Energy for Sustainable Post-Conflict Development

Energy for Sustainable Post-Conflict Development | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Energy for Sustainable Post-Conflict Development Louise Wernersson, Daniel Adshead, Francesco Fuso-Nerini This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9116705/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 7 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background: Energy is vital for peace and post-conflict development, yet war and armed conflict frequently devastate energy infrastructure through targeted and collateral damage. Results: We present a strategic framework for post-conflict energy system deployment designed to foster sustainable development in fragile contexts, across three distinct but overlapping phases: response, recovery, and reconstruction . By assessing how energy can support the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) across these phases, we identify a total of 80 possible synergies and 27 trade-offs between energy and post-conflict development. Understanding the characteristics of each post-conflict phase facilitates successful implementation of energy systems. During the response phase, urgent energy is needed for essential services like emergency health facilities. In the response phase, energy is needed to support vital societal functions such as schools. In the reconstruction phase, energy is needed to reconstruct critical infrastructure. However, challenges like brain drain can prolong recovery. Conclusion: This research provides a foundational mapping of energy-SDG interlinkages in the post-conflict context. Although energy projects have the potential to serve as catalysts for recovery and growth, their success in promoting sustainability is contingent upon an understanding of local contexts. The framework developed is a first step towards a holistic approach to energy planning in the post-conflict context, which can be complemented with new, dynamic, and interactive tools designed to help project managers navigate energy rebuilding in specific local contexts. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Background In 2024, 61 state-based armed conflicts were reported globally 1 , with increasing evidence that energy infrastructure is being systematically targeted for attacks, leaving conflict areas with limited access to energy services 2 , 3 . This can prolong the impacts from the conflict itself since energy is crucial for post-conflict development and can function as an enabler for peace 4 , due to the fact that it can speed up economic recovery as well as supporting basic needs 4 . In addition, damage to energy infrastructure is extremely costly for the countries affected and rebuilding the energy system can be even more expensive than the damage done. In Ukraine, for instance, where energy infrastructure has been systematically targeted in attacks, damages are estimated by some sources to reach ca. US $ 16.1 billion and needs to reconstruct the energy system at ca. US $ 50.5 billions 5 . Figure 1 highlights global conflict incidence by fatalities, along with estimated damages to energy infrastructure in major ongoing conflicts. The transition from conflict to peace and long term growth is a complex process in which the role of energy infrastructure is pivotal 4 . Existing scientific literature demonstrates how energy systems can contribute to this transition, and act as an enabler for other services in the post-conflict context, such as supporting operations in refugee camps and the humanitarian cluster system 10 or maintaining and restoring water systems 11 , 12 . Additionally, previous research emphasizes how energy is an enabler for peace and economic development 4 . However, deploying energy in the post-conflict context requires a different approach than energy planning in a non-conflict setting 13 . This is largely due to specific risks connected to the post-conflict context, such as low financing 14 or uncertain decision-making 13 . The Association of the United States Army (AUSA) and Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) present a framework for post-conflict recovery for different sectors 15 which highlights the need for different approaches for rebuilding energy infrastructure in different phases after a conflict. While this existing literature establishes energy planning as a vital component of peacebuilding, it overlooks two critical dimensions. First, there is a lack of guidance on how energy planning must evolve across the distinct stages of post-conflict development. Existing studies only superficially mention different phases for energy and power 15 , or limit their focus either to energy for relief 10 or long-term systemic planning and transformation 16 . Treating energy planning in post-conflict areas as one single strategy is a siloed approach that fails to adapt to the evolving energy need of the local context. Second, the literature has yet to fully explore how energy infrastructure should support sustainable development in these fragile settings. War and conflict have been shown to dramatically reduce the chances to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 17 and to hinder a green transition 18 , with repercussions for local economic, social, and environmental goals. Although some studies advocate for renewable energy 11 , 19 , or highlight “build-back-better” opportunities for critical infrastructure 20 , there is no in-depth analysis of how energy systems in this context specifically enhance or hinder sustainability. Previous SDG-interlinkages studies do highlight how energy-SDG linkages are context-dependent 21 . However, few have applied this lens to the unique constraints and opportunities of post-conflict development. Here, we introduce a novel framework for implementing energy systems geared toward sustainable post-conflict development. We propose a three-phased approach ( response, recovery , and reconstruction ) to map the evolving characteristics and requirements of the energy sector over time and use it to capture the evolving role of energy in sustainable development throughout the different post-conflict phases. By incorporating a systematic SDG assessment, this framework identifies how energy systems can be strategically leveraged to support long-term peace and sustainability. These insights equip energy planners with the insights necessary to understand the challenges and opportunities that arise during each phase, enabling them to make informed decisions regarding the implementation of sustainable energy solutions. Methods To develop the framework, a four-step method was used. The method is presented in Fig. 2 and is further described in the next section. The SDG assessment was used to identify possible synergies and trade-offs with energy for post-conflict development and to understand how energy can contribute to sustainable development in post-conflict areas. The identification of energy needs and the boundary definition was used to further explain where energy needs to be allocated to contribute to SDG achievement. Defining boundaries and assigning energy needs in different phases served as the main outline for the framework. SDG Assessment In the first step we identified scientific evidence of interlinkages (synergies and trade-offs) between energy for post-conflict development and the SDGs. For this, a scoping literature review inspired by previous SDG assessments 22 , 23 was carried out. The literature review was based on two questions: A) How can energy projects contribute to SDG achievement in post-conflict context and B) How can energy projects hinder SDG achievement in post-conflict context. Both questions were asked to achieve the overall aim to understand the role energy has in the achievement of sustainable post-conflict development. The literature review was an iterative process, and the questions were reframed for each of the 169 targets. For example, “How can energy contribute to the eradication of poverty in post-conflict areas” (SDG 1.1). Both peer-reviewed scientific articles and grey literature were used due to the social and environmental impacts of energy projects having been widely documented in organizations such as the United Nations (UN) and the Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs). Only literature with a focus on energy in post-conflict areas or sustainability in post-conflict areas was deemed to be sufficient to study interlinkages. Moreover, a single record of published evidence was deemed sufficient evidence for an established interlinkage. Literature that did not specifically describe the effect on SDGs was included as well since very few papers study SDG interactions with energy and post-conflict development. By analyzing the identified literature, energy in post-conflict areas was deemed to have either a synergy, trade-off, or no published evidence with each of the 169 targets. The identified interlinkages are presented in the results section prior to the framework and full descriptions of the reasoning behind the interlinkages can be found in Supplementary Material 1. Identification of Energy Needs Secondly, an extension of the SDG-assessment was conducted to harmonize the identified synergies with the energy demands in post-conflict areas. Compiling the same literature that describes an interlinkage for a specific target we could conduct a comprehensive classification of post-conflict energy services. This was done by studying the potential synergies, and the related literature, and systematically mapping different energy needs in post-conflict context that was needed to achieve the particular SDG target. This was crucial so that the framework would highlight where energy should be allocated in order to achieve sustainability. Boundary definition In the third step, we established the system boundaries for the proposed framework. Recognizing that energy planning requirements evolve dynamically after a conflict, this moves beyond a static approach. Because the operational environment and local needs shift over time, the framework is segmented into three distinct temporal phases: response , recovery and reconstruction. These phases were adapted from the Post-Conflict Reconstruction Task Framework 15 to ensure that the proposed energy strategies align with the shifting priorities. The specific definitions and temporal boundaries of these phases are detailed in Fig. 3 . We have tailored the phase definitions to focus specifically on the functional role of energy infrastructure in supporting post-conflict development. Under this lens, the response phase prioritizes immediate energy needs for relief efforts, often mirroring energy needs during the conflict itself. The recovery phase begins after the ending of open warfare when immediate physical danger has subsided, allowing for the restoration of essential services. Finally, the reconstruction phase involves the comprehensive rebuilding of societal functions, infrastructure, and industrial capacity. Because the pace of development in these phases is severely influenced by the intensity of the conflict, the economic and political structure of the country, and pre-war conditions 24 , the framework avoids rigid timelines. Instead, it adopts a context-driven progression that remains applicable from the end of main hostilities and until the affected area has achieved pre-war development levels. Assigning Energy Needs to Post-Conflict Phases In the final step, the energy needs identified in the second step were mapped to the three post-conflict phases. The framework accounts for needs that persist across multiple phases and were therefore not necessarily assigned to only one phase. This step was done to understand where energy allocation is strategically prioritized to maximize sustainability throughout the transition. Characteristics such as key technologies, governance, and risks were then mapped to each corresponding phase. The mapping process involved synthesizing evidence from various literature including sectoral guidelines and energy planning documents to understand the current conditions that shape the implementation of energy systems in post-conflict context. These energy needs and the characteristics of each phase form the conceptual foundation of the final framework. Results Energy-SDG interlinkages in Post-Conflict Settings We conducted a full assessment of the interlinkages between energy systems and the achievement of all SDG targets in the post-conflict development context. The interlinkages were deemed to be either synergies (positive interlinkages) or trade-offs (negative interlinkages). The results from the assessment (Fig. 4 ) identified 80 possible synergies and 27 potential trade-offs associated with post-conflict energy interventions. For 79 targets no published evidence was found, indicating a potential gap in our understanding of energy’s role in post-conflict development that has not been captured in more general SDG-energy interlinkage studies 22 . A full justification of synergies and tradeoffs from the SDG-assessment, including referenced literature, is contained in Supplementary Materials 1. Figure 5 compares the interlinkages between energy and SDG targets in post-conflict and non-conflict settings. The impact of energy in post-conflict settings is characterized by multidimensional synergies. For example, energy for water purification contributes not only to water-related targets, but also mitigates acute public health crises that often arise in the aftermath of conflict 25 , 26 . An example of cascading interlinkages is evident in Iraq, where ISIS disrupted the power supply to water facilities, resulting in limited access to water and forcing citizens to move, thus influencing targets for safe migration via tradeoffs with the water sector 26 . For some targets, only synergies were identified for post-conflict situations, while both synergies and trade-offs were evident in non-conflict scenarios. An example of this can be seen in the relationship between energy and the goal of zero hunger (SDG 2). In the post-conflict context, the necessity of fuel and electricity for cooking helps achieving food security and nutrition targets and, in later stages, energy can help to reconstruct the agriculture sector. In a non-conflict context, the emphasis is on how food systems can be coupled with energy systems, such as through biogas production. Many of the trade-offs for this goal stem from the competition for land between energy- and food production. However, urgent post-conflict situations typically involve food being imported rather than produced locally, resulting in fewer trade-offs. Additionally, there is limited existing literature on the topic of how energy affects food systems in a post-conflict context. Alongside the synergies, several trade-offs associated with urgent energy provision were also identified. Key trade-offs arise from the common reliance on diesel generators for humanitarian aid, which directly undermines climate action (SDG 13) 27 . Another consequence of prioritizing speed is the lack of public participation. While many studies emphasize that public participation is vital for successful energy project implementation in post-conflict areas 28 – 30 , participation and involvement of local citizens is not always the priority when restoring electricity needs to happen rapidly 31 , 32 . This urgency also compromises systemic resilience: by defaulting to fossil fuel-dependent systems, post-conflict areas such as refugee camps remain vulnerable to supply chain disruptions 4 . Compared to non-conflict settings, the biosphere targets (SDG 6, 13, 14 and 15), show significantly fewer documented interlinkages. This does not imply a lack of environmental impact, since conflict is a well-known driver of environmental degradation 33 . Rather, it reflects a literature bias toward immediate social and humanitarian needs (e.g. SDG 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 11 and 16). The specific role of energy in ecosystem rehabilitation remains under-documented, as the focus is largely on societal value and humanitarian issues rather than how effective resource management can contribute to environmental peacebuilding 34 , 35 . Energy Framework for Sustainable Post-Conflict Development The SDG assessment reveals that energy can facilitate the achievement of 80 targets across all goals in post-conflict environments. Realizing these synergies, however, requires meeting specific energy demands tailored to the unique constraints of each goal. Using the literature compiled for the SDG assessment we classify the key energy needs in the post-conflict context and map them to each of the SDGs (Fig. 6 ). To operationalize these findings, we have developed a framework that maps energy demands to the distinct phases of post-conflict settings. As illustrated in Fig. 7 , the framework identifies the unique energy characteristics inherent to each post-conflict phase. During the response phase, energy is prioritized for the emergency provision of food, water and health. As the context shifts to recovery, demand expands to include broader essential services, such as energy for schools and the removal of debris and rubble from destroyed infrastructure. Finally, the reconstruction phase is characterized by the large-scale rebuilding of destroyed and damaged infrastructure assets. The phased approach is designed to help decision-makers align energy system implementation with the specific operational realities and humanitarian needs of the local context. Energy to cover basic needs - Response The response phase is characterized by urgency and fragility, and energy serves as an enabler for immediate survival and critical services. This includes powering emergency health centers, water purification systems and temporary shelters 10 , 25 , 36 . Energy is also needed to provide households with lighting and electricity to charge phones. Beyond basic utilities, energy is vital for Information and Communications Technology (ICT) which serves as a lifeline for displaced populations to access relevant information regarding health centers and aid distribution 37 . Even though the energy demand in this phase is relatively low, the provision of energy is critical for life saving operations. The emphasis is on urgent provision and reliability rather than sustainability and efficiency. The destruction and damage of energy and other supporting infrastructure is one of the main challenges in this phase 38 . Diesel generators are often deployed to address this challenge 25 , 36 . When energy infrastructure is destroyed or damaged in a conflict, generators are a practical way to provide urgent energy 14 . Having a decentralized energy system provides multiple benefits when power plants and transmission lines take time to rebuild. Diesel generators are modular and can be deployed quickly 39 , making them useful for temporary or semi-permanent solutions. However, diesel generators can be vulnerable to conflicts, as fuel routes can be cut off 4 . If there is a chance that the conflict continues, diesel generators are not a conflict resilient option and with a lock-in created, it can lead to continuous blackouts due to fuel shortages. Furthermore, there are trade-offs with other sustainability targets, climate action being the most evident. Temporary fossil-based energy solutions may risk an unsustainable lock-in effect and persist beyond the response phase. Energy for restoring essential services - Recovery The recovery phase is characterized by a shift toward restoring vital societal functions. As energy demand grows and diversifies, the need for a more stable and reliable supply increases. Energy remains essential to sustain basic needs such as food, water and health. However, the objective of this phase is to provide more robust systems as opposed to the urgent phase. In this phase, there is also a need for energy provision for schools, local business, as well as some debris and rubble removal in order to make the areas more livable for the citizens. In conflicts, children are often heavily affected, in part by disruption to education and schools 30 . It has also been shown how education can facilitate rebuilding in a post-conflict context 40 and that higher education seems to reduce the risk for conflict itself 41 . This underscores the importance of energy being supplied to schools in post-conflict settings. To have electricity for lighting and learning appliances such as projectors and computers can benefit the learning outcomes 42 . Some studies also suggest that energy to light up the home can facilitate children studying 43 , even though the actual effects of this are still unclear 44 .What is also important is to create a resilient energy system so that schools can continue to operate even in the event of the conflict resurfacing. Many of the challenges in this phase are still connected to the destroyed infrastructure, such as debris and rubble hindering transport and supply chains for transporting fuel and other important parts of energy infrastructure 38 . To begin reconstruction, it is important to start with the removal of rubble and debris. This is not an easy task since the removal of rubble and debris can often be obstructed by the presence of mines and other unexploded ordnances (UXOs) 45 . The clearing of mines as well as the removal of rubble and debris are themselves activities that also require a stable supply of power and fuel 38 , 46 , 47 . Fragmented systems and poor planning can result in inefficiencies and missed opportunities for sustainability in this phase. Here, decentralized renewables could serve as an important means to ensure resilience and sustainable development 48 . When fossil fuel supplies are unreliable due to the conflict, renewable energy could offer a means to maintain essential services and support humanitarian survival by ensuring a stable energy 11 . However, in post-conflict settings, even the deployment of renewable energy could be challenging if there is no democratic governance and supply chains are not in place. For instance, the expansion of solar panels in Yemen could not have happened if not for open ports and crossings 30 . Energy for large scale rebuilding of infrastructure - Reconstruction In the reconstruction phase, the focus shifts toward the comprehensive restoration of housing, industry, ecosystems and infrastructure. This phase offers a window for society to integrate broader sustainability dimensions into the rebuilding process 15 . While environmental concerns are often sidelined in the immediate wake of a conflict, the reconstruction phase allows for a deliberate alignment of economic, social, and environmental goals 35 . This phase is inherently energy-intensive, requiring significant power for material processing, crushing and transportation of materials, and construction of new infrastructure 49 , 50 . To reduce the energy needs in this phase, recycled content from the debris and rubble from destroyed houses could provide a possibility to save the embodied energy from new infrastructure 51 . A key challenge in this phase is the technical capacity deficit, or ‘brain drain’ resulting from the migration or conscription of engineers and specialists during or after a conflict 52 . This brain drain can in turn lead to prolonged reconstruction, and challenges in upholding the right standards needed to ensure a qualitative energy management system 4 . This leads to a conflicting problem, since housing as well as job opportunities is something that often leads to the return of refugees displaced by war 53 . The issues here lie in determining the starting point. The brain drain can cause delays in the construction while at the same time the construction of houses can encourage people to return, thus enabling them to contribute to the reconstruction efforts. Additionally, since many refugees return when there is a possibility to work, energy can function as an enabler for job creation and economic growth 54 . Another notable energy demand in this phase is for land restoration. Ecosystem degradation from conflict, such as habit destruction and deforestation, requires long-term, energy-heavy interventions to restore the natural resources that support local livelihoods 55 . Since natural resources are a base for other livelihood essentials, the restoration of these ecosystems can in turn contribute to sustainable peacebuilding 35 , 56 . The UN suggest that the resources necessary for environmental restoration should be taken into consideration in recovery plans 57 . One possible obstacle is that rapid reconstruction might occur without considering resilience in the energy system 30 , which leads to a more stable society both in the sense of conflict as well as climate change impacts 25 , 58 . The reconstruction phase offers the greatest potential for systemic transformation toward resilient, renewable-based energy systems 59 . However, challenges such as brain drain, lack of technical capacity, and financing gaps often slow progress 14 , 28 , 30 . A renewable energy system can not only provide a pathway towards combating climate change but also addresses the issue of security and independence 60 . Decisions made in this phase can lock in energy pathways for decades. Without strategic planning, reconstruction may replicate pre-conflict un-resilient fossil-based systems, undermining long-term sustainability. Discussion Integrating Energy in Post-Conflict Operations Energy projects in post-conflict areas reveal a complex interplay between energy access, governance, and sustainability outcomes. For instance, when prioritizing short-term reconstruction efforts over long-term sustainability goals, energy initiatives may unintentionally reinforce existing power imbalances or contribute to environmental degradation 27 . Conversely, energy projects show the potential to serve as a foundation for sustainable development by fostering inclusive decision-making processes and integrating renewable energy solutions 29 , 48 . These contrasting perspectives underscore the need for a comprehensive understanding of how energy projects can be effectively designed and implemented in post-conflict contexts. These perspectives necessitate a phased approach (response, recovery and reconstruction), to demonstrate the entire reality after a conflict and capture every aspect to take into consideration, not only emergency provision or long-term energy planning. However, the division into the three phases does not mean that there should be a siloed approach to the different phases, but rather that there are various important aspects that need to be considered in each phase. The framework is instead intended to be used to understand how the phases interact with each other in order to achieve holistic energy planning to ensure that the needs in each phase can be met. Ensuring energy provision in a post-conflict setting requires cooperation between various actors involved. Key actors involved in the response phase include the UN and other larger agencies, as well as local governmental agencies, which means that the decisions regarding post-conflict development are usually centralized. This leaves few possibilities for community participation 31 , which have been identified as essential for successful implementation of energy systems in post-conflict areas 19 , 29 . Given that energy system reconstruction is a costly activity, external financial actors such as investment banks or development banks are often required in the recovery phase. That the financers, national governments, local companies and peace agencies collaborate in this mission is crucial for successful implementation. The UN has however emphasized that peacebuilding operations should be addressed nationally to meet society’s needs and goals in a sustainable way 61 , meaning that even if the funding comes from international stakeholders, decisions and governance should be controlled nationally. To ensure this, it is important that the financial actors involve local citizens and companies in the decision-making process. In addition, private companies can play a large part in post-conflict infrastructure development (the reconstruction phase), and a bottom-up approach can help with a fast deployment of energy. Awarding contracts to local businesses can help build skills and foster local enterprise capacities 54 . In many cases their knowledge of the local complexities and obstacles faced is also crucial for successful implementation of energy systems. The framework created is intended as a guide in these discussions so that appropriate action is taken by the appropriate actor at the correct time. Sustainability Applications for Post-Conflict Energy Systems Across the three phases, energy acts as an enabler for achieving multiple SDGs. While urgent needs dominate the response phase, later phases offer opportunities to further integrate sustainability principles into reconstruction. This temporal perspective of the framework highlights that prioritizing energy allocation strategically can maximize SDG synergies and minimize trade-offs. With many conflicts ongoing globally, there will be an increased demand for new energy systems and this needs to be systematically planned. It is crucial to incorporate all the sustainability targets, even if there are clear goals targeting both energy (SDG 7) and peace (SDG 16). Sustainability cannot be approached in isolation or selectively prioritized in order to ensure a just and long-lasting energy system, underscoring the reason for incorporating all the SDGs in the framework. One final, very crucial aspect when studying energy and peace is that, while energy is considered imperative for peace, war and conflict have been shown to hinder sustainable development 17 , 62 . This means that peace is also imperative for development and sustainability. Hence, while energy plays an important part in peacebuilding, the key aspect for development is to end armed conflicts and uphold a democratic society. Conclusion Our SDG assessment shows considerable data and research gaps regarding energy in post-conflict settings. While this research provides a foundational mapping of energy-SDG interlinkages in the post-conflict context, further empirical investigation is required to fully capture the nuances of development in fragile settings. Although energy projects have the potential to serve as catalysts for recovery and growth, their success in promoting sustainability is contingent upon an understanding of local contexts. This study has mapped a comprehensive range of potential sustainability outcomes; however, applying the framework to specific case studies is the next necessary step to validate its practical efficacy in real-world scenarios. A significant remaining gap is the quantification of energy needs in the three various post-conflict phases, which could benefit energy planning and help project managers understand how to prioritize different sectors and activities. This framework is a first step towards a holistic approach to energy planning in the post-conflict context, which can be complemented with new, dynamic, and interactive tools designed to help project managers navigate energy rebuilding in specific local contexts. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. Consent for publication Not applicable. Availability of data and materials All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This research was funded by Formas Grant 2024-01075 (Research-driven solutions for a sustainable society 2024). Authors’ contributions LW contributed to the conceptualization, methodology, data analysis and wrote the original draft of the manuscript. DA and FFN contributed to the conceptualization, methodology and reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors read and approved of the final manuscript. Corresponding Author Correspondence to Louise Wernersson. References Davies, S., Pettersson, T., Sollenberg, M. & Öberg, M. Organized violence 1989–2024, and the challenges of identifying civilian victims. J. Peace Res. 62 , 1223–1240 (2025). Alhaj Omar, F., Mahmoud, I. & Cedano, K. G. Energy poverty in the face of armed conflict: The challenge of appropriate assessment in wartime Syria. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 95 , 102910 (2023). Khalid, U., Shafiullah, M. & Chaudhry, S. M. 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Science and education as pillars of post-conflict recovery: Lessons from Azerbaijan’s Karabakh region. Int. J. Educ. Dev. 114 , 103234 (2025). Ostby, G. & Urdal, H. Education and Civil Conflict: A Review of the Quantitative, Empirical Literature . (2010). UNDESA. Electricity and Education: The Benefits, Barriers, and Recommendations for Achieving the Electrification of Primary and Secondary Schools . (2014). Hassan, F. & Lucchino, P. Powering Education . (2016). Furukawa, C. Do Solar Lamps Help Children Study? Contrary Evidence from a Pilot Study in Uganda. J. Dev. Stud. 50 , 319–341 (2014). AbuHamed, H., Al Bursh, W., Abu Mfarreh, S. & Yoshida, M. Managing post-conflict demolition wastes in Gaza Strip: a case study on May 2021 conflict. J. Mater. Cycles Waste Manag. 25 , 684–693 (2023). Atta, I. & Bakhoum, E. S. Environmental feasibility of recycling construction and demolition waste. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 21 , 2675–2694 (2024). GICHD. A Study of Mechanical Application in Demining . (2004). Rohner, D., Lehning, M., Steinberger, J., Tetreault, N. & Trutnevyte, E. Decentralized green energy transition promotes peace. Front. Environ. Sci. 11 , (2023). Lukash, O. & Namoniuk, V. Post-war Development Energy Scenarios for Ukraine. in Positive Tipping Points Towards Sustainability: Understanding the Conditions and Strategies for Fast Decarbonization in Regions (eds. Tàbara, J. D., Flamos, A., Mangalagiu, D. & Michas, S.) 101–125 (Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2024). doi:10.1007/978-3-031-50762-5_6. Schenk, D. & Amiri, A. Life cycle energy analysis of residential wooden buildings versus concrete and steel buildings: A review. Front. Built Environ. 8 , (2022). Ng, W. Y. & Chau, C. K. New Life of the Building Materials- Recycle, Reuse and Recovery. Energy Procedia 75 , 2884–2891 (2015). ICRC. Urban Services during Protracted Armed Conflict: A Call for a Better Approach to Assisting Affected People . (2015). Stefansson, A. H. Homes in the Making: Property Restitution, Refugee Return, and Senses of Belonging in a Post-war Bosnian Town. Int. Migr. 44 , 115–139 (2006). Ohiorhenuan, J. F. E. Post ‐conflict Recovery: Approaches, Policies and Partnerships . (2011). Shevchuk, O., Rochshyna, N., Lazarenko, I. & Stets, O. Towards a sustainable future: overcoming the challenges of post-war ecosystem reconstruction in Ukraine. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 1269 , 012018 (2023). Jensen, D. & Lonergan, S. Natural resources and post-conflict assessment, remediation, restoration, and reconstruction: Lessons and emerging issues. in (2012). Environmental Impact of the Conflict in Gaza: Preliminary Assessment of Environmental Impacts . (UN Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya, 2024). Xu, L. et al. Resilience of renewable power systems under climate risks. Nat. Rev. Electr. Eng. 1 , 53–66 (2024). UNDP. Towards a Green Transition of the Energy Sector in Ukraine . (2023). Zvarych, R. & Masna, O. Green energy transition in the concept of post-war reconstruction of Ukraine. Her. Econ. 170–181 (2023) doi:10.35774/visnyk2023.03.170. Report of the Secretary-General on peacebuilding in the immediate aftermath of conflict . (UN, New York, 2009). Suarez, A., Árias-Arévalo, P. A. & Martínez-Mera, E. Environmental sustainability in post-conflict countries: insights for rural Colombia. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 20 , 997–1015 (2018). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files SupplementaryMaterial1.xlsx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 18 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 02 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 23 Apr, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 28 Mar, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 26 Mar, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 25 Mar, 2026 First submitted to journal 13 Mar, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9116705","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":613801569,"identity":"98a11f09-cb00-4622-ae5c-8bf68ea77a43","order_by":0,"name":"Louise Wernersson","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAlklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACPhDx4QBDAvFa2ICYccYBAxK1MPOQpkUi+dhnmzN/8hj4Dx8gVkta8uycGwbFDBJpRNrEJp1jzJzzwSCxQYLHgFgt+Z+ZLUBa+M9/INoWZmaGG0AtDDnE6WBgk39mzNhzxjixTSKNSIfx8xx+zPDjmFxiP//hB0RaA7eORPWjYBSMglEwCvABALE7JpWT1+A4AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"KTH Royal Institute of Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Louise","middleName":"","lastName":"Wernersson","suffix":""},{"id":613801570,"identity":"d375a5d8-f466-4a3f-bfbe-cd5f8a83cde8","order_by":1,"name":"Daniel Adshead","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"KTH Royal Institute of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Daniel","middleName":"","lastName":"Adshead","suffix":""},{"id":613801571,"identity":"56b24468-f01a-4471-91f8-1ceaec75686a","order_by":2,"name":"Francesco Fuso-Nerini","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"KTH Royal Institute of Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Francesco","middleName":"","lastName":"Fuso-Nerini","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-13 16:24:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9116705/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9116705/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106094471,"identity":"8da41098-beba-4051-95b8-98c40efe6e4e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 11:42:40","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":278665,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDamage to energy infrastructure in million US dollars in selected conflict affected areas.\u003c/strong\u003e The most severe conflicts was reported in December 2025 by ACLEDs conflict index and are categorized in the map by the fatality of the conflict \u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e. Documented damage to energy infrastructure was obtained from loss, damage and needs assessment reports for the affected areas released in the years 2020-2024 \u003csup\u003e5,7–9\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9116705/v1/af05c6bf76bb859e7d9b720d.png"},{"id":106094501,"identity":"d6f13a9c-9d64-49d8-ac05-d47db8a600f5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 11:42:46","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":64809,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVisualization of the four steps of method used to develop the framework\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9116705/v1/4f3ba14070eec72e378a23df.png"},{"id":106094503,"identity":"663da312-41b8-4874-a68c-f1249ba48dad","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 11:42:46","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":118800,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThree phases of post-conflict development used in the framework\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9116705/v1/4530372f61a99b0b37178c29.png"},{"id":106094263,"identity":"7e0341bf-9ed4-4751-bb10-0f6a6dd01788","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 11:41:59","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":269155,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInterlinkages between energy in post-conflict context with the SDGs.\u003c/strong\u003e The orange boxes highlight the trade-offs while the green ones highlight the synergies between energy systems and the specific SDG target. The grey boxes highlight when there is no published evidence of an interlinkage. In total 80 possible synergies and 27 possible trade-offs. For 79 targets no published evidence of an interlinkage was found.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9116705/v1/e9a2fd29b5cbdf1660e7e703.png"},{"id":106094973,"identity":"32104c21-c49d-476e-8489-9ee3d3fb6afd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 11:43:51","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":119469,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDifference between SDG-energy interlinkages in post-conflict and non-conflict settings\u003c/strong\u003e. The boxes highlight either synergies, trade-offs or no evidence found for a target in the post-conflict and non-conflict settings. The post-conflict interlinkage assessment was conducted for this study while non-conflict interlinkages are drawn from previous research\u003csup\u003e22\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9116705/v1/e224cb5794b78455f1e1c1db.png"},{"id":106094954,"identity":"820cf944-a3a2-4dca-b697-1260d9d8a4a4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 11:43:44","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":284141,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAll identified\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eenergy demands required to achieve each SDG for sustainable post-conflict development, \u003c/strong\u003eusing literature consulted for the SDG linkage assessment\u003cstrong\u003e. \u003c/strong\u003eThis includes energy in the form of electricity, heat, and fuel.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9116705/v1/4c643cc5c244bd63a2e4cc8c.png"},{"id":106094220,"identity":"1afc57dd-adf7-46fd-af9a-8f1d1dbeb9c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 11:41:49","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":187825,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEnergy Framework for Sustainable Post-Conflict Development\u003c/strong\u003e. The framework outlines characteristics of energy for sustainable post-conflict development in various phases. The dark blue highlights the energy needs and shows both that there are additional energy needs and how the energy demand is growing for the same needs in the next phase. For instance, even if energy for households is not mentioned for recovery, it is included in the basic needs for that phase. In the orange box, the typical technology used is described. Light blue shows the type of governance while the red highlights risk in each phase. The green square highlights the growing energy need in the different phases.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9116705/v1/6c411684a12bd9f420164872.png"},{"id":106401950,"identity":"6714450f-7e41-430e-b4cc-d7068936db38","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:10:21","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1765819,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9116705/v1/667ae46b-9cb7-4dfc-bb4f-fba01774c9b3.pdf"},{"id":106068666,"identity":"be0d361c-3dcf-480f-b5a5-88d56f259f60","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 06:14:16","extension":"xlsx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":79301,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryMaterial1.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9116705/v1/80f86854b1035705e117722e.xlsx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Energy for Sustainable Post-Conflict Development","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn 2024, 61 state-based armed conflicts were reported globally \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, with increasing evidence that energy infrastructure is being systematically targeted for attacks, leaving conflict areas with limited access to energy services \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This can prolong the impacts from the conflict itself since energy is crucial for post-conflict development and can function as an enabler for peace \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, due to the fact that it can speed up economic recovery as well as supporting basic needs \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, damage to energy infrastructure is extremely costly for the countries affected and rebuilding the energy system can be even more expensive than the damage done. In Ukraine, for instance, where energy infrastructure has been systematically targeted in attacks, damages are estimated by some sources to reach ca. US\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 16.1\u0026nbsp;billion and needs to reconstruct the energy system at ca. US\u003cspan\u003e$\u003c/span\u003e 50.5 billions\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e highlights global conflict incidence by fatalities, along with estimated damages to energy infrastructure in major ongoing conflicts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe transition from conflict to peace and long term growth is a complex process in which the role of energy infrastructure is pivotal \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Existing scientific literature demonstrates how energy systems can contribute to this transition, and act as an enabler for other services in the post-conflict context, such as supporting operations in refugee camps and the humanitarian cluster system \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e or maintaining and restoring water systems \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Additionally, previous research emphasizes how energy is an enabler for peace and economic development \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, deploying energy in the post-conflict context requires a different approach than energy planning in a non-conflict setting \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This is largely due to specific risks connected to the post-conflict context, such as low financing \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e or uncertain decision-making \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The Association of the United States Army (AUSA) and Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) present a framework for post-conflict recovery for different sectors \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e which highlights the need for different approaches for rebuilding energy infrastructure in different phases after a conflict. While this existing literature establishes energy planning as a vital component of peacebuilding, it overlooks two critical dimensions. First, there is a lack of guidance on how energy planning must evolve across the distinct stages of post-conflict development. Existing studies only superficially mention different phases for energy and power\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, or limit their focus either to energy for relief \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e or long-term systemic planning and transformation \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Treating energy planning in post-conflict areas as one single strategy is a siloed approach that fails to adapt to the evolving energy need of the local context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, the literature has yet to fully explore how energy infrastructure should support sustainable development in these fragile settings. War and conflict have been shown to dramatically reduce the chances to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and to hinder a green transition \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, with repercussions for local economic, social, and environmental goals. Although some studies advocate for renewable energy \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, or highlight “build-back-better” opportunities for critical infrastructure \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, there is no in-depth analysis of how energy systems in this context specifically enhance or hinder sustainability. Previous SDG-interlinkages studies do highlight how energy-SDG linkages are context-dependent\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, few have applied this lens to the unique constraints and opportunities of post-conflict development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHere, we introduce a novel framework for implementing energy systems geared toward sustainable post-conflict development. We propose a three-phased approach (\u003cem\u003eresponse, recovery\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ereconstruction\u003c/em\u003e) to map the evolving characteristics and requirements of the energy sector over time and use it to capture the evolving role of energy in sustainable development throughout the different post-conflict phases. By incorporating a systematic SDG assessment, this framework identifies how energy systems can be strategically leveraged to support long-term peace and sustainability. These insights equip energy planners with the insights necessary to understand the challenges and opportunities that arise during each phase, enabling them to make informed decisions regarding the implementation of sustainable energy solutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo develop the framework, a four-step method was used. The method is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and is further described in the next section.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe SDG assessment was used to identify possible synergies and trade-offs with energy for post-conflict development and to understand how energy can contribute to sustainable development in post-conflict areas. The identification of energy needs and the boundary definition was used to further explain where energy needs to be allocated to contribute to SDG achievement. Defining boundaries and assigning energy needs in different phases served as the main outline for the framework.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSDG Assessment\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the first step we identified scientific evidence of interlinkages (synergies and trade-offs) between energy for post-conflict development and the SDGs. For this, a scoping literature review inspired by previous SDG assessments \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e was carried out. The literature review was based on two questions: A) How can energy projects contribute to SDG achievement in post-conflict context and B) How can energy projects hinder SDG achievement in post-conflict context. Both questions were asked to achieve the overall aim to understand the role energy has in the achievement of sustainable post-conflict development. The literature review was an iterative process, and the questions were reframed for each of the 169 targets. For example, “How can energy contribute to the eradication of poverty in post-conflict areas” (SDG 1.1).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoth peer-reviewed scientific articles and grey literature were used due to the social and environmental impacts of energy projects having been widely documented in organizations such as the United Nations (UN) and the Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs). Only literature with a focus on energy in post-conflict areas or sustainability in post-conflict areas was deemed to be sufficient to study interlinkages. Moreover, a single record of published evidence was deemed sufficient evidence for an established interlinkage. Literature that did not specifically describe the effect on SDGs was included as well since very few papers study SDG interactions with energy and post-conflict development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy analyzing the identified literature, energy in post-conflict areas was deemed to have either a synergy, trade-off, or no published evidence with each of the 169 targets. The identified interlinkages are presented in the results section prior to the framework and full descriptions of the reasoning behind the interlinkages can be found in Supplementary Material 1.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIdentification of Energy Needs\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondly, an extension of the SDG-assessment was conducted to harmonize the identified synergies with the energy demands in post-conflict areas. Compiling the same literature that describes an interlinkage for a specific target we could conduct a comprehensive classification of post-conflict energy services. This was done by studying the potential synergies, and the related literature, and systematically mapping different energy needs in post-conflict context that was needed to achieve the particular SDG target. This was crucial so that the framework would highlight where energy should be allocated in order to achieve sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoundary definition\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the third step, we established the system boundaries for the proposed framework. Recognizing that energy planning requirements evolve dynamically after a conflict, this moves beyond a static approach. Because the operational environment and local needs shift over time, the framework is segmented into three distinct temporal phases: \u003cem\u003eresponse\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003erecovery\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ereconstruction.\u003c/em\u003e These phases were adapted from the Post-Conflict Reconstruction Task Framework \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e to ensure that the proposed energy strategies align with the shifting priorities. The specific definitions and temporal boundaries of these phases are detailed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe have tailored the phase definitions to focus specifically on the functional role of energy infrastructure in supporting post-conflict development. Under this lens, the response phase prioritizes immediate energy needs for relief efforts, often mirroring energy needs during the conflict itself. The recovery phase begins after the ending of open warfare when immediate physical danger has subsided, allowing for the restoration of essential services. Finally, the reconstruction phase involves the comprehensive rebuilding of societal functions, infrastructure, and industrial capacity. Because the pace of development in these phases is severely influenced by the intensity of the conflict, the economic and political structure of the country, and pre-war conditions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, the framework avoids rigid timelines. Instead, it adopts a context-driven progression that remains applicable from the end of main hostilities and until the affected area has achieved pre-war development levels.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAssigning Energy Needs to Post-Conflict Phases\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the final step, the energy needs identified in the second step were mapped to the three post-conflict phases. The framework accounts for needs that persist across multiple phases and were therefore not necessarily assigned to only one phase. This step was done to understand where energy allocation is strategically prioritized to maximize sustainability throughout the transition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCharacteristics such as key technologies, governance, and risks were then mapped to each corresponding phase. The mapping process involved synthesizing evidence from various literature including sectoral guidelines and energy planning documents to understand the current conditions that shape the implementation of energy systems in post-conflict context. These energy needs and the characteristics of each phase form the conceptual foundation of the final framework.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eEnergy-SDG interlinkages in Post-Conflict Settings\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted a full assessment of the interlinkages between energy systems and the achievement of all SDG targets in the post-conflict development context. The interlinkages were deemed to be either synergies (positive interlinkages) or trade-offs (negative interlinkages). The results from the assessment (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) identified 80 possible synergies and 27 potential trade-offs associated with post-conflict energy interventions. For 79 targets no published evidence was found, indicating a potential gap in our understanding of energy\u0026rsquo;s role in post-conflict development that has not been captured in more general SDG-energy interlinkage studies\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. A full justification of synergies and tradeoffs from the SDG-assessment, including referenced literature, is contained in Supplementary Materials 1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e compares the interlinkages between energy and SDG targets in post-conflict and non-conflict settings. The impact of energy in post-conflict settings is characterized by multidimensional synergies. For example, energy for water purification contributes not only to water-related targets, but also mitigates acute public health crises that often arise in the aftermath of conflict \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. An example of cascading interlinkages is evident in Iraq, where ISIS disrupted the power supply to water facilities, resulting in limited access to water and forcing citizens to move, thus influencing targets for safe migration via tradeoffs with the water sector\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. For some targets, only synergies were identified for post-conflict situations, while both synergies and trade-offs were evident in non-conflict scenarios. An example of this can be seen in the relationship between energy and the goal of zero hunger (SDG 2). In the post-conflict context, the necessity of fuel and electricity for cooking helps achieving food security and nutrition targets and, in later stages, energy can help to reconstruct the agriculture sector. In a non-conflict context, the emphasis is on how food systems can be coupled with energy systems, such as through biogas production. Many of the trade-offs for this goal stem from the competition for land between energy- and food production. However, urgent post-conflict situations typically involve food being imported rather than produced locally, resulting in fewer trade-offs. Additionally, there is limited existing literature on the topic of how energy affects food systems in a post-conflict context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlongside the synergies, several trade-offs associated with urgent energy provision were also identified. Key trade-offs arise from the common reliance on diesel generators for humanitarian aid, which directly undermines climate action (SDG 13) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Another consequence of prioritizing speed is the lack of public participation. While many studies emphasize that public participation is vital for successful energy project implementation in post-conflict areas \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR29\" citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, participation and involvement of local citizens is not always the priority when restoring electricity needs to happen rapidly\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This urgency also compromises systemic resilience: by defaulting to fossil fuel-dependent systems, post-conflict areas such as refugee camps remain vulnerable to supply chain disruptions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompared to non-conflict settings, the biosphere targets (SDG 6, 13, 14 and 15), show significantly fewer documented interlinkages. This does not imply a lack of environmental impact, since conflict is a well-known driver of environmental degradation \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Rather, it reflects a literature bias toward immediate social and humanitarian needs (e.g. SDG 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 11 and 16). The specific role of energy in ecosystem rehabilitation remains under-documented, as the focus is largely on societal value and humanitarian issues rather than how effective resource management can contribute to environmental peacebuilding \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy Framework for Sustainable Post-Conflict Development\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe SDG assessment reveals that energy can facilitate the achievement of 80 targets across all goals in post-conflict environments. Realizing these synergies, however, requires meeting specific energy demands tailored to the unique constraints of each goal. Using the literature compiled for the SDG assessment we classify the key energy needs in the post-conflict context and map them to each of the SDGs (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo operationalize these findings, we have developed a framework that maps energy demands to the distinct phases of post-conflict settings. As illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, the framework identifies the unique energy characteristics inherent to each post-conflict phase.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the response phase, energy is prioritized for the emergency provision of food, water and health. As the context shifts to recovery, demand expands to include broader essential services, such as energy for schools and the removal of debris and rubble from destroyed infrastructure. Finally, the reconstruction phase is characterized by the large-scale rebuilding of destroyed and damaged infrastructure assets. The phased approach is designed to help decision-makers align energy system implementation with the specific operational realities and humanitarian needs of the local context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy to cover basic needs - Response\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe response phase is characterized by urgency and fragility, and energy serves as an enabler for immediate survival and critical services. This includes powering emergency health centers, water purification systems and temporary shelters \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Energy is also needed to provide households with lighting and electricity to charge phones. Beyond basic utilities, energy is vital for Information and Communications Technology (ICT) which serves as a lifeline for displaced populations to access relevant information regarding health centers and aid distribution \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Even though the energy demand in this phase is relatively low, the provision of energy is critical for life saving operations. The emphasis is on urgent provision and reliability rather than sustainability and efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe destruction and damage of energy and other supporting infrastructure is one of the main challenges in this phase \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Diesel generators are often deployed to address this challenge \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. When energy infrastructure is destroyed or damaged in a conflict, generators are a practical way to provide urgent energy \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Having a decentralized energy system provides multiple benefits when power plants and transmission lines take time to rebuild. Diesel generators are modular and can be deployed quickly \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, making them useful for temporary or semi-permanent solutions. However, diesel generators can be vulnerable to conflicts, as fuel routes can be cut off \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. If there is a chance that the conflict continues, diesel generators are not a conflict resilient option and with a lock-in created, it can lead to continuous blackouts due to fuel shortages. Furthermore, there are trade-offs with other sustainability targets, climate action being the most evident. Temporary fossil-based energy solutions may risk an unsustainable lock-in effect and persist beyond the response phase.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy for restoring essential services - Recovery\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe recovery phase is characterized by a shift toward restoring vital societal functions. As energy demand grows and diversifies, the need for a more stable and reliable supply increases. Energy remains essential to sustain basic needs such as food, water and health. However, the objective of this phase is to provide more robust systems as opposed to the urgent phase. In this phase, there is also a need for energy provision for schools, local business, as well as some debris and rubble removal in order to make the areas more livable for the citizens.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conflicts, children are often heavily affected, in part by disruption to education and schools \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It has also been shown how education can facilitate rebuilding in a post-conflict context \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and that higher education seems to reduce the risk for conflict itself \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This underscores the importance of energy being supplied to schools in post-conflict settings. To have electricity for lighting and learning appliances such as projectors and computers can benefit the learning outcomes \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Some studies also suggest that energy to light up the home can facilitate children studying \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, even though the actual effects of this are still unclear \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.What is also important is to create a resilient energy system so that schools can continue to operate even in the event of the conflict resurfacing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany of the challenges in this phase are still connected to the destroyed infrastructure, such as debris and rubble hindering transport and supply chains for transporting fuel and other important parts of energy infrastructure \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. To begin reconstruction, it is important to start with the removal of rubble and debris. This is not an easy task since the removal of rubble and debris can often be obstructed by the presence of mines and other unexploded ordnances (UXOs) \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The clearing of mines as well as the removal of rubble and debris are themselves activities that also require a stable supply of power and fuel \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFragmented systems and poor planning can result in inefficiencies and missed opportunities for sustainability in this phase. Here, decentralized renewables could serve as an important means to ensure resilience and sustainable development \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. When fossil fuel supplies are unreliable due to the conflict, renewable energy could offer a means to maintain essential services and support humanitarian survival by ensuring a stable energy \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, in post-conflict settings, even the deployment of renewable energy could be challenging if there is no democratic governance and supply chains are not in place. For instance, the expansion of solar panels in Yemen could not have happened if not for open ports and crossings \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy for large scale rebuilding of infrastructure - Reconstruction\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the reconstruction phase, the focus shifts toward the comprehensive restoration of housing, industry, ecosystems and infrastructure. This phase offers a window for society to integrate broader sustainability dimensions into the rebuilding process\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. While environmental concerns are often sidelined in the immediate wake of a conflict, the reconstruction phase allows for a deliberate alignment of economic, social, and environmental goals \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis phase is inherently energy-intensive, requiring significant power for material processing, crushing and transportation of materials, and construction of new infrastructure \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. To reduce the energy needs in this phase, recycled content from the debris and rubble from destroyed houses could provide a possibility to save the embodied energy from new infrastructure \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. A key challenge in this phase is the technical capacity deficit, or \u0026lsquo;brain drain\u0026rsquo; resulting from the migration or conscription of engineers and specialists during or after a conflict \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This brain drain can in turn lead to prolonged reconstruction, and challenges in upholding the right standards needed to ensure a qualitative energy management system\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This leads to a conflicting problem, since housing as well as job opportunities is something that often leads to the return of refugees displaced by war \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The issues here lie in determining the starting point. The brain drain can cause delays in the construction while at the same time the construction of houses can encourage people to return, thus enabling them to contribute to the reconstruction efforts. Additionally, since many refugees return when there is a possibility to work, energy can function as an enabler for job creation and economic growth \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother notable energy demand in this phase is for land restoration. Ecosystem degradation from conflict, such as habit destruction and deforestation, requires long-term, energy-heavy interventions to restore the natural resources that support local livelihoods \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Since natural resources are a base for other livelihood essentials, the restoration of these ecosystems can in turn contribute to sustainable peacebuilding \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The UN suggest that the resources necessary for environmental restoration should be taken into consideration in recovery plans \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne possible obstacle is that rapid reconstruction might occur without considering resilience in the energy system \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which leads to a more stable society both in the sense of conflict as well as climate change impacts \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The reconstruction phase offers the greatest potential for systemic transformation toward resilient, renewable-based energy systems \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. However, challenges such as brain drain, lack of technical capacity, and financing gaps often slow progress \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. A renewable energy system can not only provide a pathway towards combating climate change but also addresses the issue of security and independence \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Decisions made in this phase can lock in energy pathways for decades. Without strategic planning, reconstruction may replicate pre-conflict un-resilient fossil-based systems, undermining long-term sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIntegrating Energy in Post-Conflict Operations\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy projects in post-conflict areas reveal a complex interplay between energy access, governance, and sustainability outcomes. For instance, when prioritizing short-term reconstruction efforts over long-term sustainability goals, energy initiatives may unintentionally reinforce existing power imbalances or contribute to environmental degradation \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Conversely, energy projects show the potential to serve as a foundation for sustainable development by fostering inclusive decision-making processes and integrating renewable energy solutions \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These contrasting perspectives underscore the need for a comprehensive understanding of how energy projects can be effectively designed and implemented in post-conflict contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese perspectives necessitate a phased approach (response, recovery and reconstruction), to demonstrate the entire reality after a conflict and capture every aspect to take into consideration, not only emergency provision or long-term energy planning. However, the division into the three phases does not mean that there should be a siloed approach to the different phases, but rather that there are various important aspects that need to be considered in each phase. The framework is instead intended to be used to understand how the phases interact with each other in order to achieve holistic energy planning to ensure that the needs in each phase can be met.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnsuring energy provision in a post-conflict setting requires cooperation between various actors involved. Key actors involved in the response phase include the UN and other larger agencies, as well as local governmental agencies, which means that the decisions regarding post-conflict development are usually centralized. This leaves few possibilities for community participation \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, which have been identified as essential for successful implementation of energy systems in post-conflict areas \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Given that energy system reconstruction is a costly activity, external financial actors such as investment banks or development banks are often required in the recovery phase. That the financers, national governments, local companies and peace agencies collaborate in this mission is crucial for successful implementation. The UN has however emphasized that peacebuilding operations should be addressed nationally to meet society\u0026rsquo;s needs and goals in a sustainable way\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, meaning that even if the funding comes from international stakeholders, decisions and governance should be controlled nationally. To ensure this, it is important that the financial actors involve local citizens and companies in the decision-making process. In addition, private companies can play a large part in post-conflict infrastructure development (the reconstruction phase), and a bottom-up approach can help with a fast deployment of energy. Awarding contracts to local businesses can help build skills and foster local enterprise capacities \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. In many cases their knowledge of the local complexities and obstacles faced is also crucial for successful implementation of energy systems. The framework created is intended as a guide in these discussions so that appropriate action is taken by the appropriate actor at the correct time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustainability Applications for Post-Conflict Energy Systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcross the three phases, energy acts as an enabler for achieving multiple SDGs. While urgent needs dominate the response phase, later phases offer opportunities to further integrate sustainability principles into reconstruction. This temporal perspective of the framework highlights that prioritizing energy allocation strategically can maximize SDG synergies and minimize trade-offs. With many conflicts ongoing globally, there will be an increased demand for new energy systems and this needs to be systematically planned. It is crucial to incorporate all the sustainability targets, even if there are clear goals targeting both energy (SDG 7) and peace (SDG 16). Sustainability cannot be approached in isolation or selectively prioritized in order to ensure a just and long-lasting energy system, underscoring the reason for incorporating all the SDGs in the framework.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne final, very crucial aspect when studying energy and peace is that, while energy is considered imperative for peace, war and conflict have been shown to hinder sustainable development \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This means that peace is also imperative for development and sustainability. Hence, while energy plays an important part in peacebuilding, the key aspect for development is to end armed conflicts and uphold a democratic society.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur SDG assessment shows considerable data and research gaps regarding energy in post-conflict settings. While this research provides a foundational mapping of energy-SDG interlinkages in the post-conflict context, further empirical investigation is required to fully capture the nuances of development in fragile settings. Although energy projects have the potential to serve as catalysts for recovery and growth, their success in promoting sustainability is contingent upon an understanding of local contexts. This study has mapped a comprehensive range of potential sustainability outcomes; however, applying the framework to specific case studies is the next necessary step to validate its practical efficacy in real-world scenarios. A significant remaining gap is the quantification of energy needs in the three various post-conflict phases, which could benefit energy planning and help project managers understand how to prioritize different sectors and activities. This framework is a first step towards a holistic approach to energy planning in the post-conflict context, which can be complemented with new, dynamic, and interactive tools designed to help project managers navigate energy rebuilding in specific local contexts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was funded by Formas Grant 2024-01075 (Research-driven solutions for a sustainable society 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLW contributed to the conceptualization, methodology, data analysis and wrote the original draft of the manuscript. DA and FFN contributed to the conceptualization, methodology and reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors read and approved of the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorresponding Author\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCorrespondence to Louise Wernersson.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDavies, S., Pettersson, T., Sollenberg, M. \u0026amp; \u0026Ouml;berg, M. Organized violence 1989\u0026ndash;2024, and the challenges of identifying civilian victims. \u003cem\u003eJ. Peace Res.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e62\u003c/strong\u003e, 1223\u0026ndash;1240 (2025).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAlhaj Omar, F., Mahmoud, I. \u0026amp; Cedano, K. G. Energy poverty in the face of armed conflict: The challenge of appropriate assessment in wartime Syria. \u003cem\u003eEnergy Res. Soc. 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Sustain.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e20\u003c/strong\u003e, 997\u0026ndash;1015 (2018).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"energy-sustainability-and-society","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"esso","sideBox":"Learn more about [Energy, Sustainability and Society](https://energsustainsoc.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13705","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13705/3","title":"Energy, Sustainability and Society","twitterHandle":"@OpenEnviron","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9116705/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9116705/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eBackground:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEnergy is vital for peace and post-conflict development, yet war and armed conflict frequently devastate energy infrastructure through targeted and collateral damage.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe present a strategic framework for post-conflict energy system deployment designed to foster sustainable development in fragile contexts, across three distinct but overlapping phases: \u003cem\u003eresponse, recovery, \u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003ereconstruction\u003c/em\u003e. By assessing how energy can support the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) across these phases, we identify a total of 80 possible synergies and 27 trade-offs between energy and post-conflict development. Understanding the characteristics of each post-conflict phase facilitates successful implementation of energy systems. During the response phase, urgent energy is needed for essential services like emergency health facilities. In the response phase, energy is needed to support vital societal functions such as schools. In the reconstruction phase, energy is needed to reconstruct critical infrastructure. However, challenges like brain drain can prolong recovery.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConclusion:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research provides a foundational mapping of energy-SDG interlinkages in the post-conflict context. Although energy projects have the potential to serve as catalysts for recovery and growth, their success in promoting sustainability is contingent upon an understanding of local contexts. The framework developed is a first step towards a holistic approach to energy planning in the post-conflict context, which can be complemented with new, dynamic, and interactive tools designed to help project managers navigate energy rebuilding in specific local contexts.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Energy for Sustainable Post-Conflict Development","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-03 06:14:11","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9116705/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"209156876777311934817474499884102598821","date":"2026-05-18T04:15:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-02T08:31:27+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"182065606984945882430832846257723702355","date":"2026-04-23T15:26:30+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-28T15:10:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-03-26T15:28:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-25T11:15:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Energy, Sustainability and Society","date":"2026-03-13T16:16:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"energy-sustainability-and-society","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"esso","sideBox":"Learn more about [Energy, Sustainability and Society](https://energsustainsoc.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13705","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13705/3","title":"Energy, Sustainability and Society","twitterHandle":"@OpenEnviron","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"727acca6-2d28-4fe0-8efb-c891aec713f2","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 3rd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"209156876777311934817474499884102598821","date":"2026-05-18T04:15:35+00:00","index":32,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-02T08:31:27+00:00","index":29,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-03T06:14:11+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-03 06:14:11","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9116705","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9116705","identity":"rs-9116705","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}