Gender and Expertise Affect Visual Search and Performance in Football Penalty Kicks

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Meira, Jr., Bruno V. F. Silva, Cintia O. Cortes, Dalton L. Oliveira, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7497475/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Experimental Brain Research → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Female players are underrepresented in research on gaze patterns, and direct comparisons between male and female penalty takers of varying expertise are scarce. Identifying perceptual and cognitive differences across these groups can inform targeted training strategies. This study primarily investigates how gender and expertise shape visual search and performance during power and placement penalty kicks, and secondarily examines how these factors relate to kick success. Forty-four football players were assigned to four groups (n=11 per group): professional men, professional women, amateur men, and amateur women. Participants wore a portable eye tracker and executed five power and five placement penalty kicks. Measures were duration and number of fixations on areas of interest and kick outcome (goal vs. no goal) and ball end location (high and low center and edges). Visual and performance variables were influenced by both gender and expertise. Gender differences were evident, with male players - particularly professionals - showing greater ball-focused fixations, while female players distributed gaze more toward alternative areas of interest. Professional players exhibited more stable gaze patterns, characterized by longer fixations on the ball, although these behaviors did not consistently predict successful outcomes. These findings indicate that certain gaze strategies may be associated with expertise but vary in their effectiveness depending on situational and individual factors. The interplay between gender and expertise shapes visual search strategies in penalty kicks, suggesting that training interventions should consider these variables when aiming to optimize performance. gaze behavior soccer penalty taker sex skill Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 INTRODUCTION Penalty kicks are high-stakes events in football, marked by an intense psychological contest between the kicker and the goalkeeper (Brimmel et al., 2019; Kurz et al., 2018 ). This duel is characterized by a reciprocal exchange of actions, where each player continuously anticipates and counters the opponent’s moves. Tactical variation exists among penalty takers: some adopt a keeper-dependent strategy, monitoring the goalkeeper closely during the approach and adjusting their shot at the last possible moment to exploit any early commitment; others rely on a keeper-independent strategy, committing to a predetermined target and focusing execution on precision or power without reference to the goalkeeper’s behavior (Causer & Williams, 2015 ; Noël & van der Kamp, 2012 ; Noël et al., 2015 , 2021 ; Tay et al., 2012 ; Van der Kamp, 2006 ; Zheng et al., 2023 ; Han et al., 2025 ). Many professionals combine elements of both approaches, striking a balance between ball speed - reducing the goalkeeper’s reaction window - and placement in less accessible areas of the goal (Kuhn, 1988 ). The success of either strategy is strongly linked to visual search behavior, which determines how effectively players identify and exploit relevant cues (Assis et al., 2020 ; Roca et al., 2013 ; Timmis et al., 2018 ). Skilled goalkeepers often direct their gaze toward the kicker’s lower limb mechanics, using fewer but longer fixations on cues such as the non-kicking leg to anticipate direction, height, and timing (Dicks et al., 2010 ; Savelsbergh et al., 2002 , 2005 ). Also, goalkeepers maintain prolonged final fixations on critical locations such as the ball or kicking foot before initiating movement have demonstrated higher save rates (Piras & Vickers, 2011 ). For takers, visual search is dynamic and context-sensitive, shaped by factors including run-up angle, distance, goalkeeper positioning, and fixed reference points behind the goal (Patterson et al., 2020; Wood & Wilson, 2010 ). Keeper-dependent strategies typically involve frequent gaze shifts toward the goalkeeper to guide late adjustments, whereas keeper-independent strategies emphasize sustained fixation on the ball or target area until contact. The level of expertise critically shapes how players visually scan the environment during penalty kicks. Compared to less experienced players, skilled penalty takers anchor their gaze more consistently on task-relevant locations. For example, experienced players tend to fixate earlier and longer on the target area of the goal (van der Kamp, 2006 , 2011 ; Wood & Wilson, 2010 ) and ustain focused visual attention on the ball maintain a stable gaze on the ball before foot-to-ball impact (Bakker et al., 2006 ; Noel & van der Kamp, 2012). They also use brief fixations on the goalkeeper to gather positional information without being drawn into distracting movements (Kurz & Munzert, 2018 ; Roca et al., 2013 ; Timmis et al., 2018 ). Further, Piras & Vickers ( 2011 ) found that successful penalty takers exhibited prolonged final fixations on critical locations (e.g., the ball or intended target) prior to movement initiation, a behavior associated with improved shot accuracy under pressure. Additionally, experienced players demonstrate greater resilience to distractions than novices, sustaining attention on their chosen reference point despite goalkeeper movements or crowd noise (Wood et al., 2016 ; Meira Jr. et al., 2022 ). This refined visual control enables them to extract crucial spatial and kinematic cues, informing more accurate and confident shot placement. Regardless of skill level, penalty takers vary considerably in how they combine power and accuracy. These kicking styles can interact with the strategic approach adopted. In a keeper-independent strategy - where the target is chosen before the run-up and maintained regardless of goalkeeper movement - both the placement and the power of the shot are potentially more critical, as the taker cannot exploit late goalkeeper cues and must instead rely on ball speed or precision to score. In contrast, a keeper-dependent strategy allows the taker to delay commitment, potentially reducing the emphasis on raw power or extreme placement if they successfully wrong-foot the goalkeeper. Experimental work by Timmis et al. ( 2014 ) compared visual search behaviors during power and placement penalty kicks, finding that power kicks elicited more central fixations on the ball and intermittent glances at the goalkeeper, whereas placement kicks prompted greater gaze allocation toward the goal edges. However, in their protocol, participants were instructed to ignore goalkeeper movement - effectively enforcing a goalkeeper-independent strategy. While this control isolates kicking style effects, it limits ecological validity because representative design influences visual search patterns (Belopolsky et al., 2025 ). This highlights the importance of considering how strategy constraints and task realism shape both gaze behavior and performance outcomes in penalty research (Noël & van der Kamp, 2021). Gender disparities in sports performance have long intrigued researchers and sports enthusiasts. Evidence from non-sporting contexts suggests that males often outperform females on certain generic visuospatial tasks, such as mental rotation and spatial navigation (Voyer et al., 2017 ), which could partly account for performance gaps in visually demanding sports. Gender-based differences have been observed across diverse athletic populations. Voss et al. ( 2010 ), in a meta-analysis, reported that male athletes tend to outperform their female counterparts on tasks involving cognition and attention, and Legault et al. ( 2022 ) found that male athletes demonstrated superior perceptual-cognitive abilities compared to both female athletes and non-athlete controls. Moreover, Rominger et al. ( 2020 ) reported that female football players exhibited higher functional brain connectivity when generating creative plays, pointing to possible gendered neurocognitive differences in problem-solving. In basketball, Legault et al. ( 2022 ) and Legault & Faubert ( 2024 ) observed comparable tracking accuracy between male and female players, though females benefited more from open-skill than closed-skill conditions. Conversely, Roudaia and Faubert ( 2017 ) noted that males had significantly higher attentional tracking speeds, while females exhibited slower reaction times further impaired by distractors, suggesting less efficient attentional functions. Together, these findings highlight gender as a critical moderator of perceptual-cognitive strategies, shaping distinct visuospatial and attentional profiles in male and female athletes. At the same time, sport-specific training appears to attenuate or even override these gender-related differences, pointing to the importance of examining the interaction between gender and expertise. For instance, Oudejans et al. ( 2012 ) and Zwierko et al. ( 2018 ) in basketball, Lüders et al. ( 2020 ) in volleyball, and van Maarseveen et al. ( 2016 ) in football all demonstrated that skilled female athletes can match or approach male performance levels on sport-relevant visuospatial tasks. Evidence from handball also suggests expertise shapes gaze strategies: Jedziniak et al. ( 2025 ) showed that elite male goalkeepers primarily fixated on the opponent’s throwing arm and the ball, whereas elite female goalkeepers attended more to the torso and head, reflecting experience-driven but gender-specific perceptual strategies. Similarly, Meira Jr. et al. ( 2022 ) found that elite female football players displayed more fixations toward relevant areas and invested less mental effort than non-elite counterparts during key actions, underscoring how expertise optimizes visual search. Alves et al. ( 2013 ) further demonstrated that professional volleyball players outperformed non-athlete controls on executive control and visuospatial attention tasks, with gender effects largely confined to the control group. Jin et al. (2022, 2023 ) extended these findings by showing that long-term participation in open-skill sports can attenuate gender differences in visual attention. Collectively, this evidence suggests that while gender differences in perceptual-cognitive skills persist, expertise can substantially reduce them, making the study of their interaction - particularly in high-pressure contexts such as penalty kicks - critical for refining models of perceptual-cognitive expertise and developing gender-sensitive training interventions. Building on prior research reported above into gaze behavior in football, this study primarily investigates how gender and expertise shape visual search and performance during power and placement penalty kicks. As a secondary objective, we explored how gender and expertise interact with kick success. Although gaze patterns have been examined extensively across skill levels, female players remain underrepresented in the literature, which lacks a direct comparison of male and female penalty takers of different expertise levels. Understanding how these groups differ in their perceptual and cognitive processes can guide the design of more tailored training interventions. Based on prior evidence that expertise is associated with more efficient gaze allocation in football skills (e.g., Piras & Vickers, 2011 ; Roca et al., 2013 ; Meira Jr. et al., 2022 ), we hypothesized that professional players would demonstrate more efficient visual search patterns than amateurs. Regarding gender, findings are more mixed: while some research reports differences in gaze behavior between male and female athletes (e.g., Jedziniak et al., 2025 ), other work - such as Alves et al. ( 2013 ) - suggests that sport expertise can mitigate traditional gender effects in perceptual and cognitive tasks. Drawing on this latter evidence, we predicted that no substantial gender-based differences in visual search would emerge in our professional and amateur samples. METHOD Participants Forty-four participants were intentionally selected, evenly distributed across four groups: 11 professional men, 11 professional women, 11 amateur men, and 11 amateur women. Professional male athletes were drawn from a XXX (adjective related to country omitted for anonymity) elite football team, while professional female athletes were recruited from three elite football teams competing in XXX (country omitted for anonymity)’s Major League, the country's premier competition. Amateur players were recruited from five XXX (country adjective omitted for anonymity) amateur football teams. We followed Ericsson’s ( 2007 , 2008 ) conceptualization of expertise, which asserts that it is developed through prolonged and purposeful practice, often surpassing 10,000 hours. We conducted two a priori power analyses informed by eight peer-reviewed studies on gaze behavior in football, specifically examining the variable fixation duration during penalty kicks (Binch et al., 2010; Huttermann et al., 2014; Kurz et al., 2018 ; Meira Jr. et al., 2022 ; Noel & Van der Kamp, 2012; Timmis et al., 2014 ; Van der Kamp, 2011 ; Wood & Wilson, 2010 ). One analysis was based on the average effect size (expected effect) across these studies, and the other on the smallest effect size of interest. To derive the expected effect, we extracted sample size, partial eta squared (ƞp²), and number of observations from the eight studies. The means (± SD) were: total sample size = 19 ± 8, ƞp² = 0.40 ± 0.22, and total observations = 318 ± 235. Both analyses assumed a 3-way between-subjects ANOVA with a 2×2×2 design (8 cells), α = 0.05, and power = 0.80. For the average effect size (ƞp² = 0.40), the conversion yielded Cohen’s f ≈ 0.816. A balanced design required only 2 observations per cell (n = 16), producing achieved power ≈ 0.815 for all main effects and interactions. For the smallest effect size of interest (ƞp² = 0.13; Van der Kamp, 2011 ), Cohen’s f ≈ 0.385, and 8 observations per cell (n = 64) were required, yielding achieved power ≈ 0.811. In the present study, we obtained 440 total observations, with 110 per group (11 participants × 10 trials), far exceeding both thresholds (n = 16 for large effects; n = 64 for smaller effects). These parameters confirm that the study was adequately powered to detect the expected effect size, making the likelihood of a Type II error very low (Abt et al., 2025 ; Lakens, 2022 ). All participants provided written informed consent, as approved by the University’s Institutional Review Board (Approval Number: XXX omitted for anonymity). Each player completed a questionnaire documenting their years of systematic practice, training frequency per week, preferred penalty kick type (power vs. placement), and preferred kicking foot (right vs. left), presented in Table 1 . Inclusion criteria required all participants to have a right-dominant eye and be actively competing for a male or female amateur or professional football team. Additionally, professional players were required to have accumulated at least 10 years of systematic football training at the time of data collection. Table 1 Participants’ characteristics. Practice in football (years) Frequency of training sessions per week Penalty kick type of preference Preferred kicking foot Professional male 12 5 Placement: 3 Power: 8 Right: 7 Left: 4 Professional female 10 5 Placement: 8 Power: 3 Right: 7 Left: 4 Amateur male 4 1 Placement: 10 Power: 1 Right: 10 Left: 1 Amateur female 6 1 Placement: 5 Power: 6 Right: 9 Left: 2 Task, apparatus, and procedure Data collection took place outdoors at official training centers in XXX (Cities), XXX (Country) (omitted for anonymity). Participants began with a five-minute warm-up, consisting of ball control drills and two penalty kicks without a goalkeeper. They then wore the eye tracker glasses and data transmission unit (DTU) backpack before undergoing a three-minute calibration procedure. All participants reported no movement limitations during the experiment. Penalty kicks were executed in accordance with the official rules and dimensions set by the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA). Before the trials, participants received the following standardized instructions: "Score as many goals as possible. Take the type of penalty assigned by the researcher - placement or power (the goalkeeper is unaware of this information). Generate as much power as possible for the power kick using an instep foot contact. Execute the placement kick using an inside foot contact. Avoid deceptive strategies. Avoiding deceptive strategies, such as looking in one direction while kicking in the opposite or pausing during the run-up, is a standardized procedure that have been used in previous research (Wood & Wilson, 2010 ; Wood et al., 2016 ; Timmis et al., 2018 ). Each participant performed ten penalty trials - five placement kicks and five power kicks - in randomized order. The decision to use five trials per condition was guided by methodological consistency with previous penalty kick research, which often employed an equal or smaller number of repetitions per type (e.g., Timmis et al., 2014 , 2018 ). This approach aimed to balance experimental control, ecological validity, and participant fatigue. The official football - Nike Strike (size 5), the standard ball for all XXX (adjective related to country omitted for anonymity) national competitions -was placed on the penalty spot, and the researcher verbally instructed the type of penalty to be taken before each attempt. Participants were allowed a run-up, an essential element for maintaining penalty kick realism (Belopolsky et al., 2025 ; Kurz & Munzert, 2018 ). Kicks were executed upon the researcher's command: “Attention, get ready, go.” The goalkeepers were matched to the gender and expertise level of the participants, with one goalkeeper assigned to each group. Four goalkeepers took part in the study: two professionals (male: 20 years of experience; female: 13 years of experience) and two amateurs (both male and female: 5 years of experience each). Goalkeepers were blinded to the type of penalty being performed and were instructed to adhere to official game rules. The Mobile Eye XG ASL® system was used to track visual search. This portable device consists of monocular glasses equipped with two cameras: one recording the scene and another tracking the right eye. The system includes a data transmit unit (DTU) housed in a backpack, along with a laptop for data acquisition and analysis. Given the field-based nature of the study and the highly dynamic movements performed by participants, data collection was scheduled during the final two hours before dusk to ensure consistent ambient lighting conditions. The DTU was connected to the recording laptop via a long cable to minimize data loss during movement. Eye-tracker calibration was verified before each trial, and recalibration was performed immediately whenever tracking accuracy was lost. To capture performance variables (kick outcome and ball end location), two Sony HDR-CX405® video cameras were positioned strategically: one camera was placed 10 meters in front of the penalty area; the second camera was positioned three meters behind the goal. Data analysis and variables Visual search data were analyzed using ASL Results software. Each trial was tracked from the moment the player began the run-up until the foot made contact with the ball. Visual fixations were defined as lasting a minimum of 100 milliseconds, based on the specifications in the Applied Science Laboratories ( 2014 ) eyetracker system manual. Performance data were analyzed by extracting and reviewing the footage from the two video cameras. Statistical analyses of performance variables (kick outcome and end location of the ball) were conducted using chi-square tests. Statistical analyses of visual variables were conducted using two sets of three-way analyses of variance (ANOVA): 1. Gender (male, female) x Experience (professional, amateur) x Kick Type (power, placement); 2. Gender (male, female) x Experience (professional, amateur) x Kick Outcome (goal/successful, no goal/unsuccessful). When necessary, the Greenhouse-Geisser adjustment was applied to correct for sphericity violations. A Bonferroni post hoc test was used to identify specific differences. To indicate the magnitude of significant effects, we reported partial eta squared (ƞp²) values. The level of significance was set at 0.05 for all analyses. We categorized end location of the ball into high center, low center, high left, low left, high right, and low right. As goalkeeper performance can influence penalty outcomes (e.g., exceptional saves or mistakes), ball end location was included as an additional variable, providing a more objective indicator of the kicker’s performance independent of the goalkeeper’s actions. Trial length was defined as the total time of each trial, in milliseconds; this variable was used in the study of Timmis et al. ( 2014 ) and is a reference for the inclusion of absolute or relative visual search variables (trial length start was defined at the “go” command and its end was determined at the moment the ball was kicked). Total fixation duration on an area of interest (AOI) - ball, goalkeeper, goal, outside the goal - as a percentage trial length was defined as the cumulative amount of time, in milliseconds, the participant fixated at an AOI, per trial. Number of fixations on an AOI as a percentage of the total number of fixations, per trial. These variables were used in the study of Timmis et al. ( 2014 ). RESULTS Due to space constraints, only the most significant effects are presented in this section. Comprehensive analyses (SPSS outputs) and dataset are available in the supplementary materials. Trial Length and Visual Search Variables I – Gender x Experience x Kick Type Values for trial length are in milliseconds, while total fixation duration and number of fixations values are in percentages. Trial length Significant effects were found for gender: male players (2751.32 ± 60.72; CI: 2631.95–2870.68) took more time than female players (2536.24 ± 63.23; CI: 2411.95–2660.53) [F(1,412) = 6.02; p = 0.015; ƞp² = 0.014]. There were also significant effects for experience: professional players (2990.29 ± 63.08; CI: 2866.29–3114.29) took longer than amateur players (2297.29 ± 60.88; CI: 2177.59–2416.93) [F(1,412) = 62.5; p = 0.0001; ƞp² = 0.132]. No significant differences were found for kick type or interactions. Total fixation duration Since significant effects for gender and experience were found in trial length, total fixation durations as a percentage trial length were calculated for each AOI. The total percentages for each AOI did not sum to 100% because other types of eye movements - primarily saccades (rapid, ballistic shifts of gaze between fixations) - occurred during the trials but were excluded from the analysis. Only fixations lasting up to 100 milliseconds were considered. Ball: professional players (11.06 ± 0.91; CI: 9.26–12.86) looked at the ball significantly more than amateurs (7.42 ± 1.15; CI: 5.15–9.7) [F(1,173) = 6.12; p = 0.014; ƞp² = 0.034]. Goalkeeper: professional male players (9.03 ± 0.86; CI: 7.33–10.73) looked less at the goalkeeper than amateur male players (11.57 ± 0.92; CI: 9.76–13.39) [F(1,174) = 9.42; p = 0.02; ƞp² = 0.051]. Goal: male players (4.68 ± 0.87; CI: 2.95–6.42) looked at the goal more than female players (1.21 ± 0.35; CI: 0.53–1.9) [F(1,74) = 13.74; p = 0.0001; ƞp² = 0.157]; professional players (1.78 ± 0.74; CI: 0.3–3.26) looked less at the goal than amateurs (4.12 ± 0.57; CI: 2.99–5.25) [F(1,74) = 6.24; p = 0.015; ƞp² = 0.078]. Outer Areas: male players looked more at the outer areas when performing placement kicks (6.99 ± 1.05; CI: 4.91–9.07) compared to power kicks (3.81 ± 1.08; CI: 1.66–5.96) [F(1,85) = 4.94; p = 0.029; ƞp² = 0.055]; male players (5.4 ± 0.75; CI: 3.9–6.89) looked at the goal more than female players (1.63 ± 0.35; CI: 0.95–2.31) [F(1,85) = 20.69; p = 0.0001; ƞp² = 0.196]. Number of fixations Given that each trial included four AOIs, we calculated the number of fixations on each AOI as a percentage of the total number of fixations recorded during the trial. Ball: male players (70.84 ± 4.21; CI: 62.54–79.14) looked at the ball more than female players (54.6 ± 3.62; CI: 47.47–61.74) [F(1,184) = 7.9; p = 0.005; ƞp² = 0.041]; professional players (74.82 ± 3.38; CI: 68.16–81.48) looked at the ball more than amateur players (50.62 ± 4.41; CI: 41.93–59.31) [F(1,184) = 20.24; p = 0.0001; ƞp² = 0.099]. Goalkeeper: male players (75.13 ± 3.97; CI: 67.3–82.96) looked at the goalkeeper more than female players (55.47 ± 3.56; CI: 48.46–62.49) [F(1,184) = 8.86; p = 0.003; ƞp² = 0.046]. Goal: male players (38.4 ± 6.61; CI: 25.24–51.57) looked at the goal more than female players (9.11 ± 2.86; CI: 3.42–14.8) [F(1,78) = 16.73; p = 0.0001; ƞp² = 0.177]; professional players (16.43 ± 5.7; CI: 5.08–27.78) looked at the goal less than amateurs (16.43 ± 5.7; CI: 5.08–27.78) [F(1,78) = 4.73; p = 0.023; ƞp² = 0.051]. Outer Areas: male players (47.46 ± 7.86; CI: 31.83–63.09) looked at the outer areas more than female players (16.09 ± 3.55; CI: 9.03–23.14) [F(1,89) = 9.85; p = 0.002; ƞp² = 0.1]. Trial Length and Visual Search Variables II – Gender x Experience x Kick Outcome In the previous analysis, as the only significant effect for kick type was in the relative total fixation duration at the outer areas, we ran a second round of 3-way analysis of variance, keeping gender and experience but replacing kick type for kick outcome (goal/no goal). Values for trial length are presented in milliseconds, while duration and number of fixations values are in percentages. While some findings of this exploratory analysis mirrored the primary results, others revealed context-specific variations in gaze behavior, underscoring that expertise markers may not operate uniformly across all performance situations. Trial length Similar significant effects were observed as in the “Trial Length I” analysis. Total fixation duration A gender x experience x kick outcome interaction was found [F(1,173) = 4.63; p = 0.033; ƞp² = 0.026] for the AOI “ball”: male professional players looked more at the ball in unsuccessful kicks (14.78 ± 2.4; CI: 10.04–19.52) than in successful kicks (8.27 ± 1.73; CI: 4.86–11.68). These findings mirror those observed in the “Total fixation duration I” analysis for the goalkeeper, goal, and outer areas. Number of fixations Significant effects were found for the ball, goalkeeper, goal, and outer areas, as observed in the "Number of fixations I" analysis. Performance Kick outcome The success percentages of the groups by kick type are presented in Fig. 1 . Across groups, the percentage of successful penalty kicks varied by gender, expertise, and kick type, but the differences were not always consistent with the expectation of a strong expertise effect. Among male players, both amateurs and professionals showed significantly more successful than unsuccessful shots for placement and power kicks. Male amateurs scored on 35 of 52 placement kicks, χ²(1) = 6.23, p = 0.013, and 41 of 57 power kicks, χ²(1) = 10.97, p = 0.001. Male professionals recorded 36 of 54 successful placement kicks, χ²(1) = 6.00, p = 0.014, and 41 of 54 successful power kicks, χ²(1) = 14.52, p < 0.001. For female players, the pattern was less consistent. Female amateurs did not differ significantly between successful and unsuccessful attempts for either placement kicks (31 vs. 23; χ²(1) = 1.19, p = 0.276) or power kicks (25 vs. 31; χ²(1) = 0.64, p = 0.423). Female professionals showed a significant advantage for placement kicks (38 vs. 16; χ²(1) = 8.96, p = 0.003), but no significant difference for power kicks (32 vs. 24; χ²(1) = 1.14, p = 0.285). Interestingly, the overall rates of success were relatively similar for professional and amateur players, suggesting that matching goalkeepers by experience level may have mitigated the expected expertise advantage in raw scoring outcomes. This highlights the need to interpret “success” cautiously, as it reflects not only the kicker’s execution but also the goalkeeper’s performance. End location of the ball Figure 2 displays the frequencies of end ball location by groups. Analysis of ball end location revealed significant patterns in most groups, except for female professionals, whose distribution of shot locations did not differ significantly for either kick type. For male professionals, placement kicks were most frequently directed to the low left (18) and low right (18) areas, χ²(5) = 28.22, p < 0.001, while power kicks showed no significant distribution bias, χ²(5) = 7.11, p = 0.213. Male amateurs displayed significant preferences in both placement (χ²(5) = 16.85, p = 0.005) and power kicks (χ²(5) = 16.37, p = 0.006), with a notable tendency toward high center and low left targets. Female amateurs also demonstrated significant distribution patterns for both placement (χ²(5) = 13.56, p = 0.019) and power kicks (χ²(5) = 20.93, p = 0.001), often targeting the high center zone during power kicks. For female professionals, neither placement (χ²(5) = 9.11, p = 0.105) nor power kicks (χ²(5) = 10.21, p = 0.069) showed significant variation in shot distribution. DISCUSSION The primary aim of this study was to examine the influence of gender and expertise on visual search and performance during power and placement penalty kicks. As a secondary objective, it explored the interaction between gender and expertise with kick success. We hypothesized expertise would influence gaze behavior and performance, with professional players demonstrating superior performance and visual attention compared to amateurs, but gender would not play a significant role. The findings partially supported these hypotheses. Penalty kick success and visual search behaviors varied by gender, expertise, and kick type, with gender often exerting a stronger influence than expertise. Male amateurs and professionals achieved higher success for both placement and power kicks, while female amateurs showed no significant differences, and female professionals excelled only in placement kicks. Targeting patterns differed across groups, and trial length was longer for males and professionals. Professionals generally fixated on the ball longer than amateurs, with male professionals spending less time on the goalkeeper; males also looked more at the goal and outer areas than females, and placement kicks elicited longer outer-area fixations than power kicks. While professional players displayed more stable gaze patterns, these were not always linked to better outcomes, and a three-way interaction suggested gaze strategies’ effectiveness may depend on context. Overall, gender emerged as a key factor shaping both performance and visual search in penalty kicks. Visual search We identified distinct visual search patterns between male and female football players, as well as between professional and amateur players. Professional male players exhibited longer fixation durations on the ball during unsuccessful penalty kicks compared to successful ones. This suggests that impaired penalty performance is likely when players fixate on the ball for extended periods, indicating that excessive gaze anchoring on the ball may hinder effective penalty execution. This pattern appears to be associated with expertise level, as prior studies have reported longer fixations on the ball during successful trials among university players (Timmis et al., 2018 ; Noël & van Der Kamp, 2012 ). Additionally, professional male players spent less time fixating on the goalkeeper than their amateur counterparts, possibly as a strategy to minimize distraction and perceived threat. For instance, Wilson et al. ( 2009 ) found that anxious university penalty takers exhibited reduced accuracy when they spent more time looking at the goalkeeper. Regardless of gender, professional players demonstrated longer fixations on the ball and shorter fixations on the goal compared to amateurs. While prolonged focus on the ball has often been associated with reduced shooting accuracy - particularly in less experienced players who may neglect other relevant visual cues (Piras & Vickers, 2011 ; Wilson et al., 2009 ) - its role appears to differ at higher skill levels. For professional players, maintaining gaze on the ball during a multi-step run-up can enhance the acquisition of spatial and kinematic information about its position (Timmis et al., 2014 ), which is essential for executing precise foot-to-ball contact. This strategy supports the fine-tuning of spatial calibration in the final approach phase (Kurz et al., 2018 ) and may coexist with the ability to extract peripheral information about the movements of the goalkeeper movements or the target area (Land & McLeod, 2000 ). Thus, in experts, ball fixation may reflect a refined motor control mechanism rather than a perceptual limitation, highlighting the importance of interpreting gaze behaviors in relation to expertise and task demands. Male players exhibited longer fixations on the goal than female players. Noël and van der Kamp ( 2012 ) noted that the target area within the goal often serves as a key “pivot” fixation point, helping players to guide their aiming strategy during penalty kicks. Male players in our study also made more fixations on the goalkeeper than female players. These patterns - central gaze anchoring on the goal and peripheral gaze anchoring on the goalkeeper - indicate a broader gaze distribution among male players compared to female players. Such a strategy can facilitate both aiming accuracy and anticipation of goalkeeper movement. Hüttermann et al. ( 2014 ) reported that, in 77% of trials, penalty takers distributed their gaze between the ball, the goalkeeper, and open goal space when instructed to aim for the side opposite the goalkeeper’s anticipated dive. This supports the idea that broader gaze allocation may enhance the integration of spatial and anticipatory cues in high-pressure situations. An effect of kick type was observed only in male players, who spent more time fixating on the outer goal areas during placement kicks compared to power kicks. Visually scanning the goal edges to execute a placement kick beyond the goalkeeper’s reach is consistent with strategies reported in previous research. Such targeting increases the likelihood of scoring by maximizing the spatial margin between the ball and the goalkeeper’s possible interception path (Bakker et al., 2006 ; Timmis et al., 2014 ; van der Kamp, 2006 ; Wood & Wilson, 2010 ; Wilson et al., 2009 ). This approach relies on precise visual guidance and motor control, as aiming for narrower areas increases technical demands but can be more effective when executed successfully. Performance Gender- and expertise-related differences were also reflected in kick outcomes. Among professionals, female players achieved greater success with placement kicks than with power kicks, whereas male players outperformed females in both penalty types. Ball placement patterns further revealed distinct strategic tendencies. Professional male and female players predominantly targeted the lower edges of the goal with placement kicks, consistent with a “kicking wide” strategy designed to extend the ball’s distance from the reach of the goalkeeper (Bakker et al., 2006 ; Timmis et al., 2014 ; van der Kamp, 2006 ; Wood & Wilson, 2010 ; Wilson et al., 2009 ). Professional females also applied this wide-targeting strategy to power kicks, while professional males dispersed power kicks across all goal areas. This broader targeting pattern aligns with their wider gaze distribution, incorporating both central and peripheral focus. Amateur male players, by contrast, showed a tendency to avoid the high edges of the goal, instead favoring more central placements - a pattern also observed in university-level players, for whom penalties are often aimed centrally, although successful kicks are typically placed wider (Timmis et al., 2014 , 2018 ). Amateur female players displayed a more polarized approach, directing placement kicks toward the lower goal area and power kicks toward the high center, a trend that parallels male university players’ preference for central targeting on power penalties (Timmis et al., 2014 ). Linking kick outcomes to ball end location, the absence of significant differences between successful and missed power kicks among professional female players may be partly explained by their tendency to target the lower edges of the goal - a zone that, while precise, remains more accessible to goalkeepers. An additional factor may be reduced kicking force, as suggested by Sakamoto et al. ( 2014 ), who reported a lower mean thigh-to-shank energy ratio in female kickers compared to males, and by Barfield et al. ( 2002 ), who identified kinematic disadvantages among elite female players. Both factors could make even well-placed power kicks easier to defend. Among amateur female players, the absence of performance differences between successful and missed power kicks is likely linked to their central targeting preference, which offers goalkeepers a higher chance of interception. Their poorer performance in placement kicks may, conversely, reflect a higher frequency of shots directed toward the goal edges - a riskier but less consistent strategy, also observed in studies of male players. Overall interpretation Our findings highlight that the open goal and its outer areas function as key visual pivots for executing successful penalty kicks. While gaze alignment with the ball is necessary for accurate spatial calibration, it should be brief and purposeful rather than prolonged. Excessive ball fixation can limit the processing of other critical visual cues, whereas short, targeted fixations help fine-tune foot-to-ball contact without compromising situational awareness (Kurz et al., 2018 ; Timmis et al., 2014 ; Piras et al., 2021 ). Avoiding direct fixation on the goalkeeper also emerged as a critical factor for success, consistent with the goalkeeper-independent strategy widely advocated in the literature (Noël & van der Kamp, 2012 ; Noël et al., 2015 , 2021 ; Tay et al., 2012 ; Timmis et al., 2018 ; van der Kamp, 2006 ). Within this approach, gender and expertise influenced the choice between placement and power kicks: professional female players achieved greater success with placement kicks, whereas male players outperformed females in both penalty types. Targeting the edges of the goal - particularly the lower ones - proved effective for both genders, but professional females relied on this “kicking wide” strategy more consistently, even for power kicks, while professional males combined wide targeting with central shots (Bakker et al., 2006 ; Timmis et al., 2014 ; van der Kamp, 2006 ; Wood & Wilson, 2010 ; Wilson et al., 2009 ). Gender differences also emerged in gaze behavior. Professional male players exhibited prolonged ball fixation, which was linked to reduced performance, whereas female players tended to maintain shorter ball fixations, potentially avoiding this performance cost. For males, an optimal gaze-anchoring strategy appeared to involve briefly aligning with the ball before shifting focus to a specific target zone in the goal (Hüttermann et al., 2014 ; Noël & van der Kamp, 2012 ). This approach facilitated directing the ball toward the lower edges - a location difficult for goalkeepers to defend - while also enabling broader gaze distribution, integrating both central and peripheral visual information. Clear gender- and expertise-related differences were also evident in execution time. Male players took, on average, 0.3 seconds longer than females to perform a penalty kick, while professionals required 0.7 seconds longer than amateurs. For males, the longer execution time appeared linked to broader gaze modulation during the run-up, incorporating both goal scanning and ball calibration. Female players, by contrast, tended to complete the kick more quickly, with gaze patterns more narrowly focused on the ball and target zones. In a longer run-up, players - especially males - used this extra time to anchor gaze on the ball to refine spatial parameters (Belopolsky et al., 2025 ; Kurz & Munzert, 2018 ; Kurz et al., 2018 ; Timmis et al., 2014 ) while also scanning the open goal to avoid being visually drawn to the goalkeeper (Hüttermann et al., 2014 ; Noël & van der Kamp, 2012 ). In summary, this study examined gender and expertise differences under representative experimental conditions, adhering to official rules and dimensions. Although recent analyses of FIFA Men’s World Cups indicate a growing preference for the keeper-dependent strategy (Han et al., 2025 ), our results predominantly support the keeper-independent approach. Importantly, gender differences in both performance and gaze strategies suggest that optimal penalty-taking approaches may need to be tailored, with male players potentially benefiting from minimizing prolonged ball fixations and female players from refining shot power and variability in target selection. Ultimately, the most effective penalty-kick strategy is one that aligns with the player’s skill set, gaze behavior, and tactical objectives to maximize scoring probability. Limitations Several limitations should be acknowledged in this study. The experience levels among participant groups were uneven, with professional male players averaging 12 years, professional female players 10 years, amateur male players 4 years, and amateur female players 6 years. Additionally, the smaller experience gap between professional and amateur female players may account for the absence of significant findings among women. Furthermore, female participants were recruited from three teams, whereas male participants were drawn from a single team. Moreover, the amateur groups were predominantly right-footed, introducing a potential bias. It is also acknowledged that the relatively small number of trials per condition (five placement and five power kicks) increases the weighting of each outcome and may make the results more susceptible to anomalies (e.g., miskicks, slips, or distractions). Finally, as we instructed participants on the part of the foot to use to strike the ball, they could use a different movement pattern and create an internal focus of attention, which can impact visual search. Conclusions and implications This study demonstrated that gender and expertise influence visual search and performance in football penalty kicks. Professional male players exhibited longer fixation durations on the ball during unsuccessful kicks compared to successful ones, spent less time fixating on the goalkeeper than amateur male players, directed placement kicks predominantly toward the lower edges of the goal, and dispersed power kicks across all goal areas. Further, professional female players achieved greater success with placement kicks than with power kicks, directed fewer placement kicks toward the center of the goal, and targeted more power kicks toward the lower edges. Across both genders, professional players fixated longer on the ball and shorter on the goal, compared to their amateur counterparts. In addition, amateur male players spent more time fixating on the goalkeeper and directed fewer kicks toward the high edges of the goal, while amateur female players tended to aim placement kicks at the lower portion of the goal and power kicks toward the high center. Finally, male players exhibited longer fixations on the goal and spent more time fixating on the goalkeeper than female players, outperformed female players in both penalty kick types, and spent more time fixating on the outer areas of the goal during placement kicks compared to power kicks. We outline three implications of our findings for taking football penalty kicks: (1) professional male players should avoid fixating centrally on the ball during the run-up, instead directing placement kicks toward the edges of the goal and distributing power kicks across all goal areas; (2) professional female players should prioritize placement kicks, targeting the edges of the goal, and thus adopt a wider gaze distribution across the goal; (3) amateur male and female players should refrain from aiming kicks at the high edges of the goal. Declarations Acknowledgments: We are thankful to the participants and teams’ staff, who kindly agreed to take part in the study. Our special thanks to Maysa Leopoldo, Renata Mendes, Vinicius Amorim, Amanda Matias, Ingrid Serello, and Giovana Carneiro, who helped in data collection. Author contributions: Conceptualization – CMMJ, MM; Data curation – BVFS, COC, CMMJ; Formal analysis – CMMJ; Funding acquisition – N/A; Investigation – BVFS, COC, DLO; Methodology – CMMJ, DLO, MM; Project administration – CMMJ, MM; Resources – CMMJ, BVFS, COC; Software – CMMJ; Supervision – CMMJ; Validation – N/A; Visualization – N/A; Writing (original draft) – CMMJ, MM, DLO; Writing (review & editing) – CMMJ. Disclosure: The authors declare no potential conflict of interest. Data availability: The data that support the findings of this study and the statistical outputs are available in the supplementary materials. Funding: This project has not received funding. Ethics: Approved by the University Review Board, under the protocol CAAE 23139419.2.0000.5390. References Abt, G., Boreham, C., Davison, G., et al. 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Supplementary Files DataGenderExpertiseFootballPenaltyTakers.xlsx SPSSOutputGenderExpertiseFootballPenaltyTakers.pdf EBRTitlePage.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Experimental Brain Research → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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Oliveira","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidade de São Paulo","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dalton","middleName":"L.","lastName":"Oliveira","suffix":""},{"id":511205735,"identity":"09301fb6-0e0c-4155-a5ae-9a890631fa16","order_by":4,"name":"Marcelo Massa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidade de São Paulo","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Marcelo","middleName":"","lastName":"Massa","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-30 21:53:01","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7497475/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7497475/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-025-07201-w","type":"published","date":"2025-11-26T15:57:58+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":91070523,"identity":"d7284c24-f8d6-4603-b14a-5de5474d574e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-11 10:45:08","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26518,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercentage of goals (successful placement and power kicks) by groups.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7497475/v1/cd9f598da07d21c87ab09a6e.png"},{"id":91073878,"identity":"2f6dc591-c394-4a16-8f14-cdbedf940bcb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-11 11:01:09","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":117298,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercentage of end ball locations by groups.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7497475/v1/de774ccce975b8a18e9c51d2.png"},{"id":97179802,"identity":"44b36242-c544-4a28-9158-f16854804e06","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 16:16:59","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":812825,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7497475/v1/bc5c76d9-0832-4959-b9de-149429e90699.pdf"},{"id":91070525,"identity":"acb79ce7-3b07-4d72-8986-f370eb48fe90","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-11 10:45:08","extension":"xlsx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":57522,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"DataGenderExpertiseFootballPenaltyTakers.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7497475/v1/540a2ef4a15e48f4019c0243.xlsx"},{"id":91070535,"identity":"62f5be83-310b-4701-81a5-fecffae7320d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-11 10:45:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":851114,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SPSSOutputGenderExpertiseFootballPenaltyTakers.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7497475/v1/4d76009919c875213d7041dc.pdf"},{"id":91070528,"identity":"52724965-8147-436e-9807-93f1669fb5d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-11 10:45:08","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":20958,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"EBRTitlePage.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7497475/v1/48c8b5b68df32f8666e822aa.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Gender and Expertise Affect Visual Search and Performance in Football Penalty Kicks","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003ePenalty kicks are high-stakes events in football, marked by an intense psychological contest between the kicker and the goalkeeper (Brimmel et al., 2019; Kurz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This duel is characterized by a reciprocal exchange of actions, where each player continuously anticipates and counters the opponent\u0026rsquo;s moves. Tactical variation exists among penalty takers: some adopt a keeper-dependent strategy, monitoring the goalkeeper closely during the approach and adjusting their shot at the last possible moment to exploit any early commitment; others rely on a keeper-independent strategy, committing to a predetermined target and focusing execution on precision or power without reference to the goalkeeper\u0026rsquo;s behavior (Causer \u0026amp; Williams, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; No\u0026euml;l \u0026amp; van der Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; No\u0026euml;l et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Tay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Van der Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Zheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Han et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Many professionals combine elements of both approaches, striking a balance between ball speed - reducing the goalkeeper\u0026rsquo;s reaction window - and placement in less accessible areas of the goal (Kuhn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe success of either strategy is strongly linked to visual search behavior, which determines how effectively players identify and exploit relevant cues (Assis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Roca et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Skilled goalkeepers often direct their gaze toward the kicker\u0026rsquo;s lower limb mechanics, using fewer but longer fixations on cues such as the non-kicking leg to anticipate direction, height, and timing (Dicks et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Savelsbergh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Also, goalkeepers maintain prolonged final fixations on critical locations such as the ball or kicking foot before initiating movement have demonstrated higher save rates (Piras \u0026amp; Vickers, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). For takers, visual search is dynamic and context-sensitive, shaped by factors including run-up angle, distance, goalkeeper positioning, and fixed reference points behind the goal (Patterson et al., 2020; Wood \u0026amp; Wilson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Keeper-dependent strategies typically involve frequent gaze shifts toward the goalkeeper to guide late adjustments, whereas keeper-independent strategies emphasize sustained fixation on the ball or target area until contact.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe level of expertise critically shapes how players visually scan the environment during penalty kicks. Compared to less experienced players, skilled penalty takers anchor their gaze more consistently on task-relevant locations. For example, experienced players tend to fixate earlier and longer on the target area of the goal (van der Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Wood \u0026amp; Wilson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) and ustain focused visual attention on the ball maintain a stable gaze on the ball before foot-to-ball impact (Bakker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Noel \u0026amp; van der Kamp, 2012). They also use brief fixations on the goalkeeper to gather positional information without being drawn into distracting movements (Kurz \u0026amp; Munzert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Roca et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Further, Piras \u0026amp; Vickers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) found that successful penalty takers exhibited prolonged final fixations on critical locations (e.g., the ball or intended target) prior to movement initiation, a behavior associated with improved shot accuracy under pressure. Additionally, experienced players demonstrate greater resilience to distractions than novices, sustaining attention on their chosen reference point despite goalkeeper movements or crowd noise (Wood et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Meira Jr. et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This refined visual control enables them to extract crucial spatial and kinematic cues, informing more accurate and confident shot placement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegardless of skill level, penalty takers vary considerably in how they combine power and accuracy. These kicking styles can interact with the strategic approach adopted. In a keeper-independent strategy - where the target is chosen before the run-up and maintained regardless of goalkeeper movement - both the placement and the power of the shot are potentially more critical, as the taker cannot exploit late goalkeeper cues and must instead rely on ball speed or precision to score. In contrast, a keeper-dependent strategy allows the taker to delay commitment, potentially reducing the emphasis on raw power or extreme placement if they successfully wrong-foot the goalkeeper. Experimental work by Timmis et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) compared visual search behaviors during power and placement penalty kicks, finding that power kicks elicited more central fixations on the ball and intermittent glances at the goalkeeper, whereas placement kicks prompted greater gaze allocation toward the goal edges. However, in their protocol, participants were instructed to ignore goalkeeper movement - effectively enforcing a goalkeeper-independent strategy. While this control isolates kicking style effects, it limits ecological validity because representative design influences visual search patterns (Belopolsky et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). This highlights the importance of considering how strategy constraints and task realism shape both gaze behavior and performance outcomes in penalty research (No\u0026euml;l \u0026amp; van der Kamp, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender disparities in sports performance have long intrigued researchers and sports enthusiasts. Evidence from non-sporting contexts suggests that males often outperform females on certain generic visuospatial tasks, such as mental rotation and spatial navigation (Voyer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), which could partly account for performance gaps in visually demanding sports. Gender-based differences have been observed across diverse athletic populations. Voss et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), in a meta-analysis, reported that male athletes tend to outperform their female counterparts on tasks involving cognition and attention, and Legault et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) found that male athletes demonstrated superior perceptual-cognitive abilities compared to both female athletes and non-athlete controls. Moreover, Rominger et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) reported that female football players exhibited higher functional brain connectivity when generating creative plays, pointing to possible gendered neurocognitive differences in problem-solving. In basketball, Legault et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and Legault \u0026amp; Faubert (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) observed comparable tracking accuracy between male and female players, though females benefited more from open-skill than closed-skill conditions. Conversely, Roudaia and Faubert (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) noted that males had significantly higher attentional tracking speeds, while females exhibited slower reaction times further impaired by distractors, suggesting less efficient attentional functions. Together, these findings highlight gender as a critical moderator of perceptual-cognitive strategies, shaping distinct visuospatial and attentional profiles in male and female athletes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the same time, sport-specific training appears to attenuate or even override these gender-related differences, pointing to the importance of examining the interaction between gender and expertise. For instance, Oudejans et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) and Zwierko et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) in basketball, L\u0026uuml;ders et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) in volleyball, and van Maarseveen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) in football all demonstrated that skilled female athletes can match or approach male performance levels on sport-relevant visuospatial tasks. Evidence from handball also suggests expertise shapes gaze strategies: Jedziniak et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) showed that elite male goalkeepers primarily fixated on the opponent\u0026rsquo;s throwing arm and the ball, whereas elite female goalkeepers attended more to the torso and head, reflecting experience-driven but gender-specific perceptual strategies. Similarly, Meira Jr. et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) found that elite female football players displayed more fixations toward relevant areas and invested less mental effort than non-elite counterparts during key actions, underscoring how expertise optimizes visual search. Alves et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) further demonstrated that professional volleyball players outperformed non-athlete controls on executive control and visuospatial attention tasks, with gender effects largely confined to the control group. Jin et al. (2022, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) extended these findings by showing that long-term participation in open-skill sports can attenuate gender differences in visual attention. Collectively, this evidence suggests that while gender differences in perceptual-cognitive skills persist, expertise can substantially reduce them, making the study of their interaction - particularly in high-pressure contexts such as penalty kicks - critical for refining models of perceptual-cognitive expertise and developing gender-sensitive training interventions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuilding on prior research reported above into gaze behavior in football, this study primarily investigates how gender and expertise shape visual search and performance during power and placement penalty kicks. As a secondary objective, we explored how gender and expertise interact with kick success. Although gaze patterns have been examined extensively across skill levels, female players remain underrepresented in the literature, which lacks a direct comparison of male and female penalty takers of different expertise levels. Understanding how these groups differ in their perceptual and cognitive processes can guide the design of more tailored training interventions. Based on prior evidence that expertise is associated with more efficient gaze allocation in football skills (e.g., Piras \u0026amp; Vickers, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Roca et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Meira Jr. et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), we hypothesized that professional players would demonstrate more efficient visual search patterns than amateurs. Regarding gender, findings are more mixed: while some research reports differences in gaze behavior between male and female athletes (e.g., Jedziniak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), other work - such as Alves et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) - suggests that sport expertise can mitigate traditional gender effects in perceptual and cognitive tasks. Drawing on this latter evidence, we predicted that no substantial gender-based differences in visual search would emerge in our professional and amateur samples.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHOD","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eForty-four participants were intentionally selected, evenly distributed across four groups: 11 professional men, 11 professional women, 11 amateur men, and 11 amateur women. Professional male athletes were drawn from a XXX (adjective related to country omitted for anonymity) elite football team, while professional female athletes were recruited from three elite football teams competing in XXX (country omitted for anonymity)\u0026rsquo;s Major League, the country's premier competition. Amateur players were recruited from five XXX (country adjective omitted for anonymity) amateur football teams. We followed Ericsson\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) conceptualization of expertise, which asserts that it is developed through prolonged and purposeful practice, often surpassing 10,000 hours.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe conducted two a priori power analyses informed by eight peer-reviewed studies on gaze behavior in football, specifically examining the variable fixation duration during penalty kicks (Binch et al., 2010; Huttermann et al., 2014; Kurz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Meira Jr. et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Noel \u0026amp; Van der Kamp, 2012; Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Van der Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Wood \u0026amp; Wilson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). One analysis was based on the average effect size (expected effect) across these studies, and the other on the smallest effect size of interest. To derive the expected effect, we extracted sample size, partial eta squared (ƞp\u0026sup2;), and number of observations from the eight studies. The means (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD) were: total sample size\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8, ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.22, and total observations\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;318\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;235. Both analyses assumed a 3-way between-subjects ANOVA with a 2\u0026times;2\u0026times;2 design (8 cells), α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05, and power\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.80. For the average effect size (ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.40), the conversion yielded Cohen\u0026rsquo;s f\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;0.816. A balanced design required only 2 observations per cell (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16), producing achieved power\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;0.815 for all main effects and interactions. For the smallest effect size of interest (ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.13; Van der Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), Cohen\u0026rsquo;s f\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;0.385, and 8 observations per cell (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;64) were required, yielding achieved power\u0026thinsp;\u0026asymp;\u0026thinsp;0.811. In the present study, we obtained 440 total observations, with 110 per group (11 participants \u0026times; 10 trials), far exceeding both thresholds (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16 for large effects; n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;64 for smaller effects). These parameters confirm that the study was adequately powered to detect the expected effect size, making the likelihood of a Type II error very low (Abt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Lakens, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll participants provided written informed consent, as approved by the University\u0026rsquo;s Institutional Review Board (Approval Number: XXX omitted for anonymity). Each player completed a questionnaire documenting their years of systematic practice, training frequency per week, preferred penalty kick type (power vs. placement), and preferred kicking foot (right vs. left), presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInclusion criteria required all participants to have a right-dominant eye and be actively competing for a male or female amateur or professional football team. Additionally, professional players were required to have accumulated at least 10 years of systematic football training at the time of data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants\u0026rsquo; characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePractice in football (years)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrequency of training sessions per week\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePenalty kick type of preference\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePreferred kicking foot\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProfessional male\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlacement: 3\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePower: 8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight: 7\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft: 4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProfessional female\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlacement: 8\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePower: 3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight: 7\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft: 4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmateur male\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlacement: 10\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePower: 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight: 10\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft: 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmateur female\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlacement: 5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePower: 6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRight: 9\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeft: 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTask, apparatus, and procedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData collection took place outdoors at official training centers in XXX (Cities), XXX (Country) (omitted for anonymity). Participants began with a five-minute warm-up, consisting of ball control drills and two penalty kicks without a goalkeeper. They then wore the eye tracker glasses and data transmission unit (DTU) backpack before undergoing a three-minute calibration procedure. All participants reported no movement limitations during the experiment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePenalty kicks were executed in accordance with the official rules and dimensions set by the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA). Before the trials, participants received the following standardized instructions: \"Score as many goals as possible. Take the type of penalty assigned by the researcher - placement or power (the goalkeeper is unaware of this information). Generate as much power as possible for the power kick using an instep foot contact. Execute the placement kick using an inside foot contact. Avoid deceptive strategies. Avoiding deceptive strategies, such as looking in one direction while kicking in the opposite or pausing during the run-up, is a standardized procedure that have been used in previous research (Wood \u0026amp; Wilson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Wood et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEach participant performed ten penalty trials - five placement kicks and five power kicks - in randomized order. The decision to use five trials per condition was guided by methodological consistency with previous penalty kick research, which often employed an equal or smaller number of repetitions per type (e.g., Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This approach aimed to balance experimental control, ecological validity, and participant fatigue. The official football - Nike Strike (size 5), the standard ball for all XXX (adjective related to country omitted for anonymity) national competitions -was placed on the penalty spot, and the researcher verbally instructed the type of penalty to be taken before each attempt. Participants were allowed a run-up, an essential element for maintaining penalty kick realism (Belopolsky et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Kurz \u0026amp; Munzert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Kicks were executed upon the researcher's command: \u0026ldquo;Attention, get ready, go.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe goalkeepers were matched to the gender and expertise level of the participants, with one goalkeeper assigned to each group. Four goalkeepers took part in the study: two professionals (male: 20 years of experience; female: 13 years of experience) and two amateurs (both male and female: 5 years of experience each). Goalkeepers were blinded to the type of penalty being performed and were instructed to adhere to official game rules.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Mobile Eye XG ASL\u0026reg; system was used to track visual search. This portable device consists of monocular glasses equipped with two cameras: one recording the scene and another tracking the right eye. The system includes a data transmit unit (DTU) housed in a backpack, along with a laptop for data acquisition and analysis. Given the field-based nature of the study and the highly dynamic movements performed by participants, data collection was scheduled during the final two hours before dusk to ensure consistent ambient lighting conditions. The DTU was connected to the recording laptop via a long cable to minimize data loss during movement. Eye-tracker calibration was verified before each trial, and recalibration was performed immediately whenever tracking accuracy was lost.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo capture performance variables (kick outcome and ball end location), two Sony HDR-CX405\u0026reg; video cameras were positioned strategically: one camera was placed 10 meters in front of the penalty area; the second camera was positioned three meters behind the goal.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData analysis and variables\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVisual search data were analyzed using ASL Results software. Each trial was tracked from the moment the player began the run-up until the foot made contact with the ball. Visual fixations were defined as lasting a minimum of 100 milliseconds, based on the specifications in the Applied Science Laboratories (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) eyetracker system manual. Performance data were analyzed by extracting and reviewing the footage from the two video cameras.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStatistical analyses of performance variables (kick outcome and end location of the ball) were conducted using chi-square tests. Statistical analyses of visual variables were conducted using two sets of three-way analyses of variance (ANOVA): 1. Gender (male, female) x Experience (professional, amateur) x Kick Type (power, placement); 2. Gender (male, female) x Experience (professional, amateur) x Kick Outcome (goal/successful, no goal/unsuccessful). When necessary, the Greenhouse-Geisser adjustment was applied to correct for sphericity violations. A Bonferroni post hoc test was used to identify specific differences. To indicate the magnitude of significant effects, we reported partial eta squared (ƞp\u0026sup2;) values. The level of significance was set at 0.05 for all analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe categorized end location of the ball into high center, low center, high left, low left, high right, and low right. As goalkeeper performance can influence penalty outcomes (e.g., exceptional saves or mistakes), ball end location was included as an additional variable, providing a more objective indicator of the kicker\u0026rsquo;s performance independent of the goalkeeper\u0026rsquo;s actions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrial length was defined as the total time of each trial, in milliseconds; this variable was used in the study of Timmis et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and is a reference for the inclusion of absolute or relative visual search variables (trial length start was defined at the \u0026ldquo;go\u0026rdquo; command and its end was determined at the moment the ball was kicked). Total fixation duration on an area of interest (AOI) - ball, goalkeeper, goal, outside the goal - as a percentage trial length was defined as the cumulative amount of time, in milliseconds, the participant fixated at an AOI, per trial. Number of fixations on an AOI as a percentage of the total number of fixations, per trial. These variables were used in the study of Timmis et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eDue to space constraints, only the most significant effects are presented in this section. Comprehensive analyses (SPSS outputs) and dataset are available in the supplementary materials.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrial Length and Visual Search Variables I \u0026ndash; Gender x Experience x Kick Type\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eValues for trial length are in milliseconds, while total fixation duration and number of fixations values are in percentages.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTrial length\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSignificant effects were found for gender: male players (2751.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;60.72; CI: 2631.95\u0026ndash;2870.68) took more time than female players (2536.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;63.23; CI: 2411.95\u0026ndash;2660.53) [F(1,412)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.02; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.014]. There were also significant effects for experience: professional players (2990.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;63.08; CI: 2866.29\u0026ndash;3114.29) took longer than amateur players (2297.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;60.88; CI: 2177.59\u0026ndash;2416.93) [F(1,412)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;62.5; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0001; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.132]. No significant differences were found for kick type or interactions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTotal fixation duration\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSince significant effects for gender and experience were found in trial length, total fixation durations as a percentage trial length were calculated for each AOI.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe total percentages for each AOI did not sum to 100% because other types of eye movements - primarily saccades (rapid, ballistic shifts of gaze between fixations) - occurred during the trials but were excluded from the analysis. Only fixations lasting up to 100 milliseconds were considered.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBall: professional players (11.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.91; CI: 9.26\u0026ndash;12.86) looked at the ball significantly more than amateurs (7.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15; CI: 5.15\u0026ndash;9.7) [F(1,173)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.12; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.014; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.034].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGoalkeeper: professional male players (9.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.86; CI: 7.33\u0026ndash;10.73) looked less at the goalkeeper than amateur male players (11.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.92; CI: 9.76\u0026ndash;13.39) [F(1,174)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.42; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.02; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.051].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGoal: male players (4.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.87; CI: 2.95\u0026ndash;6.42) looked at the goal more than female players (1.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.35; CI: 0.53\u0026ndash;1.9) [F(1,74)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13.74; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0001; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.157]; professional players (1.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.74; CI: 0.3\u0026ndash;3.26) looked less at the goal than amateurs (4.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.57; CI: 2.99\u0026ndash;5.25) [F(1,74)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.24; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.078].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOuter Areas: male players looked more at the outer areas when performing placement kicks (6.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.05; CI: 4.91\u0026ndash;9.07) compared to power kicks (3.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.08; CI: 1.66\u0026ndash;5.96) [F(1,85)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.94; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.029; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.055]; male players (5.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.75; CI: 3.9\u0026ndash;6.89) looked at the goal more than female players (1.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.35; CI: 0.95\u0026ndash;2.31) [F(1,85)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20.69; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0001; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.196].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eNumber of fixations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGiven that each trial included four AOIs, we calculated the number of fixations on each AOI as a percentage of the total number of fixations recorded during the trial.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBall: male players (70.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.21; CI: 62.54\u0026ndash;79.14) looked at the ball more than female players (54.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.62; CI: 47.47\u0026ndash;61.74) [F(1,184)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.9; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.041]; professional players (74.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.38; CI: 68.16\u0026ndash;81.48) looked at the ball more than amateur players (50.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.41; CI: 41.93\u0026ndash;59.31) [F(1,184)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20.24; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0001; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.099].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGoalkeeper: male players (75.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.97; CI: 67.3\u0026ndash;82.96) looked at the goalkeeper more than female players (55.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.56; CI: 48.46\u0026ndash;62.49) [F(1,184)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.86; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.046].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGoal: male players (38.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.61; CI: 25.24\u0026ndash;51.57) looked at the goal more than female players (9.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.86; CI: 3.42\u0026ndash;14.8) [F(1,78)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16.73; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0001; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.177]; professional players (16.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.7; CI: 5.08\u0026ndash;27.78) looked at the goal less than amateurs (16.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.7; CI: 5.08\u0026ndash;27.78) [F(1,78)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.73; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.023; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.051].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOuter Areas: male players (47.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.86; CI: 31.83\u0026ndash;63.09) looked at the outer areas more than female players (16.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.55; CI: 9.03\u0026ndash;23.14) [F(1,89)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.85; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.002; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.1].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrial Length and Visual Search Variables II \u0026ndash; Gender x Experience x Kick Outcome\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the previous analysis, as the only significant effect for kick type was in the relative total fixation duration at the outer areas, we ran a second round of 3-way analysis of variance, keeping gender and experience but replacing kick type for kick outcome (goal/no goal). Values for trial length are presented in milliseconds, while duration and number of fixations values are in percentages.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile some findings of this exploratory analysis mirrored the primary results, others revealed context-specific variations in gaze behavior, underscoring that expertise markers may not operate uniformly across all performance situations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eTrial length\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimilar significant effects were observed as in the \u0026ldquo;Trial Length I\u0026rdquo; analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTotal fixation duration\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA gender x experience x kick outcome interaction was found [F(1,173)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.63; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.033; ƞp\u0026sup2; = 0.026] for the AOI \u0026ldquo;ball\u0026rdquo;: male professional players looked more at the ball in unsuccessful kicks (14.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.4; CI: 10.04\u0026ndash;19.52) than in successful kicks (8.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.73; CI: 4.86\u0026ndash;11.68).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings mirror those observed in the \u0026ldquo;Total fixation duration I\u0026rdquo; analysis for the goalkeeper, goal, and outer areas.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eNumber of fixations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSignificant effects were found for the ball, goalkeeper, goal, and outer areas, as observed in the \"Number of fixations I\" analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerformance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eKick outcome\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe success percentages of the groups by kick type are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Across groups, the percentage of successful penalty kicks varied by gender, expertise, and kick type, but the differences were not always consistent with the expectation of a strong expertise effect. Among male players, both amateurs and professionals showed significantly more successful than unsuccessful shots for placement and power kicks. Male amateurs scored on 35 of 52 placement kicks, χ\u0026sup2;(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.23, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.013, and 41 of 57 power kicks, χ\u0026sup2;(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10.97, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001. Male professionals recorded 36 of 54 successful placement kicks, χ\u0026sup2;(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.00, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.014, and 41 of 54 successful power kicks, χ\u0026sup2;(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.52, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor female players, the pattern was less consistent. Female amateurs did not differ significantly between successful and unsuccessful attempts for either placement kicks (31 vs. 23; χ\u0026sup2;(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.19, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.276) or power kicks (25 vs. 31; χ\u0026sup2;(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.64, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.423). Female professionals showed a significant advantage for placement kicks (38 vs. 16; χ\u0026sup2;(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.96, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.003), but no significant difference for power kicks (32 vs. 24; χ\u0026sup2;(1)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.14, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.285).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInterestingly, the overall rates of success were relatively similar for professional and amateur players, suggesting that matching goalkeepers by experience level may have mitigated the expected expertise advantage in raw scoring outcomes. This highlights the need to interpret \u0026ldquo;success\u0026rdquo; cautiously, as it reflects not only the kicker\u0026rsquo;s execution but also the goalkeeper\u0026rsquo;s performance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEnd location of the ball\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e displays the frequencies of end ball location by groups. Analysis of ball end location revealed significant patterns in most groups, except for female professionals, whose distribution of shot locations did not differ significantly for either kick type. For male professionals, placement kicks were most frequently directed to the low left (18) and low right (18) areas, χ\u0026sup2;(5)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;28.22, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, while power kicks showed no significant distribution bias, χ\u0026sup2;(5)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.11, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.213.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale amateurs displayed significant preferences in both placement (χ\u0026sup2;(5)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16.85, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005) and power kicks (χ\u0026sup2;(5)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16.37, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.006), with a notable tendency toward high center and low left targets.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale amateurs also demonstrated significant distribution patterns for both placement (χ\u0026sup2;(5)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13.56, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.019) and power kicks (χ\u0026sup2;(5)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20.93, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001), often targeting the high center zone during power kicks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor female professionals, neither placement (χ\u0026sup2;(5)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.11, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.105) nor power kicks (χ\u0026sup2;(5)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10.21, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.069) showed significant variation in shot distribution.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe primary aim of this study was to examine the influence of gender and expertise on visual search and performance during power and placement penalty kicks. As a secondary objective, it explored the interaction between gender and expertise with kick success. We hypothesized expertise would influence gaze behavior and performance, with professional players demonstrating superior performance and visual attention compared to amateurs, but gender would not play a significant role. The findings partially supported these hypotheses. Penalty kick success and visual search behaviors varied by gender, expertise, and kick type, with gender often exerting a stronger influence than expertise. Male amateurs and professionals achieved higher success for both placement and power kicks, while female amateurs showed no significant differences, and female professionals excelled only in placement kicks. Targeting patterns differed across groups, and trial length was longer for males and professionals. Professionals generally fixated on the ball longer than amateurs, with male professionals spending less time on the goalkeeper; males also looked more at the goal and outer areas than females, and placement kicks elicited longer outer-area fixations than power kicks. While professional players displayed more stable gaze patterns, these were not always linked to better outcomes, and a three-way interaction suggested gaze strategies’ effectiveness may depend on context. Overall, gender emerged as a key factor shaping both performance and visual search in penalty kicks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eVisual search\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe identified distinct visual search patterns between male and female football players, as well as between professional and amateur players. Professional male players exhibited longer fixation durations on the ball during unsuccessful penalty kicks compared to successful ones. This suggests that impaired penalty performance is likely when players fixate on the ball for extended periods, indicating that excessive gaze anchoring on the ball may hinder effective penalty execution. This pattern appears to be associated with expertise level, as prior studies have reported longer fixations on the ball during successful trials among university players (Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Noël \u0026amp; van Der Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, professional male players spent less time fixating on the goalkeeper than their amateur counterparts, possibly as a strategy to minimize distraction and perceived threat. For instance, Wilson et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) found that anxious university penalty takers exhibited reduced accuracy when they spent more time looking at the goalkeeper.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegardless of gender, professional players demonstrated longer fixations on the ball and shorter fixations on the goal compared to amateurs. While prolonged focus on the ball has often been associated with reduced shooting accuracy - particularly in less experienced players who may neglect other relevant visual cues (Piras \u0026amp; Vickers, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Wilson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) - its role appears to differ at higher skill levels. For professional players, maintaining gaze on the ball during a multi-step run-up can enhance the acquisition of spatial and kinematic information about its position (Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), which is essential for executing precise foot-to-ball contact. This strategy supports the fine-tuning of spatial calibration in the final approach phase (Kurz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and may coexist with the ability to extract peripheral information about the movements of the goalkeeper movements or the target area (Land \u0026amp; McLeod, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, in experts, ball fixation may reflect a refined motor control mechanism rather than a perceptual limitation, highlighting the importance of interpreting gaze behaviors in relation to expertise and task demands.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale players exhibited longer fixations on the goal than female players. Noël and van der Kamp (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) noted that the target area within the goal often serves as a key “pivot” fixation point, helping players to guide their aiming strategy during penalty kicks. Male players in our study also made more fixations on the goalkeeper than female players. These patterns - central gaze anchoring on the goal and peripheral gaze anchoring on the goalkeeper - indicate a broader gaze distribution among male players compared to female players. Such a strategy can facilitate both aiming accuracy and anticipation of goalkeeper movement. Hüttermann et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) reported that, in 77% of trials, penalty takers distributed their gaze between the ball, the goalkeeper, and open goal space when instructed to aim for the side opposite the goalkeeper’s anticipated dive. This supports the idea that broader gaze allocation may enhance the integration of spatial and anticipatory cues in high-pressure situations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn effect of kick type was observed only in male players, who spent more time fixating on the outer goal areas during placement kicks compared to power kicks. Visually scanning the goal edges to execute a placement kick beyond the goalkeeper’s reach is consistent with strategies reported in previous research. Such targeting increases the likelihood of scoring by maximizing the spatial margin between the ball and the goalkeeper’s possible interception path (Bakker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; van der Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Wood \u0026amp; Wilson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Wilson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). This approach relies on precise visual guidance and motor control, as aiming for narrower areas increases technical demands but can be more effective when executed successfully.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePerformance\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender- and expertise-related differences were also reflected in kick outcomes. Among professionals, female players achieved greater success with placement kicks than with power kicks, whereas male players outperformed females in both penalty types. Ball placement patterns further revealed distinct strategic tendencies. Professional male and female players predominantly targeted the lower edges of the goal with placement kicks, consistent with a “kicking wide” strategy designed to extend the ball’s distance from the reach of the goalkeeper (Bakker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; van der Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Wood \u0026amp; Wilson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Wilson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Professional females also applied this wide-targeting strategy to power kicks, while professional males dispersed power kicks across all goal areas. This broader targeting pattern aligns with their wider gaze distribution, incorporating both central and peripheral focus. Amateur male players, by contrast, showed a tendency to avoid the high edges of the goal, instead favoring more central placements - a pattern also observed in university-level players, for whom penalties are often aimed centrally, although successful kicks are typically placed wider (Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Amateur female players displayed a more polarized approach, directing placement kicks toward the lower goal area and power kicks toward the high center, a trend that parallels male university players’ preference for central targeting on power penalties (Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLinking kick outcomes to ball end location, the absence of significant differences between successful and missed power kicks among professional female players may be partly explained by their tendency to target the lower edges of the goal - a zone that, while precise, remains more accessible to goalkeepers. An additional factor may be reduced kicking force, as suggested by Sakamoto et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), who reported a lower mean thigh-to-shank energy ratio in female kickers compared to males, and by Barfield et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), who identified kinematic disadvantages among elite female players. Both factors could make even well-placed power kicks easier to defend. Among amateur female players, the absence of performance differences between successful and missed power kicks is likely linked to their central targeting preference, which offers goalkeepers a higher chance of interception. Their poorer performance in placement kicks may, conversely, reflect a higher frequency of shots directed toward the goal edges - a riskier but less consistent strategy, also observed in studies of male players.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eOverall interpretation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur findings highlight that the open goal and its outer areas function as key visual pivots for executing successful penalty kicks. While gaze alignment with the ball is necessary for accurate spatial calibration, it should be brief and purposeful rather than prolonged. Excessive ball fixation can limit the processing of other critical visual cues, whereas short, targeted fixations help fine-tune foot-to-ball contact without compromising situational awareness (Kurz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Piras et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Avoiding direct fixation on the goalkeeper also emerged as a critical factor for success, consistent with the goalkeeper-independent strategy widely advocated in the literature (Noël \u0026amp; van der Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Noël et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Tay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; van der Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Within this approach, gender and expertise influenced the choice between placement and power kicks: professional female players achieved greater success with placement kicks, whereas male players outperformed females in both penalty types. Targeting the edges of the goal - particularly the lower ones - proved effective for both genders, but professional females relied on this “kicking wide” strategy more consistently, even for power kicks, while professional males combined wide targeting with central shots (Bakker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; van der Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Wood \u0026amp; Wilson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Wilson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender differences also emerged in gaze behavior. Professional male players exhibited prolonged ball fixation, which was linked to reduced performance, whereas female players tended to maintain shorter ball fixations, potentially avoiding this performance cost. For males, an optimal gaze-anchoring strategy appeared to involve briefly aligning with the ball before shifting focus to a specific target zone in the goal (Hüttermann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Noël \u0026amp; van der Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). This approach facilitated directing the ball toward the lower edges - a location difficult for goalkeepers to defend - while also enabling broader gaze distribution, integrating both central and peripheral visual information.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eClear gender- and expertise-related differences were also evident in execution time. Male players took, on average, 0.3 seconds longer than females to perform a penalty kick, while professionals required 0.7 seconds longer than amateurs. For males, the longer execution time appeared linked to broader gaze modulation during the run-up, incorporating both goal scanning and ball calibration. Female players, by contrast, tended to complete the kick more quickly, with gaze patterns more narrowly focused on the ball and target zones. In a longer run-up, players - especially males - used this extra time to anchor gaze on the ball to refine spatial parameters (Belopolsky et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Kurz \u0026amp; Munzert, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Kurz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Timmis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) while also scanning the open goal to avoid being visually drawn to the goalkeeper (Hüttermann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Noël \u0026amp; van der Kamp, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, this study examined gender and expertise differences under representative experimental conditions, adhering to official rules and dimensions. Although recent analyses of FIFA Men’s World Cups indicate a growing preference for the keeper-dependent strategy (Han et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), our results predominantly support the keeper-independent approach. Importantly, gender differences in both performance and gaze strategies suggest that optimal penalty-taking approaches may need to be tailored, with male players potentially benefiting from minimizing prolonged ball fixations and female players from refining shot power and variability in target selection. Ultimately, the most effective penalty-kick strategy is one that aligns with the player’s skill set, gaze behavior, and tactical objectives to maximize scoring probability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations should be acknowledged in this study. The experience levels among participant groups were uneven, with professional male players averaging 12 years, professional female players 10 years, amateur male players 4 years, and amateur female players 6 years. Additionally, the smaller experience gap between professional and amateur female players may account for the absence of significant findings among women. Furthermore, female participants were recruited from three teams, whereas male participants were drawn from a single team. Moreover, the amateur groups were predominantly right-footed, introducing a potential bias. It is also acknowledged that the relatively small number of trials per condition (five placement and five power kicks) increases the weighting of each outcome and may make the results more susceptible to anomalies (e.g., miskicks, slips, or distractions). Finally, as we instructed participants on the part of the foot to use to strike the ball, they could use a different movement pattern and create an internal focus of attention, which can impact visual search.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions and implications","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrated that gender and expertise influence visual search and performance in football penalty kicks. Professional male players exhibited longer fixation durations on the ball during unsuccessful kicks compared to successful ones, spent less time fixating on the goalkeeper than amateur male players, directed placement kicks predominantly toward the lower edges of the goal, and dispersed power kicks across all goal areas. Further, professional female players achieved greater success with placement kicks than with power kicks, directed fewer placement kicks toward the center of the goal, and targeted more power kicks toward the lower edges. Across both genders, professional players fixated longer on the ball and shorter on the goal, compared to their amateur counterparts. In addition, amateur male players spent more time fixating on the goalkeeper and directed fewer kicks toward the high edges of the goal, while amateur female players tended to aim placement kicks at the lower portion of the goal and power kicks toward the high center. Finally, male players exhibited longer fixations on the goal and spent more time fixating on the goalkeeper than female players, outperformed female players in both penalty kick types, and spent more time fixating on the outer areas of the goal during placement kicks compared to power kicks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe outline three implications of our findings for taking football penalty kicks: (1) professional male players should avoid fixating centrally on the ball during the run-up, instead directing placement kicks toward the edges of the goal and distributing power kicks across all goal areas; (2) professional female players should prioritize placement kicks, targeting the edges of the goal, and thus adopt a wider gaze distribution across the goal; (3) amateur male and female players should refrain from aiming kicks at the high edges of the goal.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgments: We are thankful to the participants and teams’ staff, who kindly agreed to take part in the study. Our special thanks to Maysa Leopoldo, Renata Mendes, Vinicius Amorim, Amanda Matias, Ingrid Serello, and Giovana Carneiro, who helped in data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor contributions: Conceptualization – CMMJ, MM; Data curation – BVFS, COC, CMMJ; Formal analysis – CMMJ; Funding acquisition – N/A; Investigation – BVFS, COC, DLO; Methodology – CMMJ, DLO, MM; Project administration – CMMJ, MM; Resources – CMMJ, BVFS, COC; Software – CMMJ; Supervision – CMMJ; Validation – N/A; Visualization – N/A; Writing (original draft) – CMMJ, MM, DLO; Writing (review \u0026amp; editing) – CMMJ.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDisclosure: The authors declare no potential conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData availability: The data that support the findings of this study and the statistical outputs are available in the supplementary materials.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding: This project has not received funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthics: Approved by the University Review Board, under the protocol CAAE 23139419.2.0000.5390.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbt, G., Boreham, C., Davison, G., et al. 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The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 58, 1544\u0026ndash;1553.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"gaze behavior, soccer, penalty taker, sex, skill","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7497475/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7497475/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"Female players are underrepresented in research on gaze patterns, and direct comparisons between male and female penalty takers of varying expertise are scarce. Identifying perceptual and cognitive differences across these groups can inform targeted training strategies. This study primarily investigates how gender and expertise shape visual search and performance during power and placement penalty kicks, and secondarily examines how these factors relate to kick success. Forty-four football players were assigned to four groups (n=11 per group): professional men, professional women, amateur men, and amateur women. Participants wore a portable eye tracker and executed five power and five placement penalty kicks. Measures were duration and number of fixations on areas of interest and kick outcome (goal vs. no goal) and ball end location (high and low center and edges). Visual and performance variables were influenced by both gender and expertise. Gender differences were evident, with male players - particularly professionals - showing greater ball-focused fixations, while female players distributed gaze more toward alternative areas of interest. Professional players exhibited more stable gaze patterns, characterized by longer fixations on the ball, although these behaviors did not consistently predict successful outcomes. These findings indicate that certain gaze strategies may be associated with expertise but vary in their effectiveness depending on situational and individual factors. The interplay between gender and expertise shapes visual search strategies in penalty kicks, suggesting that training interventions should consider these variables when aiming to optimize performance.","manuscriptTitle":"Gender and Expertise Affect Visual Search and Performance in Football Penalty Kicks","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-11 10:45:04","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7497475/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c53bd314-7592-43f6-80e4-a2ab1d7aa76d","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 11th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-01T16:14:38+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7497475","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-025-07201-w","journal":{"identity":"experimental-brain-research","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Experimental Brain Research"},"publishedOn":"2025-11-26 15:57:58","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 26th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-11 10:45:04","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s00221-025-07201-w","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-025-07201-w","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7497475","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7497475","identity":"rs-7497475","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}