among LGBTQ+ Americans. We used mapping techniques to illustrate regional patterns and spatial concentrations of firearm-related beliefs among LGBTQ+ adults in the U.S. Our results showed that firearm ownership and access among LGBTQ+ individuals is spread across the country. Notably, more respondents reported that a family member owns a firearm than reported personal firearm ownership. These preliminary spatial observations provide a foundation for future research. Subsequent studies can build on this work by integrating data on local policies, hate crime rates, community supports, and socioeconomic conditions to gain a more nuanced understanding of how geography intersects with LGBTQ+ individuals\u0026rsquo; firearm-related attitudes and mental health outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Statement.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThis work was supported in part with funding provided by the New Jersey Gun Violence Research Center at Rutgers University, which works in collaboration with and is supported by New Jersey\u0026apos;s Office of the Secretary of Higher Education.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e We have no conflict of interest to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnalytic code availability.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThere is not analytic code associated with this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e[First author]: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing-original draft. [Second author]: Writing-original draft, Writing-review and editing. [Third author]: Writing-original draft. [Fourth author]: Reviewing and editing, Funding acquisition, Project administration. [Fifth author]: Reviewing and editing, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Supervision.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBermea, A. M. (2024). \u003cem\u003eHate Crimes, Mass Shootings, and the Pulse\u003c/em\u003e. Night Club Massacre. In.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThe (Mis)Representation of Queer Lives in True Crime (1st ed., Vol. 1, pp. 295\u0026ndash;312). 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T. \u003cem\u003eAnnual Review of Clinical Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e12\u003c/em\u003e, 465\u0026ndash;487. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093153\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093153\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSchaeffer, K. (2024, July 24). \u003cem\u003eKey facts about Americans and guns\u003c/em\u003e. Pew Research Center.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRetrieved, \u0026amp; September (2024). 20, from \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2024/07/24/key-facts-about-americans-and-guns/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2024/07/24/key-facts-about-americans-and-guns/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eStults, C. B., Kupprat, S. A., Krause, K. D., Kapadia, F., \u0026amp; Halkitis, P. N. (2017). 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C.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHomicide and geographic access to gun dealers in the United States \u003cem\u003eBMC Public Health\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e9\u003c/em\u003e(199), \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-9-199\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/1471-2458-9-199\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTables are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e\n"},{"header":"Figures ","content":"\u003cp\u003eFigures are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e\n"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"gun violence, LGBT, suicidal ideation, geospatial analysis","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9416838/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9416838/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eUsing a sample of LGBTQ+ individuals in the United States, we visually represented geographic distribution of (a) firearm ownership and access, (b) interest in firearm ownership in response to anti-LGBTQ+ legislation, and (c) recent suicidal ideation. We collected data using an online survey from September to December 2023. Using Geographic Information Systems software, we mapped and identified firearm ownership/access and intentions, and suicidal ideation patterns among an analytic sample of (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1,000) respondents. Responses indicated that (a) most respondents did not personally own firearms; instead, they were more likely to have access via a family member\u0026rsquo;s firearm than to own one themselves, (b) most did not report increased interest in buying a gun in response to recent anti-LGBTQ+ laws, and (c) higher rates of suicidal ideation were observed among those who had access to a family member\u0026rsquo;s firearm, compared to other respondents. Although the majority of respondents in our sample were non\u0026ndash;firearm owners, individuals with access to firearms through family members had higher rates of suicidal ideation. Respondents who reported more frequent thoughts of suicide tended to reside in urban areas. Furthermore, states with stricter firearm regulations had the highest proportion of respondents without guns, yet these respondents showed the greatest interest in purchasing firearms. As such, mental health professionals treating LGBTQ+ clients should routinely ask about firearm access to reduce the risk of suicide by firearms. Mapping firearm distribution can provide insights into regions and populations where firearm access/ownership and suicidal ideation rates may be higher.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"LGBTQ+ Firearm Access and Ownership Across the United States: A Preliminary Geospatial Analysis","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-15 08:28:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9416838/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e6898a8e-0441-49db-bb55-45523d503651","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 15th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-05T23:38:29+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-15 08:28:26","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9416838","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9416838","identity":"rs-9416838","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}