Evaluating the Flammability of Select Native Grasses in the Southeastern Coastal Plain

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Schneider, Deborah L. Miller, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5212466/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The study investigated the flammability of nine common native grass species in the Southeastern Coastal Plain. Fire has historically shaped many of the plant communities in this region. Grasses are a significant component of these communities, serving as the fine fuels that carry fire across the landscape. The dominant grass species, wiregrass ( Aristida beyrichiana ), is considered a keystone species due to its high flammability, but its reproduction challenges and restoration costs prompt a search for alternative species with similar flammability but lower restoration and production costs. In this study, we experimentally burned nine common native grass species, including wiregrass, in controlled conditions in a custom-built combustion chamber and measured their flammability metrics, including flame duration, smoldering time, max flame height, mass loss, and mass loss rate, for each species. Results indicated significant differences in flammability metrics across nine common species. Wiregrass, as expected, featured high flammability metrics, including longest flame duration at 105.10 s and second highest flame height at 44.31 cm, supporting its keystone status. However, other species like purple lovegrass ( Eragrostis spectabilis ) and split-beard bluestem ( Andropogon ternarius ) were comparable with wiregrass regarding high mass loss rates and high flame heights, suggesting they could potentially, or partially be used in place of wiregrass or preferably in combination with wiregrass in restoration projects and contribute to sustaining fire regimes in fire-dependent communities of the Southeastern Coastal Plains. Our findings suggest that incorporating a variety of flammable species in restoration projects could enhance ecological resiliency, biodiversity, ecosystem functionality, and further highlight the importance of species-specific traits in fire behavior and ecosystem dynamics. Bunchgrasses fire ecology flammability restoration. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Background Fire is a foundational natural process that has affected and continues to shape plant communities (W. J. Bond, Woodward, and Midgley 2005 ; Keeley et al. 2011 ; Scott et al. 2010 ; Glasspool, Edwards, and Axe 2004 ). In response, plants have evolved a suite of adaptations to survive and even thrive in fire-prone environments (Ripley et al. 2015 ; Simpson, Archibald, and Osborne 2022 ; W. Bond and Keely 2005). Grasses, in particular, exhibit remarkable pyrogenic traits such as rapid regrowth from underground buds following fire and the ability to produce abundant, easily ignitable biomass(Linder et al. 2018 ; Pausas and Paula 2020; Simpson, Archibald, and Osborne 2022 ). Certain grass species can also actively influence fire regimes in fire-prone ecosystems by increasing fuel loads and thereby potentially raising the probability of ignition (Linder et al. 2018 ; Pausas and Paula 2020). These adaptations can create conditions more favorable for their survival and reproduction, such as maintaining open canopies for enhanced sunlight access or increasing opportunities for seed dispersal and establishment (Simpson et al. 2016 ; W. Bond and Keely 2005). As a result, grasses are the primary fuel source for most wildland fires (Simpson et al. 2016 ; Linder et al. 2018 ). Moreover, these resilient plants dominate over a third of Earth's vegetative cover, providing essential habitat and sustenance for countless wildlife species (Linder et al. 2018 ; Taylor 2009 ). The Southeastern Coastal Plain of the U.S.A. hosts a variety of fire-prone plant communities (e.g., upland pine, mesic flatwoods, wet flatwoods, sandhill) known collectively as pine savannas or the longleaf pine savannas (Noss et al. 2014 ; Peet, Platt, and Costanza 2018; Jose, Jokela, and Miller 2006). These communities, known for impressively high biodiversity, are currently a major focus of restoration efforts by various regional organizations and agencies (Jose, Jokela, and Miller 2006; Kevin McIntyre et al. 2018 ). It is thought that the fire adaptations in pine savanna species evolved in response to frequent seasonal lightning ignitions (Noss 2018 ; Myers and Ewel 1990). Notably, pine savannas feature a high abundance of graminoid species that are crucial in providing fuel loads that help maintain frequent fires (Florida Natural Areas Inventory 2010 ; Noss 2018 ; Myers and Ewel 1990; Robbins and Myers 1992). While the groundcover of pine savanna communities is composed of a diversity of grass species, wiregrass ( Aristida beyrichiana & A. stricta ) is typically the dominant grass species across many sites in the Southeast (Fill et al. 2016 ; Keyes and Keyes 2000 ; Mulligan, Kirkman, and Mitchell 2002 ). Wiregrass is considered a keystone species among different pine savanna communities because of its ability to produce abundant fine, flammable fuels that promote frequent, low-intensity fires crucial to maintaining high biodiversity in these communities (Fill et al. 2012 ; 2016 ; Noss 2018 ). As a result, wiregrass has become a focal species in efforts to manage and restore these communities (Aschenbach, Foster, and Imm 2010; Trusty and Ober 2011; Jose, Jokela, and Miller 2006). However, the use of wiregrass in restoration efforts is hindered by numerous challenges. Wiregrass, for instance, features low seed viability (Outcalt 1994 ; Pérez 2014 ), which necessitates the need for large quantities of seed for successful establishment on restoration sites (Bissett 2006 ; Mulligan, Kirkman, and Mitchell 2002 ; Trusty and Ober 2011). Given that wiregrass is not cultivated for seed production, it must be collected from wild populations, often requiring sites with high wiregrass abundance and genetic integrity (Williams, Grabowski, and Williams 2013 ; Bissett 2006 ; Garrett Anderson 2013 ). Furthermore, successful seed production on said sites takes frequent, timely burns, limiting the availability of suitable donor sites (Outcalt 1994 ; Mulligan and Kirkman 2002; Vaughan 2001 ; Noss 2018 ). Consequently, wiregrass seed commands exorbitant prices, ranging from $ 1200- $ 2200 per pound (FL Wildflower Foundation, Roundstone Seed Supply) or $ 1000 per acre for in-house collection and sowing (Trusty and Ober 2011), which restricts the ability to perform large-scale restoration efforts. Despite the challenges mentioned above, large expenditures have been made to produce and reintroduce wiregrass on restoration sites (Trusty and Ober 2011; Aschenbach, Foster, and Imm 2010; Vaughan 2001 ). Oftentimes, the chief justification for the dominant focus on wiregrass in restoration efforts is its perceived ecological value in aiding the spread of fire across sites. However, little work has been done to examine how the flammability of other grass species in the region compares to wiregrass in aiding the spread of fire (Fill et al. 2016 ). Thus, our understanding of the ecological role and potential use of other native species in restoration is limited. In this study, we examined the flammability of nine common southeastern species. We hypothesized that flammability metrics would differ across species, with wiregrass featuring higher metrics due to its dominance in these fire-prone landscapes. We used a multi-dimensional definition of flammability comprised of four key components: ignitability (rapid ignition and spread), combustibility (intense burning with high flame temperature), sustainability (prolonged combustion), and consumability (complete fuel consumption) (Schwilk 2015 ; Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008; Fill et al. 2016 ; Simpson et al. 2016 ). By collecting data on these components of flammability, our aim was to determine differences among nine common pine savanna grass species. Doing so helps clarify the value of utilizing these species in restoration efforts. Additionally, we sought to elucidate potentially different ecological roles of the grass species tested based on differences in flammability, in turn increasing our understanding of the fire ecology of the region and potentially more broadly as well. Methods Experimental Design & Sample Collections Nine common Florida native grass species selected for this study included Andropogon glomeratus (bushy bluestem), Andropogon ternarius (split-beard bluestem), Andropogon virginicus (broomsedge), Aristida beyrichiana (wiregrass), Eragrostis spectabilis (purple lovegrass), Eustachys petraea (pinewoods fingergrass), Schizachyrium stoloniferum (creeping bluestem), Sorghastrum secundum (lopsided indiangrass), and Sporobolus junceus (pinewoods dropseed) (Fig. 1). Each species is found throughout Florida within several types of pine savanna communities. We collected twelve biomass samples for each of the nine species from a mesic-flatwoods to upland pine matrix at Austin Cary Forest (29.730212, -82.220757). The site was burned during the summer before all samples were collected in the following December, when each species is dormant. Each sample was collected by cutting the entire aboveground biomass of an individual plant. Once collected, biomass was dried in an oven for 72 h at 75°C (Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008). Post-drying, a 10.0 g subsample was taken from each field sample. Subsamples were obtained by splitting clumps and including the bottom and top portions of each individual plant into each sub-sample. Flammability Measurements All biomass samples were ignited under controlled laboratory conditions and followed the methods adapted from Kane, Varner, and Hiers (2008) and Prior et al., ( 2017 ) (Fig. 2). Each sample was placed on top of four xylene-soaked cotton strings forming a 20 cm x 20 cm grid (Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008). This grid was placed on top of an aluminum sheet located within a fume hood (Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008). The airflow of the fume hood was measured at three heights (0 cm, 10 cm, 50 cm) to ensure there was no draw that would influence fire behavior. To avoid affecting the natural bulk density of each species, biomass samples were placed onto the aluminum sheet without being compressed (Prior et al. 2017 ). Biomass pieces longer than 20 cm were cut to length to ensure samples fit onto the grid. A lighter was used to ignite one side of the xylene-soaked strings. A video camera was used to record combustion of each sample and capture accurate measurements of flame duration, smolder duration, and rate of mass loss (Prior et al., 2017 ). Flame and smoldering times were measured with a video timer; smoldering is defined from the end of flaming combustion to the end of the last glowing ember (Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008). A vertical ruler mounted behind the aluminum plate was used to measure the maximum flame height via a trained observer (Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008; Prior et al. 2017 ). Mass loss percentage was determined by subtracting the weight (g) of any unburned strings and then dividing this number by the initial weight (Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008; Prior et al. 2017 ). The mean mass loss rate (g s-1) was determined by dividing the weight (g) consumed by the total burn time (flame time + smoldering time)(Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008). Maximum temperature was measured using thermocouples (K-Type), one placed at the top of the fuel bed sample and another 10 cm above the fuel bed starting at its base, with measurements recorded every one second (Prior et al. 2017 ). Statistical Methods Ten samples were taken for each of the nine species selected resulting in a total of 90 flammability trials (n = 10). Comparison of means of flammability metrics was performed by using an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and pairwise post hoc multiple comparisons (P < 0.05) with a Bonferroni adjustment factor to determine significant differences between individual species using the ‘eemeans’ function within the ‘EMMEANS’ package in R Studio. Fuel bed height was used as covariate in the analysis as it varied significantly by grass species. Estimated marginal means and standard errors were calculated for maximum flame height, flaming time, smoldering time, percent mass loss, and mass loss rate using eemeans. Principle component analyses (PCA) was used to visualize patterns of flammability between species using the “pca” function in the R package “vegan”(Oksanen et al. 2010 ). PCA scores were generated using standardized (mean = 0 and SD = 1) values for each of the flammability metrics. Pearson correlation coefficients and significance values were generated to determine correlation among flammability metrics; this was done using the “cor_mat” and “cor_pmat” functions in the R package “rstatix.” Graphs and analyses were produced in R Studio Version 3.6.1. using the packages tidyverse(Wickham et al. 2019 ) and vegan (Oksanen et al. 2010 ). All data and code used to analyze and produce figures are accessible in Github ( https://github.com/Gagemo/Grass-Flammability ). Results Prior to burning, fuel bed height differed by species (F = 12.52, d.f. = 8, P < 0.0001) and ranged between 5.78 cm (± 0.79 cm) for A. glomeratus and 12.71 cm (± 0.94 cm) for A. ternarius (Fig. 3; Table S1 ). Fuel bed height was also determined based on Pearson correlation coefficient to be significantly related to both maximum flame height (r = 0.64, P < 0.0001) and flame duration (r = -0.45, P < 0.0001) (Table S2). Fuel bed depth was used as a covariate in the ANCOVA of burning characteristics. Among the nine grass species burned, mean maximum flame height differed (F = 7.59, d.f.= 8, P < 0.0001), with E. spectabilis having the highest at 48.65 cm and S. secundum having the shortest at 32.15 cm (Table 1; Fig. 3). Flaming duration differed (F = 7.59, d.f.= 8, P < 0.0001), ranging from 105.10 to 67.07 s, where A. beyrichiana had the longest duration, and S. stoloniferum had the shortest (Table 1; Fig. 3). Duration of smoldering time was also significantly different by species (F = 2.86, d.f. = 8, P < 0.008), where A. glomeratus, A. ternarius , and A. virginicus was significantly shorter than S. juncus (Table 1; Fig. 3). The average rate of mass loss was also significantly different (F = 14.15, d.f. = 8, P < 0.0001) (Table 1; Fig. 3). The highest rate of mass loss was E. spectabilis at 92.86% (± 1.50%), while the lowest value was for S. juncus at 74.43% (± 1.40%) (Table 1; Fig. 3). There was no statistically significant difference in maximum temperature observed at the fuel bed height or 10 cm above the fuel bed (Table 1; Fig. 3). The first two principal components of the PCA across the nine species explained 76.60% of the variation in the flammability (Fig. 4). Flammable species had large negative values for axis 1 (PCF1), while less flammable species had large positive values (Fig. 4). Mass loss rate and flame duration were each closely related to (PCF1, explaining 49.5% of the variation in the data set (Table S3; Figure S1 ). Smoldering duration, and to a lesser extent flaming duration, drove axis 2 (PCF2), accounting for an additional 27.1% of the variation in flammability (Table S3; Figure S1 ). Discussion Results of this study demonstrate relatively high flammability metrics among all nine grass species tested. However, there were significant differences in the flammability among these grass species. As expected, wiregrass ( A. beyrichiana ) exhibited strong flammability metrics, including high flame temperature (616 o C), maximum flame height (44 cm), and flaming duration (105 s). These results provide further evidence that wiregrass may serve as a keystone species in pine savanna ecosystems due to its ability to carry and sustain fire, which is crucial for maintaining these fire-adapted communities (Fill et al. 2016 ; Noss 2018 ; Jose, Jokela, and Miller 2006). However, several other grass species demonstrated comparable flammability metrics to wiregrass. For instance, E. spectabilis (lovegrass) and A. ternarius (split-beard bluestem) showed significant, albeit flashier, flammability metrics, featuring high rates of mass loss (0.68, 0.60 g/s), lower flame duration (67, 72 s), and considerable maximum flame heights (48, 43 cm). Lovegrass is noteworthy because it is referred to as a ruderal or early successional species following soil disturbance in pine savanna communities (Mortellaro 2012 ; Freeman and Trotta 2024 ; Mizell and Seamon 2004; Freeman et al. 2017 ). This points to evidence that lovegrass and similar ruderal grasses may inherently help increase flammability of the community during recovery or restoration following soil disturbance events. Moreover, these findings also indicate that a broader array of native grass species could be considered in active restoration efforts to enhance flammability and fire resilience, potentially reducing the reliance on wiregrass alone. The observed differences in flammability among the grass species studied suggest that these species may fulfill different ecological roles within pine savanna communities. Species featuring long flame such as wiregrass, or smoldering duration lopsided Indiangrass, or pinewoods dropseed may contribute to helping control woody competition in the community matrix due to increased heat residency. However, in contrast, flashier fuels like split-beard, and lovegrass, may also play a unique role in helping fire spread through the community matrix more quickly due to increased flame heights, a flammability metric which is strongly influenced by wind dynamics (Adam Martin and Hamman 2016 ). On the other hand, lower flame duration, while only one component of flammability, may also contribute to community composition by modulating fire intensity, providing a mosaic of fire effects that support diversity in natural communities. These insights have important implications for future research and restoration practices. Incorporating a variety of flammable species in restoration projects could enhance the ecological resilience of pine savannas by promoting diverse fire patterns and supporting a wider range of species. Additionally, understanding the flammability traits of different species can aid in designing more effective fire management strategies that align with conservation goals. This study also provides a foundation for further research into the flammability and ecological roles of grass species in pine savannas. Future studies could expand on this work by investigating the flammability of additional species, including those less common in current management and restoration practices. Long-term field studies could also assess how these species contribute to fire dynamics and ecosystem processes over time. Additionally, research into the genetic and physiological mechanisms underlying flammability traits could provide deeper insights into how these traits evolve and how they can be leveraged by practitioners in restoration and conservation efforts. Conclusion The findings of this study underscore the importance of species-specific flammability traits in shaping fire behavior and ecosystem dynamics within pine savanna communities. While wiregrass remains a critical species for promoting fire in these ecosystems, other grass species exhibit comparable flammability traits, suggesting that they too could be valuable in restoration and management efforts. Our results also suggest potential facilitative ecological roles of ruderal species like lovegrass and broomsedge in the recovery of pine savannas following soil disturbances. By broadening the focus to include a variety of flammable species, restoration practitioners can enhance the resilience and biodiversity of these fire-adapted ecosystems, ensuring their health and sustainability for future generations. Declarations Funding Not applicable. Author Contributions: GL, MS, DM, CH, AS, and MA conceived and designed the study; GL and MS collected the field data, GL & MS analyzed the data, GL wrote the manuscript; all authors interpreted results, revised the text, and approved the submission of the manuscript for publication. GL supervised all phases and served as PI of this project. Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge and thank land management at Austin Cary Forest that permitted the collection of plant materials for this project. We would also like to thank staff at the School of Forests, Fisheries, and Geomatic Sciences for their help with maintaining space to conduct this project. Data Availability The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available in the GitHub repository ( https://github.com/Gagemo/Grass-Flammability/tree/main ). References Martin, Adam, R., and Sarah T. Hamman. 2016. Ignition Patterns Influence Fire Severity and Plant Communities in Pacific Northwest, USA, Prairies. Fire Ecology 12(1): 88–102. https://doi.org/10.4996/fireecology.1201088 Aschenbach, Todd A., L. Bryan, Foster, and Donald W. Imm. 2010. The Initial Phase of a Longleaf Pine-Wiregrass Savanna Restoration: Species Establishment and Community Responses. Restoration Ecology 18(5): 762–771. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2009.00541.x Bissett, Nancy J. 2006. ‘Restoration of Dry Prairie by Direct Seeding: Methods and Examples’. Proceedings of the Florida Dry Prairie Conference , 231–37. Bond, W. J., F. I. Woodward, and G. F. Midgley. 2005. The Global Distribution of Ecosystems in a World without Fire. 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Geophysical Research Abstracts 12: 6653–6653. Simpson, Kimberley J., Sally Archibald, and Colin P. Osborne. 2022. Savanna Fire Regimes Depend on Grass Trait Diversity. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 37(9): 749–758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2022.04.010 Simpson, Kimberley J., S. Brad, Pascal-Antoine Ripley, Claire M. Christin, Caroline E. R. Belcher, Gavin H. Lehmann, and Thomas. 2016. and Colin P. Osborne. ‘Determinants of Flammability in Savanna Grass Species’. Journal of Ecology 104 (1): 138–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.12503 Taylor, Walter Kingsley. 2009. A Guide to Florida Grasses . University Press of Florida. Trusty, Jennifer L, and K Ober Holly. 2011. Determinants of Successful Groundcover Restoration in Forests of the Southeastern United States. Journal for Nature Conservation 19(1): 34–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2010.05.001 Vaughan, Elizabeth. 2001. ‘The Apalachicola Bluffs and Ravines Preserve in Northern Florida: A Longleaf Pine and Wiregrass Restoration Project’, no. 30, 1–10. Wickham, Hadley, Mara Averick, Jennifer Bryan, Winston Chang, Lucy McGowan, Romain François, and Garrett Grolemund et al. 2019. Welcome to the Tidyverse. Journal of Open Source Software 4(43): 1686. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.01686 Williams, Mary J., Janet Grabowski, and Brandee Williams. 2013. Developing Sources of Native Grass Seed for Revegetation in Florida. Rangelands 35(5): 93–97. https://doi.org/10.2111/RANGELANDS-D-13-00024.1 Tables Table 1. The measured flammability characteristics that include flame duration, smoldering duration, max flame height, mass loss, rate of mass loss, and temperature at fuel bed height, as well as temperature at 10 cm above fuel bed are shown across nine native grass species. Flame duration (s) Species emmean se df conf.low conf.high Andropogon glomeratus 83.47 7.64 80 68.25 98.69 Andropogon ternarius 72.47 7.84 80 56.85 88.10 Andropogon virginicus 95.13 6.93 80 81.33 108.92 Aristida beyrichiana 105.10 6.81 80 91.54 118.65 Eragrostis spectabilis 67.07 7.23 80 52.68 81.46 Eustachys petraea 72.81 6.88 80 59.11 86.51 Schizachyrium stoloniferum 70.16 6.90 80 56.42 83.89 Sorghastrum secundum 97.24 7.41 80 82.48 112.00 Sprobulus juncus 93.82 6.75 80 80.38 107.25 Smolder duration (s) Species emmean se df conf.low conf.high Andropogon glomeratus 67.75 10.21 80 47.42 88.07 Andropogon ternarius 68.57 10.48 80 47.70 89.44 Andropogon virginicus 63.86 9.25 80 45.44 82.28 Aristida beyrichiana 78.93 9.09 80 60.83 97.04 Eragrostis spectabilis 79.10 9.65 80 59.88 98.33 Eustachys petraea 92.99 9.19 80 74.69 111.28 Schizachyrium stoloniferum 84.45 9.21 80 66.10 102.79 Sorghastrum secundum 86.00 9.90 80 66.29 105.72 Sprobulus juncus 114.21 9.01 80 96.26 132.15 Max flame height (cm) Species emmean se df conf.low conf.high Andropogon glomeratus 38.83 1.86 80 35.12 42.54 Andropogon ternarius 43.63 1.91 80 39.82 47.44 Andropogon virginicus 37.19 1.69 80 33.83 40.55 Aristida beyrichiana 44.31 1.66 80 41.00 47.61 Eragrostis spectabilis 48.65 1.76 80 45.14 52.16 Eustachys petraea 43.34 1.68 80 40.00 46.68 Schizachyrium stoloniferum 38.23 1.68 80 34.88 41.57 Sorghastrum secundum 32.15 1.81 80 28.55 35.75 Sprobulus juncus 40.96 1.65 80 37.68 44.23 Mass loss % Species emmean se df conf.low conf.high Andropogon glomeratus 86.88 1.59 80 83.71 90.05 Andropogon ternarius 90.06 1.63 80 86.82 93.31 Andropogon virginicus 91.17 1.44 80 88.30 94.04 Aristida beyrichiana 88.42 1.41 80 85.60 91.24 Eragrostis spectabilis 92.86 1.50 80 89.86 95.85 Eustachys petraea 89.24 1.43 80 86.39 92.09 Schizachyrium stoloniferum 91.73 1.43 80 88.88 94.59 Sorghastrum secundum 84.78 1.54 80 81.71 87.85 Sprobulus juncus 74.42 1.40 80 71.63 77.22 Mass loss rate (g/s) Species emmean se df conf.low conf.high Andropogon glomeratus 0.59 0.04 80 0.50 0.68 Andropogon ternarius 0.66 0.04 80 0.57 0.76 Andropogon virginicus 0.60 0.04 80 0.51 0.68 Aristida beyrichiana 0.49 0.04 80 0.41 0.57 Eragrostis spectabilis 0.68 0.04 80 0.59 0.76 Eustachys petraea 0.54 0.04 80 0.46 0.63 Schizachyrium stoloniferum 0.60 0.04 80 0.52 0.69 Sorghastrum secundum 0.47 0.04 80 0.38 0.56 Sprobulus juncus 0.37 0.04 80 0.29 0.45 Temperature (C o ) at fuel bed Species emmean se df conf.low conf.high Andropogon glomeratus 603.83 54.24 79 495.85 711.81 Andropogon ternarius 527.23 47.86 79 431.96 622.50 Andropogon virginicus 587.72 52.86 79 482.50 692.94 Aristida beyrichiana 616.71 47.04 79 523.08 710.35 Eragrostis spectabilis 597.87 50.44 79 497.47 698.27 Eustachys petraea 507.42 51.26 79 405.38 609.45 Schizachyrium stoloniferum 614.43 49.94 79 515.02 713.84 Sorghastrum secundum 519.84 47.53 79 425.22 614.45 Sprobulus juncus 611.46 46.61 79 518.68 704.24 Temperature (C o ) at 10 cm Species emmean se df conf.low conf.high Andropogon glomeratus 345.05 69.72 79 206.27 483.84 Andropogon ternarius 312.47 61.51 79 190.02 434.92 Andropogon virginicus 283.37 67.94 79 148.12 418.61 Aristida beyrichiana 271.34 60.46 79 150.99 391.69 Eragrostis spectabilis 376.15 64.83 79 247.11 505.20 Eustachys petraea 349.84 65.88 79 218.69 480.99 Schizachyrium stoloniferum 375.73 64.19 79 247.96 503.51 Sorghastrum secundum 326.17 61.09 79 204.56 447.78 Sprobulus juncus 330.05 59.91 79 210.80 449.30 Supplementary Files SupplementaryMaterialsLaPierre.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5212466","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":371815906,"identity":"ac5f8904-6565-4f2c-8b1d-d85c4b409719","order_by":0,"name":"Gage Daniel J LaPierre","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAsUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYPACGwb2diDFQ4KWNAaewyRqOUyCFnn34xcf3ag4n9jDzMD44G0bEVoMz+QUG+ecuQ3Swmw4lygtDTlp0rlttxP3MzOwSfMSpaX/Tfrv3LZzIFvYfxOlRV4i/RhzbtsBkBY2ZqK0GEi8YZbOOZNs3MPM2Cw55xwxtvSnP/ycU2En28PefPDDmzJibDnAYwBlMjYQoR5kSwP7A+JUjoJRMApGwcgFAKLlNNnHEvSQAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1206-9676","institution":"University of Florida School of Forest Fisheries and Geomatics Sciences","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gage","middleName":"Daniel J","lastName":"LaPierre","suffix":""},{"id":371815907,"identity":"ba1da24e-ef74-40d9-8f79-b0a43e74a50e","order_by":1,"name":"Mary A. Schneider","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Florida School of Forest Fisheries and Geomatics Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mary","middleName":"A.","lastName":"Schneider","suffix":""},{"id":371815908,"identity":"e18dca8e-2bcf-4ea4-98c3-b8d30bcb8208","order_by":2,"name":"Deborah L. Miller","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Florida School of Forest Fisheries and Geomatics Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Deborah","middleName":"L.","lastName":"Miller","suffix":""},{"id":371815910,"identity":"56fc2d99-22bc-413c-a94f-630132ae18f1","order_by":3,"name":"Craig Hedman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Florida School of Forest Fisheries and Geomatics Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Craig","middleName":"","lastName":"Hedman","suffix":""},{"id":371815911,"identity":"165efe05-cdb2-4b09-9789-adfa57b4f471","order_by":4,"name":"Ajay Sharma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Florida School of Forest Fisheries and Geomatics Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ajay","middleName":"","lastName":"Sharma","suffix":""},{"id":371815913,"identity":"033aa136-f0b7-49e2-8da7-8ed7c5d77173","order_by":5,"name":"Michael Andreu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Florida School of Forest Fisheries and Geomatics Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Michael","middleName":"","lastName":"Andreu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-10-06 10:47:02","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5212466/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5212466/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":68753616,"identity":"b312b59e-4fad-4bc8-90c9-f835fccbcd5e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-11 16:33:08","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":132893,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNine native Florida species commonly found within pine savanna communities pictured from left to right and down: a) \u003cem\u003eAndropogon glomeratus \u003c/em\u003e(bushy bluestem)\u003cem\u003e, \u003c/em\u003eb) \u003cem\u003eAndropogon ternarius \u003c/em\u003e(split-beard bluestem)\u003cem\u003e,\u003c/em\u003e c)\u003cem\u003e Andropogon virginicus \u003c/em\u003e(broomsedge)\u003cem\u003e, \u003c/em\u003ed)\u003cem\u003e Aristida beyrichiana \u003c/em\u003e(wiregrass)\u003cem\u003e, \u003c/em\u003ee)\u003cem\u003e Eragrostis spectabilis \u003c/em\u003e(purple lovegrass)\u003cem\u003e, \u003c/em\u003ef)\u003cem\u003e Eustachys petraea \u003c/em\u003e(pinewoods fingergrass)\u003cem\u003e, \u003c/em\u003eg)\u003cem\u003e Schizachyrium stoloniferum \u003c/em\u003e(creeping bluestem)\u003cem\u003e, \u003c/em\u003ei)\u003cem\u003e Sorghastrum secundum\u003c/em\u003e (lopsided Indiangrass)\u003cem\u003e, \u003c/em\u003eand j)\u003cem\u003eSporobolus junceus\u003c/em\u003e (pinewoods dropseed). All photos are in the public domain under the CC0 1.0 Universal license.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5212466/v1/93e618100daed55d0f38b56b.jpg"},{"id":68754595,"identity":"16944170-a835-465a-97f3-fd20d2b21a56","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-11 16:41:08","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":77737,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBurning trial of grass fuels in a combustion chamber within an enclosed metal fume hood, with dried grass material set on a 20 cm x 20 cm aluminum sheet. Photo credit: Gage LaPierre\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5212466/v1/f8958c00259f5f7e868c4ff1.jpg"},{"id":68753230,"identity":"3547d816-23fd-44ce-86bd-fa3eb0fa5571","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-11 16:25:09","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":165934,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBox plots showing measurements across nine grass species of A) fuel bed height (cm), B) max flame height (cm), C) flame duration (s), D) smolder duration (s), E) mass loss (g), F) mass loss rate (g/s), as well as G) temperature (\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC) at the top height of the fuel bed, and H) temperature (\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC) at 10cm above the fuel bed. Solid black line is the median and the whiskers below and above the box show the location of the minimum and maximum, respectively. Significant differences between fire treatments are indicated with compact letters via ANOVA for fuel bed heights and ANCOVA for the rest.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5212466/v1/22b3565fd2457cbdf75e4aaf.jpg"},{"id":68753228,"identity":"61ae5a29-0853-48e6-ae07-7d6fe3e48754","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-11 16:25:08","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":131335,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePrincipal components analysis of flammability attributes (max flame height, mass loss, mass loss rate, smolder time, flame duration) for ten samples of the selected nine grass species. Flammability attributes are shown by black arrows, and species samples by color points.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5212466/v1/b20262b7f4a717d1363edf66.jpg"},{"id":71149498,"identity":"c0d3074f-81f6-453c-9c56-b1765bc2cc15","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-12-11 14:40:50","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1180642,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5212466/v1/31b8a3fc-79e5-4cc6-b9b5-6fe7a24c1a62.pdf"},{"id":68753231,"identity":"0e3cb50a-f794-4c02-9a9a-84bf51c2f7b8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-11 16:25:09","extension":"docx","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":36281,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryMaterialsLaPierre.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5212466/v1/88c660f0a2076fbc1118997b.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Evaluating the Flammability of Select Native Grasses in the Southeastern Coastal Plain","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eFire is a foundational natural process that has affected and continues to shape plant communities (W. J. Bond, Woodward, and Midgley \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Keeley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Scott et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Glasspool, Edwards, and Axe \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). In response, plants have evolved a suite of adaptations to survive and even thrive in fire-prone environments (Ripley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Simpson, Archibald, and Osborne \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; W. Bond and Keely 2005). Grasses, in particular, exhibit remarkable pyrogenic traits such as rapid regrowth from underground buds following fire and the ability to produce abundant, easily ignitable biomass(Linder et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Pausas and Paula 2020; Simpson, Archibald, and Osborne \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Certain grass species can also actively influence fire regimes in fire-prone ecosystems by increasing fuel loads and thereby potentially raising the probability of ignition (Linder et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Pausas and Paula 2020). These adaptations can create conditions more favorable for their survival and reproduction, such as maintaining open canopies for enhanced sunlight access or increasing opportunities for seed dispersal and establishment (Simpson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; W. Bond and Keely 2005). As a result, grasses are the primary fuel source for most wildland fires (Simpson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Linder et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, these resilient plants dominate over a third of Earth's vegetative cover, providing essential habitat and sustenance for countless wildlife species (Linder et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Taylor \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Southeastern Coastal Plain of the U.S.A. hosts a variety of fire-prone plant communities (e.g., upland pine, mesic flatwoods, wet flatwoods, sandhill) known collectively as pine savannas or the longleaf pine savannas (Noss et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Peet, Platt, and Costanza 2018; Jose, Jokela, and Miller 2006). These communities, known for impressively high biodiversity, are currently a major focus of restoration efforts by various regional organizations and agencies (Jose, Jokela, and Miller 2006; Kevin McIntyre et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). It is thought that the fire adaptations in pine savanna species evolved in response to frequent seasonal lightning ignitions (Noss \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Myers and Ewel 1990). Notably, pine savannas feature a high abundance of graminoid species that are crucial in providing fuel loads that help maintain frequent fires (Florida Natural Areas Inventory \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Noss \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Myers and Ewel 1990; Robbins and Myers 1992).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the groundcover of pine savanna communities is composed of a diversity of grass species, wiregrass (\u003cem\u003eAristida beyrichiana\u003c/em\u003e \u0026amp; \u003cem\u003eA. stricta\u003c/em\u003e) is typically the dominant grass species across many sites in the Southeast (Fill et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Keyes and Keyes \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Mulligan, Kirkman, and Mitchell \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Wiregrass is considered a keystone species among different pine savanna communities because of its ability to produce abundant fine, flammable fuels that promote frequent, low-intensity fires crucial to maintaining high biodiversity in these communities (Fill et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Noss \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, wiregrass has become a focal species in efforts to manage and restore these communities (Aschenbach, Foster, and Imm 2010; Trusty and Ober 2011; Jose, Jokela, and Miller 2006).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the use of wiregrass in restoration efforts is hindered by numerous challenges. Wiregrass, for instance, features low seed viability (Outcalt \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; P\u0026eacute;rez \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), which necessitates the need for large quantities of seed for successful establishment on restoration sites (Bissett \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Mulligan, Kirkman, and Mitchell \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Trusty and Ober 2011). Given that wiregrass is not cultivated for seed production, it must be collected from wild populations, often requiring sites with high wiregrass abundance and genetic integrity (Williams, Grabowski, and Williams \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Bissett \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Garrett Anderson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, successful seed production on said sites takes frequent, timely burns, limiting the availability of suitable donor sites (Outcalt \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Mulligan and Kirkman 2002; Vaughan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Noss \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, wiregrass seed commands exorbitant prices, ranging from \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1200-\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e2200 per pound (FL Wildflower Foundation, Roundstone Seed Supply) or \u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e1000 per acre for in-house collection and sowing (Trusty and Ober 2011), which restricts the ability to perform large-scale restoration efforts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the challenges mentioned above, large expenditures have been made to produce and reintroduce wiregrass on restoration sites (Trusty and Ober 2011; Aschenbach, Foster, and Imm 2010; Vaughan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Oftentimes, the chief justification for the dominant focus on wiregrass in restoration efforts is its perceived ecological value in aiding the spread of fire across sites. However, little work has been done to examine how the flammability of other grass species in the region compares to wiregrass in aiding the spread of fire (Fill et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, our understanding of the ecological role and potential use of other native species in restoration is limited.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, we examined the flammability of nine common southeastern species. We hypothesized that flammability metrics would differ across species, with wiregrass featuring higher metrics due to its dominance in these fire-prone landscapes. We used a multi-dimensional definition of flammability comprised of four key components: ignitability (rapid ignition and spread), combustibility (intense burning with high flame temperature), sustainability (prolonged combustion), and consumability (complete fuel consumption) (Schwilk \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008; Fill et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Simpson et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). By collecting data on these components of flammability, our aim was to determine differences among nine common pine savanna grass species. Doing so helps clarify the value of utilizing these species in restoration efforts. Additionally, we sought to elucidate potentially different ecological roles of the grass species tested based on differences in flammability, in turn increasing our understanding of the fire ecology of the region and potentially more broadly as well.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eExperimental Design \u0026amp; Sample Collections\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNine common Florida native grass species selected for this study included \u003cem\u003eAndropogon glomeratus\u003c/em\u003e (bushy bluestem), \u003cem\u003eAndropogon ternarius\u003c/em\u003e (split-beard bluestem), \u003cem\u003eAndropogon virginicus\u003c/em\u003e (broomsedge), \u003cem\u003eAristida beyrichiana\u003c/em\u003e (wiregrass), \u003cem\u003eEragrostis spectabilis\u003c/em\u003e (purple lovegrass), \u003cem\u003eEustachys petraea\u003c/em\u003e (pinewoods fingergrass), \u003cem\u003eSchizachyrium stoloniferum\u003c/em\u003e (creeping bluestem), \u003cem\u003eSorghastrum secundum\u003c/em\u003e (lopsided indiangrass), and \u003cem\u003eSporobolus junceus\u003c/em\u003e (pinewoods dropseed) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;1). Each species is found throughout Florida within several types of pine savanna communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe collected twelve biomass samples for each of the nine species from a mesic-flatwoods to upland pine matrix at Austin Cary Forest (29.730212, -82.220757). The site was burned during the summer before all samples were collected in the following December, when each species is dormant. Each sample was collected by cutting the entire aboveground biomass of an individual plant. Once collected, biomass was dried in an oven for 72 h at 75\u0026deg;C (Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008). Post-drying, a 10.0 g subsample was taken from each field sample. Subsamples were obtained by splitting clumps and including the bottom and top portions of each individual plant into each sub-sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFlammability Measurements\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll biomass samples were ignited under controlled laboratory conditions and followed the methods adapted from Kane, Varner, and Hiers (2008) and Prior et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). Each sample was placed on top of four xylene-soaked cotton strings forming a 20 cm x 20 cm grid (Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008). This grid was placed on top of an aluminum sheet located within a fume hood (Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008). The airflow of the fume hood was measured at three heights (0 cm, 10 cm, 50 cm) to ensure there was no draw that would influence fire behavior. To avoid affecting the natural bulk density of each species, biomass samples were placed onto the aluminum sheet without being compressed (Prior et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Biomass pieces longer than 20 cm were cut to length to ensure samples fit onto the grid. A lighter was used to ignite one side of the xylene-soaked strings. A video camera was used to record combustion of each sample and capture accurate measurements of flame duration, smolder duration, and rate of mass loss (Prior et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Flame and smoldering times were measured with a video timer; smoldering is defined from the end of flaming combustion to the end of the last glowing ember (Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008). A vertical ruler mounted behind the aluminum plate was used to measure the maximum flame height via a trained observer (Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008; Prior et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Mass loss percentage was determined by subtracting the weight (g) of any unburned strings and then dividing this number by the initial weight (Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008; Prior et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The mean mass loss rate (g s-1) was determined by dividing the weight (g) consumed by the total burn time (flame time\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;smoldering time)(Kane, Varner, and Hiers 2008). Maximum temperature was measured using thermocouples (K-Type), one placed at the top of the fuel bed sample and another 10 cm above the fuel bed starting at its base, with measurements recorded every one second (Prior et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStatistical Methods\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTen samples were taken for each of the nine species selected resulting in a total of 90 flammability trials (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;10). Comparison of means of flammability metrics was performed by using an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) and pairwise post hoc multiple comparisons (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) with a Bonferroni adjustment factor to determine significant differences between individual species using the \u0026lsquo;eemeans\u0026rsquo; function within the \u0026lsquo;EMMEANS\u0026rsquo; package in R Studio. Fuel bed height was used as covariate in the analysis as it varied significantly by grass species. Estimated marginal means and standard errors were calculated for maximum flame height, flaming time, smoldering time, percent mass loss, and mass loss rate using eemeans. Principle component analyses (PCA) was used to visualize patterns of flammability between species using the \u0026ldquo;pca\u0026rdquo; function in the R package \u0026ldquo;vegan\u0026rdquo;(Oksanen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). PCA scores were generated using standardized (mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0 and SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1) values for each of the flammability metrics. Pearson correlation coefficients and significance values were generated to determine correlation among flammability metrics; this was done using the \u0026ldquo;cor_mat\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;cor_pmat\u0026rdquo; functions in the R package \u0026ldquo;rstatix.\u0026rdquo; Graphs and analyses were produced in R Studio Version 3.6.1. using the packages tidyverse(Wickham et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and vegan (Oksanen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). All data and code used to analyze and produce figures are accessible in Github (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://github.com/Gagemo/Grass-Flammability\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://github.com/Gagemo/Grass-Flammability\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003ePrior to burning, fuel bed height differed by species (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.52, d.f. = 8, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001) and ranged between 5.78 cm (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.79 cm) for \u003cem\u003eA. glomeratus\u003c/em\u003e and 12.71 cm (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.94 cm) for \u003cem\u003eA. ternarius\u003c/em\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;3; Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e). Fuel bed height was also determined based on Pearson correlation coefficient to be significantly related to both maximum flame height (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.64, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001) and flame duration (r = -0.45, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001) (Table S2). Fuel bed depth was used as a covariate in the ANCOVA of burning characteristics. Among the nine grass species burned, mean maximum flame height differed (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.59, d.f.= 8, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001), with \u003cem\u003eE. spectabilis\u003c/em\u003e having the highest at 48.65 cm and \u003cem\u003eS. secundum\u003c/em\u003e having the shortest at 32.15 cm (Table\u0026nbsp;1; Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). Flaming duration differed (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.59, d.f.= 8, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001), ranging from 105.10 to 67.07 s, where \u003cem\u003eA. beyrichiana\u003c/em\u003e had the longest duration, and \u003cem\u003eS. stoloniferum\u003c/em\u003e had the shortest (Table\u0026nbsp;1; Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). Duration of smoldering time was also significantly different by species (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.86, d.f. = 8, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.008), where \u003cem\u003eA. glomeratus, A. ternarius\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eA. virginicus\u003c/em\u003e was significantly shorter than \u003cem\u003eS. juncus\u003c/em\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;1; Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). The average rate of mass loss was also significantly different (F\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.15, d.f. = 8, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001) (Table\u0026nbsp;1; Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). The highest rate of mass loss was \u003cem\u003eE. spectabilis\u003c/em\u003e at 92.86% (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.50%), while the lowest value was for \u003cem\u003eS. juncus\u003c/em\u003e at 74.43% (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.40%) (Table\u0026nbsp;1; Fig.\u0026nbsp;3). There was no statistically significant difference in maximum temperature observed at the fuel bed height or 10 cm above the fuel bed (Table\u0026nbsp;1; Fig.\u0026nbsp;3).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe first two principal components of the PCA across the nine species explained 76.60% of the variation in the flammability (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4). Flammable species had large negative values for axis 1 (PCF1), while less flammable species had large positive values (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4). Mass loss rate and flame duration were each closely related to (PCF1, explaining 49.5% of the variation in the data set (Table S3; Figure \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e). Smoldering duration, and to a lesser extent flaming duration, drove axis 2 (PCF2), accounting for an additional 27.1% of the variation in flammability (Table S3; Figure \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eResults of this study demonstrate relatively high flammability metrics among all nine grass species tested. However, there were significant differences in the flammability among these grass species. As expected, wiregrass (\u003cem\u003eA. beyrichiana\u003c/em\u003e) exhibited strong flammability metrics, including high flame temperature (616 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC), maximum flame height (44 cm), and flaming duration (105 s). These results provide further evidence that wiregrass may serve as a keystone species in pine savanna ecosystems due to its ability to carry and sustain fire, which is crucial for maintaining these fire-adapted communities (Fill et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Noss \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Jose, Jokela, and Miller 2006).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, several other grass species demonstrated comparable flammability metrics to wiregrass. For instance, \u003cem\u003eE. spectabilis\u003c/em\u003e (lovegrass) and \u003cem\u003eA. ternarius\u003c/em\u003e (split-beard bluestem) showed significant, albeit flashier, flammability metrics, featuring high rates of mass loss (0.68, 0.60 g/s), lower flame duration (67, 72 s), and considerable maximum flame heights (48, 43 cm). Lovegrass is noteworthy because it is referred to as a ruderal or early successional species following soil disturbance in pine savanna communities (Mortellaro \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Freeman and Trotta \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Mizell and Seamon 2004; Freeman et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). This points to evidence that lovegrass and similar ruderal grasses may inherently help increase flammability of the community during recovery or restoration following soil disturbance events. Moreover, these findings also indicate that a broader array of native grass species could be considered in active restoration efforts to enhance flammability and fire resilience, potentially reducing the reliance on wiregrass alone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observed differences in flammability among the grass species studied suggest that these species may fulfill different ecological roles within pine savanna communities. Species featuring long flame such as wiregrass, or smoldering duration lopsided Indiangrass, or pinewoods dropseed may contribute to helping control woody competition in the community matrix due to increased heat residency. However, in contrast, flashier fuels like split-beard, and lovegrass, may also play a unique role in helping fire spread through the community matrix more quickly due to increased flame heights, a flammability metric which is strongly influenced by wind dynamics (Adam Martin and Hamman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, lower flame duration, while only one component of flammability, may also contribute to community composition by modulating fire intensity, providing a mosaic of fire effects that support diversity in natural communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese insights have important implications for future research and restoration practices. Incorporating a variety of flammable species in restoration projects could enhance the ecological resilience of pine savannas by promoting diverse fire patterns and supporting a wider range of species. Additionally, understanding the flammability traits of different species can aid in designing more effective fire management strategies that align with conservation goals. This study also provides a foundation for further research into the flammability and ecological roles of grass species in pine savannas. Future studies could expand on this work by investigating the flammability of additional species, including those less common in current management and restoration practices. Long-term field studies could also assess how these species contribute to fire dynamics and ecosystem processes over time. Additionally, research into the genetic and physiological mechanisms underlying flammability traits could provide deeper insights into how these traits evolve and how they can be leveraged by practitioners in restoration and conservation efforts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study underscore the importance of species-specific flammability traits in shaping fire behavior and ecosystem dynamics within pine savanna communities. While wiregrass remains a critical species for promoting fire in these ecosystems, other grass species exhibit comparable flammability traits, suggesting that they too could be valuable in restoration and management efforts. Our results also suggest potential facilitative ecological roles of ruderal species like lovegrass and broomsedge in the recovery of pine savannas following soil disturbances. By broadening the focus to include a variety of flammable species, restoration practitioners can enhance the resilience and biodiversity of these fire-adapted ecosystems, ensuring their health and sustainability for future generations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGL, MS, DM, CH, AS, and MA conceived and designed the study; GL and MS collected the field data, GL \u0026amp; MS analyzed the data, GL wrote the manuscript; all authors interpreted results, revised the text, and approved the submission of the manuscript for publication. GL supervised all phases and served as PI of this project.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe would like to acknowledge and thank land management at Austin Cary Forest that permitted the collection of plant materials for this project. We would also like to thank staff at the School of Forests, Fisheries, and Geomatic Sciences for their help with maintaining space to conduct this project.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available in the GitHub repository (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://github.com/Gagemo/Grass-Flammability/tree/main\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://github.com/Gagemo/Grass-Flammability/tree/main\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMartin, Adam, R., and Sarah T. Hamman. 2016. 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The measured flammability characteristics that include flame duration, smoldering duration, max flame height, mass loss, rate of mass loss, and temperature at fuel bed height, as well as temperature at 10 cm above fuel bed are shown across nine native grass species.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"600\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFlame duration (s)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eemmean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ese\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.low\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.high\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon glomeratus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon ternarius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon virginicus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e108.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAristida beyrichiana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e105.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e118.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEragrostis spectabilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEustachys petraea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSchizachyrium stoloniferum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSorghastrum secundum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSprobulus juncus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e93.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e107.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSmolder duration (s)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eemmean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ese\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.low\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.high\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon glomeratus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon ternarius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon virginicus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAristida beyrichiana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEragrostis spectabilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEustachys petraea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e111.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSchizachyrium stoloniferum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e102.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSorghastrum secundum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e105.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSprobulus juncus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e132.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMax flame height (cm)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eemmean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ese\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.low\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.high\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon glomeratus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon ternarius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon virginicus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAristida beyrichiana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEragrostis spectabilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEustachys petraea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSchizachyrium stoloniferum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSorghastrum secundum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSprobulus juncus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMass loss %\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eemmean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ese\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.low\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.high\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon glomeratus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon ternarius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e93.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon virginicus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAristida beyrichiana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEragrostis spectabilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEustachys petraea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSchizachyrium stoloniferum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSorghastrum secundum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e87.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSprobulus juncus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMass loss rate (g/s)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eemmean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ese\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.low\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.high\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon glomeratus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon ternarius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon virginicus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAristida beyrichiana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEragrostis spectabilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEustachys petraea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSchizachyrium stoloniferum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSorghastrum secundum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSprobulus juncus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTemperature (C\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e) at fuel bed\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eemmean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ese\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.low\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.high\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon glomeratus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e603.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e495.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e711.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon ternarius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e527.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e431.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e622.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon virginicus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e587.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e482.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e692.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAristida beyrichiana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e616.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e523.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e710.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEragrostis spectabilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e597.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e497.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e698.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEustachys petraea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e507.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e405.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e609.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSchizachyrium stoloniferum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e614.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e515.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e713.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSorghastrum secundum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e519.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e425.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e614.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSprobulus juncus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e611.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e518.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e704.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTemperature (C\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e) at 10 cm\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eemmean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ese\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.low\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econf.high\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon glomeratus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e345.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e206.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e483.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon ternarius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e312.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e190.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e434.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAndropogon virginicus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e283.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e148.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e418.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAristida beyrichiana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e271.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e150.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e391.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEragrostis spectabilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e376.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e247.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e505.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEustachys petraea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e349.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e218.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e480.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSchizachyrium stoloniferum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e375.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e247.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e503.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSorghastrum secundum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e326.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e204.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e447.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 40%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSprobulus juncus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 15%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e330.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 11%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 7%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e210.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e449.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Bunchgrasses, fire ecology, flammability, restoration.","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5212466/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5212466/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe study investigated the flammability of nine common native grass species in the Southeastern Coastal Plain. Fire has historically shaped many of the plant communities in this region. Grasses are a significant component of these communities, serving as the fine fuels that carry fire across the landscape. The dominant grass species, wiregrass (\u003cem\u003eAristida beyrichiana\u003c/em\u003e), is considered a keystone species due to its high flammability, but its reproduction challenges and restoration costs prompt a search for alternative species with similar flammability but lower restoration and production costs. In this study, we experimentally burned nine common native grass species, including wiregrass, in controlled conditions in a custom-built combustion chamber and measured their flammability metrics, including flame duration, smoldering time, max flame height, mass loss, and mass loss rate, for each species. Results indicated significant differences in flammability metrics across nine common species. Wiregrass, as expected, featured high flammability metrics, including longest flame duration at 105.10 s and second highest flame height at 44.31 cm, supporting its keystone status. However, other species like purple lovegrass (\u003cem\u003eEragrostis spectabilis\u003c/em\u003e) and split-beard bluestem (\u003cem\u003eAndropogon ternarius\u003c/em\u003e) were comparable with wiregrass regarding high mass loss rates and high flame heights, suggesting they could potentially, or partially be used in place of wiregrass or preferably in combination with wiregrass in restoration projects and contribute to sustaining fire regimes in fire-dependent communities of the Southeastern Coastal Plains. Our findings suggest that incorporating a variety of flammable species in restoration projects could enhance ecological resiliency, biodiversity, ecosystem functionality, and further highlight the importance of species-specific traits in fire behavior and ecosystem dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evaluating the Flammability of Select Native Grasses in the Southeastern Coastal Plain","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-11-11 16:25:04","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5212466/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"176a9ae9-e7f4-4f24-bf77-07a8f6dfd7da","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 11th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-01-23T03:23:27+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-11-11 16:25:04","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5212466","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5212466","identity":"rs-5212466","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"CiT4i_kKBbxQbnFL0ufpk","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}