Phenotypic flexibility in the city: A meta-analysis on variation

This is a Preprint and has not been peer reviewed. This is version 2 of this Preprint. You must log in to post a comment. There are no comments or no comments have been made public for this article. This is a Preprint and has not been peer reviewed. This is version 2 of this Preprint. Add a Comment You must log in to post a comment. Comments There are no comments or no comments have been made public for this article. Among global changes urbanisation is distinctive because it entangles a variety of human-induced rapid environmental changes, such as habitat loss and fragmentation, temperature change, introduction of human food sources, and pollution. Urban environments are assumed to be heterogeneous and variable in space and time. A key feature of animals coping with high environmental variability ought to be phenotypic flexibility, i.e. the capacity of individuals to express reversible variation in labile traits. However, this “phenotypic flexibility hypothesis” has not been tested rigorously. Using a meta-analysis approach, we compiled available raw data of studies directly comparing urban and non-urban populations and estimated fixed and reversible individual variation. Across all taxa, fixed variation did not differ between non-urban and urban populations, although patterns emerged without birds. Reversible variation was marginally lower in urban populations compared to non-urban ones. The potential decrease of phenotypic flexibility in urban individuals could result from different responses of individual plasticity and predictability. Overall, the effects of urbanisation on phenotypic variation are not as generalisable as expected and may depend on the taxa, species and traits. Future studies should increase efforts to directly link temporal and spatial environmental variation at the individual level with individual plasticity and predictability responses. https://doi.org/10.32942/X2ZW6J Animal Sciences phenotypic plasticity, fixed variation, reversible variation, phenotypic flexibility, urbanisation, environmental heterogeneity, meta-analysis Published: 2025-06-02 14:05 Last Updated: 2025-06-05 09:25 CC BY Attribution 4.0 International Conflict of interest statement: None Data and Code Availability Statement: Open data/code are not available Language: English