Molecular Prevalence of Multi-drug Resistant Escherichia coli in Dressed Broiler Chickens in Sokoto, Nigeria

Molecular Prevalence of Multi-drug Resistant Escherichia coli in Dressed Broiler Chickens in Sokoto, Nigeria | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Molecular Prevalence of Multi-drug Resistant Escherichia coli in Dressed Broiler Chickens in Sokoto, Nigeria Abdurrahman Hassan Jibril, Mukhtar Kabir, Abdullahi Ozomata Sani, and 6 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7461615/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Escherichia coli causes life-threatening human diseases caused by ingesting contaminated animal products such as milk and meat. Infections are widely distributed among poultry of all ages and types and are primarily related to poor hygienic practices. A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the presence of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli in dressed broiler chickens by conventional bacterial isolation, molecular characterisation, and antibiotic sensitivity testing. Multi-drug resistant Escherichia coli were isolated from dressed broiler chickens from slaughter points in Sokoto Metropolis, Nigeria, using conventional isolation methods, molecular characterisation, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. The overall prevalence of E. coli based on phenotypic identification was 28% (43/165), and genotypic identification (PCR) was 16.4% (27/165). Antibiotic susceptibility test revealed 96.3% resistance to ampicillin, 81.5% to tetracycline, 77.8% to trimethoprim, and 59.3% to sulphonamides. However, 81.5% were susceptible to gentamycin, 51.9% to ciprofloxacin, and 40.7% to sulphonamides. A significant number (88.9%) were reportedly multidrug-resistant (MDR), with some resistance genes detected. Further studies on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) surveillance should be conducted to reduce the dissemination of pathogenic microbes through the food chain. This would contribute to the ongoing intervention against the spread of antimicrobial resistance, especially in a commonly and readily consumed unsuspecting food source. Dressed Chicken E. coli Nigeria Molecular prevalence Multidrug-resistant Sokoto Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1. Introduction Animal-derived foods like chicken, beef, mutton, and milk are rich in proteins vital for body growth and development. However, broilers and local hens serve as the major sources of poultry meat in Nigeria [1]. Unlike the local hens raised for multipurpose use, the broiler chickens ( Gallus gallus domesticus ) are domesticated fowl bred and raised mainly for meat production [2], owing to their characteristics of fast growth, large size, and high carcass weight. Poultry production, especially broiler and local chickens, accounts for a high percentage of quality protein and is one of Nigeria's major livestock raised for revenue [3]. Foods of animal origin can operate as carriers and media for transmitting numerous microorganisms that can cause health problems, disease, and even death [4]. Foodborne illnesses are a major global public health concern. In the USA, foodborne illnesses are responsible for an estimated 48 million cases and 3000 fatalities annually [4]. Poultry products are highly perishable, and several international protocols ensure their safety and quality [5]. However, poultry meat and products are ranked first globally amongst animal products associated with food-borne diseases such as E. coli [6]. In the USA, poultry meat is ranked third in cases of food-borne disease outbreaks [7]. E. coli is a ubiquitous organism that belongs to the coliform group of Enterobacteriaceae , genus Escherichia . It colonises infant intestines within 40 hours of birth and is a commensal of the gastrointestinal tract of mammals and birds [8]. The harmless strains benefit their hosts by producing vitamins K 2 and B 12 [9]. The pathogenic ones are the major causative agents of several diseases in animals and humans worldwide [8]. The resistance to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobials of different categories is known as multidrug resistance (MDR). Tellingly, E. coli has developed resistance to one or more antibiotics, which has raised public health concerns. The indiscriminate and rising use of antibiotics is linked to the high occurrence of resistance in these bacteria. Antimicrobials are used in food production to prevent and control illnesses, enhance growth, and increase feed efficiency in food-producing animals [10]. Administering these antibiotics to animals at suboptimal levels for long periods could result in the selection and spread of antibiotic resistance to other microbes in the food chain [11]. The spread of MDR bacteria has been recognised as an increasing problem in medical and veterinary practice [12]. This study aims to determine the prevalence of multidrug-resistant E. coli in dressed broiler chickens in Sokoto metropolis, Nigeria. This would contribute to the ongoing intervention against the spread of antimicrobial resistance, especially in a commonly and readily consumed unsuspecting food source. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Study Area The study was conducted in Sokoto metropolis, Nigeria. Sokoto metropolis is made up of four local government areas, namely, Sokoto North, Sokoto South, Wamakko, and Dange-Shuni. The state is located at latitude 13 ∘ N and between longitudes 4 ∘ 8’ E and 6 ∘ 54’ E in North-western Nigeria. The State covers an area of approximately 56,000 square kilometres [13]. The State shares a border with the Niger Republic to the north, Kebbi State to the south, and Zamfara State to the east. Based on the 2006 census, Sokoto metropolis was estimated to have a population of about 4,344,399. The State is ranked second in livestock population with about 3 million cattle, 4 million goats, 3.85 million sheep, 0.8 million camels, and 1 million poultry (Sokoto metropolis Investment Promotion Committee (SSIPC). 2.3 Sample Size Determination The minimum sample size for this study was determined by the formula n = t 2 x p exp (1-p exp )/ d 2 [14] Where n = sample size, t 2 = the score for a given interval, which is 1.96(S.E.) at 95% confidence interval, pexp = known or estimated prevalence, d 2 = and precision at 0.05. The sample was calculated at a 12.1% expected prevalence [15], a 95% confidence interval, and a desired precision of 5%. n = (1.96) 2 × 0.08 × (1-0.08)/ (0.05) 2 , n = 0.307328× (0.92)/ 0.0025 = 163.446704 Thus, n = 165 2.4 Study Design and Sample Collection A cross-sectional study was conducted where carcass rinsates were collected from dressed broiler chickens at different slaughter points. A systematic random sampling technique was used to collect the rinsate from the nth chickens during standard daily processing. One hundred and sixty-five rinsates were obtained from 4 different poultry processing sites (slaughter slabs) in the metropolis. Methods described and adapted by De Cesare et al. [16] were used to collect the rinsates. Briefly, with a gloved hand, a completely dressed carcass was immersed in a sterile bag containing 30 mL of sterile distilled water. Subsequently, it was shaken vigorously, and the chicken was aseptically removed from the immersed distilled water. Sterile bags containing samples were adequately labelled and transported on ice packs and were immediately analysed at the Fleming laboratory, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto. 2.5 Culture and Isolation of E. coli The collected samples were aseptically inoculated (1ml) into buffered peptone water (Oxoid, UK) and incubated aerobically at 37°C for 24 hrs. Then, a loopful of the broth culture was streaked onto MacConkey agar (Oxoid, UK) and incubated aerobically at 37°C for 24–48 hours. The lactose fermenting (pink) colonies were inoculated onto Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) agar (Oxoid, UK). Colonies with a green metallic sheen appearance were taken as presumptive E. coli and were transferred onto a slant bottle for further processing [17]. 2.6 Biochemical Characterization of E. coli Presumptive E. coli was subjected to biochemical identification using the Indole reaction, Methyl red test, Voges-Proskauer test, and Citrate utilisation test (IMViC), as described by Cheesbrough and Tawyabur et al. [18,19]. 2.7 Molecular Confirmation of E. coli The genomic DNA of E. coli was extracted as described by Salah et al . [20]. Briefly, 2–3 colonies of E. coli were transferred into 200µL of nuclease-free water and were boiled for 10 minutes to disrupt the cells and release the DNA, followed by centrifugation at 10,000 rpm for five minutes. The crude DNA extract supernatant was stored at -20°C until polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used. Confirmation of E. coli was done by PCR amplification of the β-d-glucuronidase ( uidA ) gene using specific primers [21,22]. PCR amplification was done using the PCR reaction at a final volume of 25µl reaction mixture containing 12.5µl of ThermoFisher Master Mix, 0.5µl each of the forward and backward primers, 9.5µl of nuclease-free water (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), and 2µl of DNA template. The amplification cycle consists of an initial denaturation of 94°C for 5 min, followed by 35 cycles of 94°C for 30 s, annealing at 60°C for 30 s in 35 cycles, initial extension at 72°C for 30 s in 35 cycles and a final extension at 72°C for 5 min in 1 cycle in a T100 Thermal cycler (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc. USA). PCR products were separated on a 1.5% (w/v) agarose gel in Tris Borate EDTA buffer (pH 8.2), stained with ethidium bromide (10µg/ml). They were visualised using the GelDoc Go Imaging System (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc., USA). 2.8 Antibiotic Sensitivity Testing of Isolates Confirmed E. coli isolates were tested for susceptibility to ten of the most common antimicrobials used in the field, which include Ampicillin (10µg), Gentamycin (10µg), Cefotaxime (30µg), Ceftazidime (10µg), Ciprofloxacin (5µg), Chloramphenicol (30µg), Nalidixic acid (30µg), Sulphonamide (300µg), Tetracycline (30µg), and Trimethoprim (5µg). Susceptibility testing was done using the Kirby–Bauer disc diffusion method according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI, 2020). According to the guidelines, the antimicrobial susceptibility was based on the induced inhibition zones [23]. Inhibition zone data was entered into WHONET version 5.6, configured with the tested antimicrobials. Isolates were categorised as sensitive, intermediate, or resistant using clinical breakpoints and guidelines of CLSI (2020). Resistance to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobials of different categories was taken as multidrug resistance (MDR), according to Dadgostar (2019) and Magiorakos et al. (2012). 2.9 Molecular Detection of Resistance Genes Isolates that were phenotypically multidrug resistant were subjected to PCR amplification of tetracycline resistance genes ( tetA, tetB ) [24], sulphonamide resistance genes ( sul1, sul2 ) [25]; [26] and chloramphenicol resistance genes ( catA1, catA2 ) [27]; [28] using specific primers. Multiplex PCR was performed to amplify sul2 and tetA. The PCR was performed in a 25µl reaction volume consisting of 12.5µl of a master mix (Biolabs), 0.5µl of forward primers (IDT®), 0.5µl of reverse primers (IDT®), 6.5µl of nuclease energy-free water (Biolabs), and 4µl of DNA template. The PCR was performed using the DNA amplification method comprising an initial denaturation step at 94℃ for 5 minutes, 35 cycles of denaturation at 94℃ for 30 seconds, 35 cycles of annealing at 53℃ for 30 seconds, and an initial extension at 72℃ for 30 seconds in 35 cycles also and one final extension cycle at 72℃ for 5 minutes. The PCR products were loaded in a 1% agarose gel (Vivantis Incorp, USA), 1x TBE (Vivantis Incorp, USA) buffer (Tris 0.09M- borate 0.09 M-EDTA 0.02M) pre-stained with ethidium bromide (Biotium, Hayward, USA). Electrophoresis was carried out at 70 volts for 70 minutes (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc., USA). Molecular markers of 100bp (GeneDirex, Taiwan) were run in parallel with the DNA samples to indicate the size of PCR amplicons. Gel was visualised under a UV light transilluminator (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc., USA), and the images were taken. Uniplex PCRs were performed to amplify sul1 , tetB, catA1 , and catA2. The PCRs were performed in a 25µl reaction volume consisting of 12.5µl of a master mix (Biolabs), 0.5µl of forward primers (IDT®), 0.5µl of reverse primers (IDT®), 9.5µl of nuclease energy-free water (Biolabs), and 2µl of DNA template. The PCRs were performed using DNA amplification methods that comprised temperature conditions, time, and cycles, as described elsewhere (include references). 2.10 Data and Statistical Analysis Data was entered into Microsoft Excel 2016 and later exported to SPSS version 23 (IBM, USA) for inferential statistics. The chi-square test was used to check for any association between the prevalence of E. coli and slaughtering points. Cohen’s kappa statistic was used to assess the level of agreement between phenotypic resistance and the detection of sulphonamides, chloramphenicol, and tetracycline resistance genes. Cohen’s kappa is a statistical measure used to evaluate the level of harmony between two test protocols, assigning a kappa value between zero and one. Values ≤ 0 indicate no agreement; 0.01–0.20 none to slight; 0.21–0.40 fair; 0.41–0.60 moderate; 0.61–0.80 substantial; and values in the range of 0.81–1.00 indicate values with nearly perfect agreement (McHugh, 2012). A p -value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant at a 95% confidence interval 3. Results 3.1 Molecular Prevalence of E. coli in Dressed Broiler Chickens in Sokoto Metropolis Out of the 165 samples collected from dressed broiler chickens, 43 (26.1%) isolates were observed to show phenotypic morphology of E. coli , and 28 (17.0%) isolates were identified as presumptive E. coli using biochemical identification. In contrast, 27 (16.4%) were confirmed following PCR amplification of the uidA gene (Fig. 1 ). From the confirmed isolates, Site A had statistically (χ 2 = 11,923, p = 0.008) the highest prevalence (7.3%) of E. coli in dressed broiler chickens, followed by Site B (5.5%). In comparison, Site C and Site D had the lowest prevalence (1.8%), as shown in Table 1 . Table 1 Identification Workflow and Prevalence of E. coli from Dressed Broiler Chickens from Sokoto, Nigeria Locations Culture Biochemical PCR Number Percentage (%) Number Percentage (%) Number Percentage (%) Site A (n = 40) 14 8.5 12 7.3 12 7.3 Site B (n = 40) 13 7.9 9 5.5 9 5.5 Site C (n = 40) 6 3.6 3 1.8 3 1.8 Site D (n = 45) 10 6.1 4 2.4 3 1.8 Total 43 26.1 28 17.0 27 16.4 ꭓ2= 11.923 p value= 0.008 3.2 Sensitivity and Resistance Profile of E. coli Isolates from Dressed Broiler Chickens Confirmed E. coli isolates (27) were tested for antibiotic susceptibility to ten of the most commonly used antimicrobials in the field. Susceptibility test on confirmed isolates revealed 26 isolates (96.3%) were resistant to ampicillin, 22 (81.5%) to tetracycline, 21 (77.8%) to trimethoprim, 16 (59.3%) to sulphonamides, and 15 (55.6%) to ceftazidime. However, 5 (18.5%) were resistant to gentamycin, 4 (14.8%) to ciprofloxacin, 12 (44.4%) to chloramphenicol, 9 (33.3%) to nalidixic acid, and 13 (48.2%) to cefotaxime (Table 2 ). Twenty-four (24) isolates, 88.9% (24/27), were reported to be multidrug-resistant (MDR), showing resistance to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobials of different categories [29,30]. Twenty-nine different combinations of resistant profiles were observed. The most common combination of resistance profile is resistance to both tetracycline and trimethoprim (63%), while 59% of the isolates showed a combination of resistance to ampicillin, tetracycline, and trimethoprim (Table 3 ). Table 2 Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Confirmed E. coli Isolates from Dressed Broiler Chickens in Sokoto Metropolis Antimicrobial Class CLSI Breakpoints Percentage Resistance (%) Percentage Intermediate (%) Percentage Sensitive (%) Aminoglycosides Ampicillin 14–16 26 (96.3) 0 1 (3.7) Gentamycin 13–14 5 (18.5) 0 22 (81.5) Beta lactams Cefotaxime 23–25 13 (48.2) 5 (18.5) 9 (33.3) Ceftazidime 12–14 15 (55.6) 8 (29.6) 4 (14.8) Quinolones Ciprofloxacin 22–25 4 (14.8) 9 (33.3) 14 (51.9) Nalidixic acid 14–18 9 (33.3) 8 (29.6) 10 (37.0) Folate inhibitors Trimethoprim 11–15 21 (77.8) 1 (3.7) 5 (18.5) Sulphonamides 13–16 16 (59.3) 0 11 (40.7) Phenicol Chloramphenicol 13–17 12 (44.4) 2 (7.4) 13 (48.2) Tetracycline Tetracycline 12–14 22 (81.5) 0 5 (18.5) CLSI= Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute, n=27 Table 3 Resistance Profile of E. coli Isolates Obtained from Dressed Broiler Chickens in Sokoto Metropolis Sn Profile No 1 AMP + C + CAZ + CIP + TE + NA + S + W 1 2 AMP + C + CAZ + TE + W 5 3 AMP + CN + W 5 4 AMP + CN + S + W 4 5 AMP + CN + CAZ + CTX + S + W 2 6 AMP + C + CN + CTX + CIP + TE + NA + S + W 1 7 AMP + CAZ + CTX 3 8 AMP + C + NA + CTX + CAZ + TE + W 1 9 AMP + C + TE + W 10 10 AMP + C + CTX + TE + W 6 11 AMP + C + CTX + TE + S + W 4 12 AMP + C + CTX + TE + S + W 2 13 AMP + C + CN + CTX + CIP + TE + NA + S + W 1 14 AMP + CN + W 5 15 AMP + CN + CTX + W 4 16 AMP + CN + CAZ + CTX + W 3 17 AMP + CN + CAZ + CTX + S + W 2 18 AMP + CN + CAZ + CTX + TE + S + W 1 19 AMP + CTX + CAZ 7 20 AMP + CAZ + CTX + W 6 21 AMP + CAZ + CTX + TE + W 4 22 AMP + CAZ + CTX + TE + NA + W 2 23 AMP + CAZ + CTX + CIP + TE + NA + S + W 1 24 TE + W 17 25 AMP + C + CTX + CAZ + TE + S + W 1 26 AMP + C + CAZ + TE + S + W 6 27 AMP + C + CAZ + TE + W 5 28 AMP + C + CAZ + CTX + TE + S + W 1 29 AMP + TE + W 16 N.B. AMP = Ampicillin, C = Chloramphenicol, CAZ = Ceftazidime, CIP = Ciprofloxacin, CN = Gentamicin, CTX = Cefotaxime, NA = Nalidixic acid, S = Sulphonamide, TE = Tetracycline, 3.3 Molecular Detection of Resistance Genes Isolates that were phenotypically multidrug resistant, 88.9% (24/27), were subjected to PCR amplification of genes that confer resistance to tetracycline (tetA, tetB), sulphonamides (sul1, sul2), and chloramphenicol ( catA1, catA2 ) (Supplementary Fig. 1 to Fig. 5 ). For tetracycline resistance, 91.7% and 58.3% of isolates were found to have the tetA and tetB genes, respectively. For sulphonamides, 37.5% and 87.5% isolates were found to have the sul1 and sul2 genes, respectively. Meanwhile, 62.5% and 58.3% of chloramphenicol isolates were found to have the catA1 and catA2 genes, respectively (Table 4 ). Table 4 Molecular Detection of Resistance Genes to Sulphonamides, Tetracycline, and Chloramphenicol among Multidrug-Resistant Isolates from Dressed Broiler Chickens in Sokoto Metropolis Resistant genes Number Percentage (%) Sulphonamides sul1 9 37.5 sul2 21 87.5 Chloramphenicol catA1 15 62.5 catA2 14 58.3 Tetracycline tet(A) 22 91.7 tet(B) 14 58.3 3.4 Association between Phenotypic Resistance and Molecular Detection of Resistance Genes There was fair concordance between phenotypic resistance and detection of resistance genes ( tetA and tetB ) to tetracycline, though with no statistically significant ( p = 0.19). Furthermore, no concordance was observed between phenotypic resistance and detection of resistance genes ( sul1, sul2 ) to sulphonamides and chloramphenicol as well ( catA1, catA2 ) (Table 5 ) Table 5 Correlation between Resistance Genes Detection and Phenotypic Resistance of Multidrug-Resistance E. coli Isolates Antimicrobial Phenotypic Resistance Genotypic Resistance Kappa Value p Value Sulphonamides 16 21 0.000 1.0 Chloramphenicol 12 19 -0.083 0.62 Tetracycline 20 22 0.25 0.19 4. Discussion The isolation rate of E. coli recovered in broiler chickens from this study is of public health significance because some strains may be pathogenic. Poultry meat and products are ranked first globally amongst animal products associated with food-borne diseases such as E. coli [6]. In the USA, poultry meat is ranked third in cases of food-borne disease outbreaks [7]. Broilers and local chickens serve as the major sources of poultry meat in Nigeria, and consumption occurs independently of religious and ethnic backgrounds [1]. The spread of MDR bacteria has been recognized as an increasing problem in the medical and veterinary fields [12]. In this study, we determine the prevalence of E. coli in dressed broiler chickens at slaughter points within the Sokoto metropolis. In this study, 16.4% of dressed broiler chickens were contaminated with E. coli. This probably may be largely a result of poor hygienic practices at the poultry slaughter points and partly due to the ubiquitous ability of E. coli to survive and multiply in a moist environment [31]. The E. coli prevalence in this study is similar to what was reported by Aworh et al. [32], Ema et al., and Ejeh et al. [32–34], who reported high prevalence rates of 26.8%, 21%, and 20% in broiler chickens at Abuja, Bangladesh, and Zaria metropolis, respectively. Abubakar et al . [15] also reported a lower prevalence rate of 12.1% of E. coli in broiler chickens in the Gusau metropolis. From the confirmed isolates, Site A had the highest prevalence (7.3%) of E. coli in dressed broiler chickens compared to other locations. The reason for the highest prevalence could probably be a result of the poor sanitary conditions of the environment in this slaughtering point. Our findings showed that E. coli isolates from dressed broiler chickens showed high resistance to ampicillin (96.3%), tetracycline (81.5%), trimethoprim (77.8%), sulphonamides (59.3%), and ceftazidime (55.6%). This is similar to the findings of other studies that reported high ampicillin, tetracycline, and sulphonamides resistance in poultry [32,34,35] in Abuja, Vietnam, and Zaria respectively. In this study, the E. coli isolates identified showed the highest resistance to penicillin (96.3%). This finding is similar to the study carried out by Kazemnia et al. [36], who recovered the antibiotic resistance pattern of different E. coli phylogenetic groups from human urinary tract infection and avian colibacillosis. A possible explanation for this disparity may be due to easy access to antimicrobials for both human and veterinary use as opposed to the developed economies where these are strictly prescription-only medicines [37], particularly tetracycline, sulphonamides, and trimethoprim. However, the high resistance to ampicillin, ceftazidime, and cefotaxime is worrisome, as these antibiotics are not usually administered to poultry. The ability of isolates of poultry origin to show resistance to ampicillin and ceftazidime could probably be due to horizontal gene transfer from other pathogens [38]. Furthermore, detecting resistance genes that confer resistance to tested antibiotics was high among isolates. The most prevalent resistance genes observed were tetA and tetB , which are responsible for resistance against tetracycline. Of the two genes detected, tetA was the most observed in this study. Regarding the obtained results of tetA , which were detected in almost all tested isolates (91.7%), they were supported by Qurani [39], who found that 93.3% of E. coli isolates recovered from broiler chickens were positive for tetA. Also, Guerra et al . [40] found that the most frequent resistance genes in E. coli were tetA (86%) compared to tetB isotypes. Higher prevalence was detected by F.R et al. and Radwan et al. [41,42], who found the tetA gene in all isolates. Moreover, a lower prevalence was recorded by Guerra et al. [27]; 66% for tetA and 42% for tetB [43]; the tetA gene 60%, Momtaz et al . [44]; 52.6% for both tetA and tetB genes. This finding was not surprising as tetracycline is Nigeria's most misused antibiotic in poultry production [45]. Likewise, the detection of sul1, sul2, catA1 , and catA2 that confer resistance to sulphonamides and chloramphenicol was high. However, for sulphonamide resistance genes, sul1 was the most predominant. Similarly, catA1 is the predominant chloramphenicol resistance gene detected compared to catA2 . Twenty-four 24/27 isolates (88.9%) were reported to be multidrug-resistant (MDR), showing resistance to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobials of different categories. The MDR in this study agreed with several previous reports by Radwan et al . [46] that recorded MDR in 90.4% of the isolates, Adelaide et al . [47] in Kenya, and Sharada et al . [48] in India. Amer et al. [49] and Qurani [39] reported higher MDR percentages in Egypt. In contrast to our findings, lower percentages of MDR were recorded by Dou et al. [50] in China, 80.3% by Rahman et al. [4] in Bangladesh, 76% by Aggad et al. [51] in Algeria, 72% by Rahimi [52] in Iran, and 63.3%. Humans are exposed to antimicrobial-resistant bacteria via interactions with poultry, which is the source of MDR [53]. The spread of MDR bacteria has been recognized as an increasing problem in both medical and veterinary fields, and movable DNA elements such as plasmids, integrons, and transposons favour the proliferation of resistance genes in bacteria [54]. Plasmids are the major vector in spreading resistance genes through the bacterial population [46]. 5. Conclusion This study revealed a high prevalence of 16.4% for E. coli , and 88.9% of isolates were reported to be multidrug-resistant (MDR) from dressed broiler chickens slaughtered in Sokoto metropolis, Sokoto State. Most isolates showed high resistance to ampicillin, tetracycline, trimethoprim, sulphonamides, and ceftazidime. Many isolates were multidrug-resistant, showing resistance to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobials of different categories. In addition, the detection of resistance genes against sulphonamides, chloramphenicol, and tetracycline was also high among the isolates. Abbreviations AMR Antimicrobial Resistance MDR Multidrug Resistance PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction SSIPC Sokoto Metropolis Investment Promotion Committee Declarations Acknowledgements Author VG would like to acknowledge the support of the project PID2022-143041OB-I00 through the MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and also acknowledge the support of FEDER Una manera de hacer Europa Author’s Contributions Abdurrahman Hassan Jibril: Conceptualization, Supervision, Resources, Review & Editing, Data curation, Writing-original draft preparation. Mukhtar Kabir: Investigation, Methodology, Writing- original draft, Review & Editing. Abdullah O Sani : Methodology, Review & Editing. Mohammed Sanusi Yahaya : Methodology, Review & Editing, Supervision. Fatimah M Ballah : Methodology, Review & Editing. Yusuf Yakubu: Methodology, Review and Editing, Supervision. Vanessa Garcia : Methodology, Review & Editing, Resources. Farhan Rhidor Akorede : Visualization, Review & Editing. Funding Not Applicable Data Availability All the data used for the research are described in the article. Additional data are made available upon contacting the corresponding author with reasonable request. Ethical Approval Ethical approval for sample collection at poultry slaughter points was obtained from the Ministry of Animal Health and Fisheries Development, Sokoto State, Nigeria. With reference number MAH&FD/PLAN/195/Vol.1. Consent for publication Not Applicable Consent to participate Not Applicable Competing Interests None Clinical Trial Number Not Applicable References Omodele T, Okere IA. GIS application in poultry production: Identification of layers as the major commercial product of the poultry sector in Nigeria. Livest Res Rural Dev. 2014; Ajayi FO. Nigerian indigenous chicken: A valuable genetic resource for meat and egg production. Asian J Poult Sci. 2010; Emaikwu KK, Chikwendu DO, Sani AS. Determinants of flock size in broiler production in Kaduna State of Nigeria. J Agric Ext Rural Dev. 2011; Rahman MA, Rahman AKMA, Islam MA, Alam MM. ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI ISOLATED FROM MILK, BEEF AND CHICKEN MEAT IN BANGLADESH. Bangladesh J Vet Med. 2018; Çolak H, Ugurluay G, Nazli B, BIngöl EB. Paketlemede kullanilan nem tutucu filtrelerin hindi etinin raf ömrü üzerine etkisi. Istanbul Univ Vet Fak Derg. 2011; Kahraman BB, Ak S. A new pathogen in poultry: Helicobacter pullorum. 2012; Urumova V, Stoyanchev T, Lyutskanov M, Daskalov H, Vashin I, Maramski A. Antimicrobial sensitivity of campylobacter jejuni poultry isolates from the Republic of Bulgaria. Istanbul Univ Vet Fak Derg. 2014; Narayan KG, Sinha DK, Singh DK. Veterinary Public Health & Epidemiology. Springer; 2023. Blount ZD. The unexhausted potential of E. coli. Elife. 2015; CDC. National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System for Enteric Bacteria (NARMS): Human Isolates Final Report, 2013. US Department of Health and Human Services, CDC Atlanta, GA; 2013. Lima CM, Souza IEGL, dos Santos Alves T, Leite CC, Evangelista-Barreto NS, de Castro Almeida RC. Antimicrobial resistance in diarrheagenic Escherichia coli from ready-to-eat foods. J Food Sci Technol. 2017; Zhao X, Zhao H, Zhou Z, Miao Y, Li R, Yang B, et al. Characterization of Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli Isolates That Cause Diarrhea in Sheep in Northwest China. Vignoli R, editor. Microbiol Spectr [Internet]. 2022;10. Available from: https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/spectrum.01595-22 Blench R. Traditional Livestock Breeds: Geographical Distribution and Dynamics in Relations to the Ecology of West Africa. Overseas Dev. Inst. Portl. House Stag Place London, SW1E 5DP. 1999. Thrusfield M. Veterinary epidemiology. John Wiley & Sons; 2018. Abubakar Y, Yakubu Y, Garba B, Lawal N, Usman M, Lawal A, et al. Molecular characterization of multi-drug resistance profile of extended spectrum beta lactamase producing Escherichia coli (ESBL) in poultry from Gusau metropolis, Nigeria. Microbes Infect Dis. 2023; De Cesare A, Palma F, Lucchi A, Pasquali F, Manfreda G. Microbiological profile of chicken carcasses: A comparative analysis using shotgun metagenomic sequencing. Ital J Food Saf. 2018; C Ugwu M, Ofoegbu E, C Ezejiegu K. Spectrum and Antibiogram of Bacteria Isolated from Commercially Available Stockfish in Eke-Awka Market, Anambra Nigeria. Acta Sci Microbiol. 2020; Cheesbrough M. District laboratory practice in tropical countries, second edition. Dist. Lab. Pract. Trop. Countries, Second Ed. 2006. Tawyabur M, Islam MS, Sobur MA, Hossain MJ, Mahmud MM, Paul S, et al. Isolation and characterization of multidrug-resistant escherichia coli and salmonella spp. From healthy and diseased turkeys. Antibiotics. 2020; Salah FD, Soubeiga ST, Ouattara AK, Sadji AY, Metuor-Dabire A, Obiri-Yeboah D, et al. Distribution of quinolone resistance gene (qnr) in ESBL-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. in Lomé, Togo. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2019; Gómez-Duarte OG, Arzuza O, Urbina D, Bai J, Guerra J, Montes O, et al. Detection of escherichia coli enteropathogens by multiplex polymerase chain reaction from children’s diarrheal stools in two Caribbean-Colombian cities. Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2010; Hassan J, Parvej MS, Rahman MB, Khan MSR, Rahman MT, Kamal T, et al. Prevalence and Characterization of Escherichia coli from Rectal Swab of Apparently Healthy Cattle in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Microbes Heal. 2014; Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. CLSI. Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. J. Serv. Mark. 2021. Ramírez-Bayard IE, Mejía F, Medina-Sánchez JR, Cornejo-Reyes H, Castillo M, Querol-Audi J, et al. Prevalence of Plasmid-Associated Tetracycline Resistance Genes in Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli Strains Isolated from Environmental, Animal and Human Samples in Panama. Antibiotics. 2023; Yoon MY, Kim Y Bin, Ha JS, Seo KW, Noh EB, Son SH, et al. Molecular characteristics of fluoroquinolone-resistant avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from broiler chickens. Poult Sci. 2020; Chu C, Chiu CH, Wu WY, Chu CH, Liu TP, Ou JT. Large drug resistance virulence plasmids of clinical isolates of Salmonella enterica serovar Choleraesuis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001; Guerra B, Soto SM, Argüelles JM, Mendoza MC. Multidrug resistance is mediated by large plasmids carrying a class 1 integron in the emergent Salmonella enterica serotype [4,5,12:i:-]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001; García V, Mandomando I, Ruiz J, Herrera-León S, Alonso PL, Rodicio MR. Salmonella enterica serovars typhimurium and enteritidis causing mixed infections in febrile children in Mozambique. Infect Drug Resist. 2018; Magiorakos A-P, Srinivasan A, Carey RB, Carmeli Y, Falagas ME, Giske CG, et al. Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: an international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance. Clin Microbiol Infect [Internet]. 2012;18:268–81. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1198743X14616323 Dadgostar P. Antimicrobial resistance: implications and costs. Infect. Drug Resist. 2019. Van Elsas JD, Semenov A V., Costa R, Trevors JT. Survival of Escherichia coli in the environment: Fundamental and public health aspects. ISME J. 2011. Aworh MK, Kwaga J, Okolocha E, Harden L, Hull D, Hendriksen RS, et al. Extended-spectrum ß-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli among humans, chickens and poultry environments in Abuja, Nigeria. One Heal Outlook. 2020; Ema FA, Shanta RN, Rahman MZ, Islam MA, Khatun MM. Isolation, identification, and antibiogram studies of Escherichia coli from ready-to-eat foods in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Vet World. 2022; Ejeh F, Lawan F, Abdulsalam H, Mamman P, Kwanashie C. Multiple antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli and Salmonella species isolated from broilers and local chickens retailed along the roadside in Zaria, Nigeria. Sokoto J Vet Sci. 2017; Trung NV, Jamrozy D, Matamoros S, Carrique-Mas JJ, Mai HH, Hieu TQ, et al. Limited contribution of non-intensive chicken farming to ESBL-producing Escherichia coli colonization in humans in Vietnam: An epidemiological and genomic analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2019; Kazemnia A, Ahmadi M, Dilmaghani M. Antibiotic resistance pattern of different Escherichia coli phylogenetic groups isolated from human urinary tract infection and avian colibacillosis. Iran Biomed J. 2014; Oloso NO, Fagbo S, Garbati M, Olonitola SO, Awosanya EJ, Aworh MK, et al. Antimicrobial Resistance in Food Animals and the Environment in Nigeria: A Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health [Internet]. 2018;15:1284. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/15/6/1284 Carattoli A. Resistance plasmid families in Enterobacteriaceae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2009. Qurani RO. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of Trypsin producing Escherichia coli isolated from broiler chickens. Ph. D. Thesis (Microbiology), Fact. Vet. Med., Beni-Suef Univ., Egypt; 2019. Guerra B, Junker E, Schroeter A, Helmuth R, Guth BEC, Beutin L. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli O111 isolates. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006; F.R ES, A.H A, M.M. H W, A.S B, Mwafy A. Antimicrobial resistance and molecular characterization of pathogenic E. coli isolated from chickens. J Vet Med Res. 2019; Radwan I, Abd El-Halim M, Abed A. Molecular characterization of Antimicrobial-Resistant Escherichia coli isolated from broiler chickens. J Vet Med Res. 2020; Younis G, Awad A, Mohamed N. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of antimicrobial susceptibility of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from broiler chickens. Vet World. 2017; Momtaz H, Jamshidi A. Shiga toxin-producing escherichia coli isolated from chicken meat in iran: Serogroups, virulence factors, and antimicrobial resistance properties. Poult Sci. 2013; Baba Galad H, Ahmad Geid Y, Usman Sham B, Ibrahim Ab H, Ibrahim B, Waziri A. Survey of Antimicrobial Residue in Table Eggs among Layer Poultry Farmers in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State. Asian J Anim Vet Adv. 2018; Radwan IA, Abed AH, Abd Al-Wanis SA, Abd El-Aziz GG, El-Shemy A. Antibacterial effect of cinnamon and oreganium oils on multidrug resistant Escherichia coli and Salmonellae isolated from broiler chickens. J Egy Vet Med, Ass. 2016;76:169–86. O.A. A, C. B, P. O. Antibiotic resistance and virulence factors in Escherichia coli from broiler chicken slaughtered at Tigoni processing plant in Limuru, Kenya. East Afr Med J. 2008; Sharada R, Ruban SW, Thiyageeswaran M. Antibiotic resistance pattern of Escherichia coli isolated from poultry in Bangalore. Int J Microbiol. 2009;7. Amer MM, Mekky HM, Amer AM, Fedawy HS. Antimicrobial resistance genes in pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from diseased broiler chickens in Egypt and their relationship with the phenotypic resistance characteristics. Vet World. 2018;11:1082–8. Dou X, Gong J, Han X, Xu M, Shen H, Zhang D, et al. Characterization of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated in eastern China. Gene [Internet]. 2016;576:244–8. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378111915012202 Aggad H, Ammar YA, Hammoudi A, Kihal M. Antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli isolated from chickens with colibacillosis. Glob Vet. 2010;4:303–6. Rahimi M. Antibioresistance profile of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolates recovered from broiler chicken farms with colibacillosis in Kermanshah province, Iran. Glob Vet. 2013; Effendi MH, Tyasningsih W, Yurianti YA, Rahmahani J, Harijani N, Plumeriastuti H. Presence of multidrug resistance (MDR) and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) of Escherichia coli isolated from cloacal swabs of broilers in several wet markets in Surabaya, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2021; Jamal AJ, Faheem A, Farooqi L, Zhong XZ, Armstrong I, Boyd DA, et al. Household Transmission of Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales in Ontario, Canada. Clin Infect Dis. 2021; Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7461615","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":524675515,"identity":"c418ac3b-ca17-49c4-a11f-4a68f7543fee","order_by":0,"name":"Abdurrahman Hassan Jibril","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdurrahman","middleName":"Hassan","lastName":"Jibril","suffix":""},{"id":524675517,"identity":"5bf38390-9bad-49de-969b-91553065b840","order_by":1,"name":"Mukhtar Kabir","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mukhtar","middleName":"","lastName":"Kabir","suffix":""},{"id":524675518,"identity":"c38507cb-b6e6-4c30-96cd-3aa13b5197ef","order_by":2,"name":"Abdullahi Ozomata Sani","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Agro-Processing, Productivity Enhancement and Livelihood Improvement Support (APPEALS) Project","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdullahi","middleName":"Ozomata","lastName":"Sani","suffix":""},{"id":524675519,"identity":"23c6ebf1-1fa1-4c87-b1e2-0162c324047c","order_by":3,"name":"Mohammed Sanusi Yahya","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mohammed","middleName":"Sanusi","lastName":"Yahya","suffix":""},{"id":524675520,"identity":"592c477d-bdc6-4a7b-954a-70965f7885a8","order_by":4,"name":"Fatimah M. Ballah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fatimah","middleName":"M.","lastName":"Ballah","suffix":""},{"id":524675521,"identity":"9927737a-fefb-461a-a240-ff5db8031f37","order_by":5,"name":"Farhan Rhidor Akorede","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Farhan","middleName":"Rhidor","lastName":"Akorede","suffix":""},{"id":524675525,"identity":"9cf6b036-5a6e-4aa1-8953-94b83141182f","order_by":6,"name":"Nafi’u Lawal","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nafi’u","middleName":"","lastName":"Lawal","suffix":""},{"id":524675527,"identity":"6766f530-1d0f-4fa6-a89e-682c94731c2d","order_by":7,"name":"Vanessa García","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidade de Santiago de Compostela (USC)","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Vanessa","middleName":"","lastName":"García","suffix":""},{"id":524675528,"identity":"6913c926-150f-4873-8eea-3df6eef31ba1","order_by":8,"name":"Yusuf Yakubu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"St. George's University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yusuf","middleName":"","lastName":"Yakubu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-26 09:53:40","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7461615/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7461615/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":92930515,"identity":"1b804a9f-f842-4449-b12c-17ad6cf3e457","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:57","extension":"tif","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":232900,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig1.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/418ead427bb97cc43ab09e01.tif"},{"id":92930513,"identity":"890dd5fd-ca4c-4b6d-83b0-bae9e89991a6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:57","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":111629,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Manuscriptfile.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/c5720a0ba32bdd7becb49999.docx"},{"id":92930514,"identity":"a27ebfde-1e1f-440f-9210-6944ab3dc777","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:57","extension":"tif","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":135050,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig2.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/0f1760052394f4e9c74270c3.tif"},{"id":92930761,"identity":"4a543ac0-646d-4c96-89fd-48db4d8322bf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:05:57","extension":"tif","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":181980,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig3.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/a75f5e87ad28072f79270caa.tif"},{"id":92932150,"identity":"0ed06274-f7cc-4fb9-b33a-2a11329337b8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:21:57","extension":"tif","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":161028,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig4.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/809280c713b03db832365cd7.tif"},{"id":92930519,"identity":"faf25bde-9e09-4ac5-b2d5-e52bfe432338","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:57","extension":"tif","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":163030,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig5.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/0ab9f843e820f42c8c450779.tif"},{"id":92931769,"identity":"0c175d96-839a-4d9e-aae3-22dc96415d52","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:13:57","extension":"json","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":10061,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"640cce40ad3e4d14bdf8dd5c8dbb462e.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/0761dc027c48e2b004505d87.json"},{"id":92930533,"identity":"0268e8ad-c006-40c1-864a-15570f5742b2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:58","extension":"xml","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":105504,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"640cce40ad3e4d14bdf8dd5c8dbb462e1enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/567c8774ae4f435d66654f3a.xml"},{"id":92930520,"identity":"60133f02-9cb1-45bd-a3c3-50acfe1bce1f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:57","extension":"tif","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":232900,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig1.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/e811538600c3fe7e2a6f311e.tif"},{"id":92930765,"identity":"fcc93fab-5377-48e5-97c1-892e0ef83523","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:05:58","extension":"tif","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":135050,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig2.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/3e21908038f150b7f85b7d87.tif"},{"id":92930530,"identity":"525dd100-b05d-44d7-af79-af7939dc7906","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:58","extension":"tif","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":181980,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig3.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/98301da30a8281105fe26408.tif"},{"id":92930524,"identity":"d8e32993-2c78-4467-a58e-a37e3e549300","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:57","extension":"tif","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":161028,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig4.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/5c9240a8febe1bac8e55000d.tif"},{"id":92930529,"identity":"66c9d239-cf98-4c60-8e63-d5b4657b4c79","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:58","extension":"tif","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":163030,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fig5.tif","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/d5552be608e69c309382f7f7.tif"},{"id":92931772,"identity":"66933e89-0c50-40e0-b824-a1a0d82cfd79","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:13:58","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":24447,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"OnlineFig1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/7d62b55c91bdfe025745d642.png"},{"id":92930764,"identity":"0bb3ed1f-3935-4baf-a351-ce9e7a484496","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:05:57","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":14201,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"OnlineFig2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/fdf2e34b4cadc04886c0b8ab.png"},{"id":92930525,"identity":"9254065d-b37d-4217-8ed1-0cc0f67acbae","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:58","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":18874,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"OnlineFig3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/25fa150cc0b328231bb8f774.png"},{"id":92931771,"identity":"73458efb-a080-4535-9bba-9af5a5898bf2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:13:58","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":15277,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"OnlineFig4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/4c97cbf58e680192bd7b3a7f.png"},{"id":92930522,"identity":"d22f1690-45c3-4bdd-b84f-723ed163b8db","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:57","extension":"png","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":14433,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"OnlineFig5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/48d08ef851b69650bbfc150f.png"},{"id":92930767,"identity":"d5d6d097-7c22-4bc3-97b3-6a4bcc19a642","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:05:58","extension":"xml","order_by":18,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":104120,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"640cce40ad3e4d14bdf8dd5c8dbb462e1structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/032780a9e70c16ab0ae0e8c4.xml"},{"id":92930526,"identity":"25bbb08d-985c-4467-acf8-542a1b5373d1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:58","extension":"html","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":113500,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/7498fa5d84247d0d48d33979.html"},{"id":92930758,"identity":"f77c6334-65c1-4606-a551-f7d9af8fa856","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:05:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":165228,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMultiplex PCR detection of \u003cem\u003esul2\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003etet(A) \u003c/em\u003ein\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003emultidrug-resistant\u003cem\u003e E. coli\u003c/em\u003e from dressed broiler chickens in Sokoto metropolis. The product yielded 707 bp (indicated with green ring) and 210 bp (indicated with red ring), typical of sul2 and tet(A) genes, respectively. Lane 1-2, N: Negative Control (nuclease-free water), M: 100bp DNA ladder (Trans-gene Biotech China).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1.tif.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/1d8e7462ffbe3c396c861643.jpg"},{"id":92931768,"identity":"695c85b6-38d8-4ad1-99c0-c2853d429b98","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:13:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":100495,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMolecular detection of \u003cem\u003esul1\u003c/em\u003e in\u003cem\u003e E. coli\u003c/em\u003e from dressed broiler chickens in Sokoto metropolis. The product yielded 433 bp, typical of multidrug resistance \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e. Lane 1-2, N: Negative Control (nuclease-free water), M: 100bp DNA ladder (Trans-gene Biotech China).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig2.tif.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/3cda5b878a4df6f7512e17c9.jpg"},{"id":92930508,"identity":"13d3aeeb-2b9d-4716-b6cf-44bc7b1522d6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":121176,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMolecular detection of \u003cem\u003etetB\u003c/em\u003e. The product yielded 600 bp, typical of multidrug resistance \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003etetB)\u003c/em\u003e. Lane 1-2, N: Negative Control (nuclease-free water), M: 100bp DNA ladder (Trans-gene Biotech China).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig3.tif.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/dc4561f01fdda5749ea68a68.jpg"},{"id":92930511,"identity":"f0451c3d-5786-4995-85ab-693ed8acd19a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 08:57:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":48380,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMolecular detection of \u003cem\u003ecatA1\u003c/em\u003e. The product yielded 623 bp, typical of multidrug resistance \u003cem\u003eE. coli \u003c/em\u003e(\u003cem\u003ecatA1\u003c/em\u003e) Lane 1-2, N: Negative Control (nuclease-free water), M: 100bp DNA ladder (Trans-gene Biotech China)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig4.tif.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/66c5f7285514eb3698500696.jpg"},{"id":92930759,"identity":"db72e064-8ad3-4791-8a9f-3065dd68e92f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-07 09:05:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":134021,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMolecular detection of \u003cem\u003ecatA2\u003c/em\u003e. The product yielded 700 bp, typical of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e. Lane 1-2, N: Negative Control (nuclease-free water), M: 100bp DNA ladder (Trans-gene Biotech China).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig5.tif.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/9b34ba125f5b71f3cf5c46b0.jpg"},{"id":103503907,"identity":"71fb41c9-9bb7-4e1b-8b86-c85c5952f61b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-26 13:04:33","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1729891,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7461615/v1/c2258ea0-5bc0-41b6-b685-0dd88cbe30be.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Molecular Prevalence of Multi-drug Resistant Escherichia coli in Dressed Broiler Chickens in Sokoto, Nigeria","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAnimal-derived foods like chicken, beef, mutton, and milk are rich in proteins vital for body growth and development. However, broilers and local hens serve as the major sources of poultry meat in Nigeria [1]. Unlike the local hens raised for multipurpose use, the broiler chickens (\u003cem\u003eGallus gallus domesticus\u003c/em\u003e) are domesticated fowl bred and raised mainly for meat production [2], owing to their characteristics of fast growth, large size, and high carcass weight. Poultry production, especially broiler and local chickens, accounts for a high percentage of quality protein and is one of Nigeria's major livestock raised for revenue [3].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFoods of animal origin can operate as carriers and media for transmitting numerous microorganisms that can cause health problems, disease, and even death [4]. Foodborne illnesses are a major global public health concern. In the USA, foodborne illnesses are responsible for an estimated 48\u0026nbsp;million cases and 3000 fatalities annually [4]. Poultry products are highly perishable, and several international protocols ensure their safety and quality [5]. However, poultry meat and products are ranked first globally amongst animal products associated with food-borne diseases such as \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e [6]. In the USA, poultry meat is ranked third in cases of food-borne disease outbreaks [7].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e is a ubiquitous organism that belongs to the coliform group of \u003cem\u003eEnterobacteriaceae\u003c/em\u003e, genus \u003cem\u003eEscherichia\u003c/em\u003e. It colonises infant intestines within 40 hours of birth and is a commensal of the gastrointestinal tract of mammals and birds [8]. The harmless strains benefit their hosts by producing vitamins K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and B\u003csub\u003e12\u003c/sub\u003e [9]. The pathogenic ones are the major causative agents of several diseases in animals and humans worldwide [8].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe resistance to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobials of different categories is known as multidrug resistance (MDR). Tellingly, \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e has developed resistance to one or more antibiotics, which has raised public health concerns. The indiscriminate and rising use of antibiotics is linked to the high occurrence of resistance in these bacteria. Antimicrobials are used in food production to prevent and control illnesses, enhance growth, and increase feed efficiency in food-producing animals [10]. Administering these antibiotics to animals at suboptimal levels for long periods could result in the selection and spread of antibiotic resistance to other microbes in the food chain [11]. The spread of MDR bacteria has been recognised as an increasing problem in medical and veterinary practice [12].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to determine the prevalence of multidrug-resistant \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e in dressed broiler chickens in Sokoto metropolis, Nigeria. This would contribute to the ongoing intervention against the spread of antimicrobial resistance, especially in a commonly and readily consumed unsuspecting food source.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Sokoto metropolis, Nigeria. Sokoto metropolis is made up of four local government areas, namely, Sokoto North, Sokoto South, Wamakko, and Dange-Shuni. The state is located at latitude 13\u003csup\u003e∘\u003c/sup\u003e N and between longitudes 4\u003csup\u003e∘\u003c/sup\u003e 8\u0026rsquo; E and 6\u003csup\u003e∘\u003c/sup\u003e 54\u0026rsquo; E in North-western Nigeria. The State covers an area of approximately 56,000 square kilometres [13]. The State shares a border with the Niger Republic to the north, Kebbi State to the south, and Zamfara State to the east. Based on the 2006 census, Sokoto metropolis was estimated to have a population of about 4,344,399. The State is ranked second in livestock population with about 3\u0026nbsp;million cattle, 4\u0026nbsp;million goats, 3.85\u0026nbsp;million sheep, 0.8\u0026nbsp;million camels, and 1\u0026nbsp;million poultry (Sokoto metropolis Investment Promotion Committee (SSIPC).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Sample Size Determination\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe minimum sample size for this study was determined by the formula\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;t\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003ex \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003ep\u003c/span\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eexp\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e(1-p\u003c/span\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eexp\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e)/\u003c/span\u003e d\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e [14]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;sample size, t\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;the score for a given interval, which is 1.96(S.E.) at 95% confidence interval, pexp\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;known or estimated prevalence, d\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;and precision at 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe sample was calculated at a 12.1% expected prevalence [15], a 95% confidence interval, and a desired precision of 5%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003en = (1.96)\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e \u0026times; 0.08 \u0026times; (1-0.08)/ (0.05)\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.307328\u0026times; (0.92)/ 0.0025\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;163.446704\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThus, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;165\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Study Design and Sample Collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional study was conducted where carcass rinsates were collected from dressed broiler chickens at different slaughter points. A systematic random sampling technique was used to collect the rinsate from the nth chickens during standard daily processing. One hundred and sixty-five rinsates were obtained from 4 different poultry processing sites (slaughter slabs) in the metropolis. Methods described and adapted by De Cesare et al. [16] were used to collect the rinsates. Briefly, with a gloved hand, a completely dressed carcass was immersed in a sterile bag containing 30 mL of sterile distilled water. Subsequently, it was shaken vigorously, and the chicken was aseptically removed from the immersed distilled water. Sterile bags containing samples were adequately labelled and transported on ice packs and were immediately analysed at the Fleming laboratory, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.5 Culture and Isolation of\u003c/em\u003e E. coli\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe collected samples were aseptically inoculated (1ml) into buffered peptone water (Oxoid, UK) and incubated aerobically at 37\u0026deg;C for 24 hrs. Then, a loopful of the broth culture was streaked onto MacConkey agar (Oxoid, UK) and incubated aerobically at 37\u0026deg;C for 24\u0026ndash;48 hours. The lactose fermenting (pink) colonies were inoculated onto Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) agar (Oxoid, UK). Colonies with a green metallic sheen appearance were taken as presumptive E. coli and were transferred onto a slant bottle for further processing [17].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.6 Biochemical Characterization of\u003c/em\u003e E. coli\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePresumptive \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e was subjected to biochemical identification using the Indole reaction, Methyl red test, Voges-Proskauer test, and Citrate utilisation test (IMViC), as described by Cheesbrough and Tawyabur et al. [18,19].\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.7 Molecular Confirmation of\u003c/em\u003e E. coli\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe genomic DNA of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e was extracted as described by Salah \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [20]. Briefly, 2\u0026ndash;3 colonies of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e were transferred into 200\u0026micro;L of nuclease-free water and were boiled for 10 minutes to disrupt the cells and release the DNA, followed by centrifugation at 10,000 rpm for five minutes. The crude DNA extract supernatant was stored at -20\u0026deg;C until polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used. Confirmation of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e was done by PCR amplification of the β-d-glucuronidase (\u003cem\u003euidA\u003c/em\u003e) gene using specific primers [21,22]. PCR amplification was done using the PCR reaction at a final volume of 25\u0026micro;l reaction mixture containing 12.5\u0026micro;l of ThermoFisher Master Mix, 0.5\u0026micro;l each of the forward and backward primers, 9.5\u0026micro;l of nuclease-free water (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), and 2\u0026micro;l of DNA template. The amplification cycle consists of an initial denaturation of 94\u0026deg;C for 5 min, followed by 35 cycles of 94\u0026deg;C for 30 s, annealing at 60\u0026deg;C for 30 s in 35 cycles, initial extension at 72\u0026deg;C for 30 s in 35 cycles and a final extension at 72\u0026deg;C for 5 min in 1 cycle in a T100 Thermal cycler (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc. USA). PCR products were separated on a 1.5% (w/v) agarose gel in Tris Borate EDTA buffer (pH 8.2), stained with ethidium bromide (10\u0026micro;g/ml). They were visualised using the GelDoc Go Imaging System (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc., USA).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.8 Antibiotic Sensitivity Testing of Isolates\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfirmed \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e isolates were tested for susceptibility to ten of the most common antimicrobials used in the field, which include Ampicillin (10\u0026micro;g), Gentamycin (10\u0026micro;g), Cefotaxime (30\u0026micro;g), Ceftazidime (10\u0026micro;g), Ciprofloxacin (5\u0026micro;g), Chloramphenicol (30\u0026micro;g), Nalidixic acid (30\u0026micro;g), Sulphonamide (300\u0026micro;g), Tetracycline (30\u0026micro;g), and Trimethoprim (5\u0026micro;g). Susceptibility testing was done using the Kirby\u0026ndash;Bauer disc diffusion method according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI, 2020). According to the guidelines, the antimicrobial susceptibility was based on the induced inhibition zones [23]. Inhibition zone data was entered into WHONET version 5.6, configured with the tested antimicrobials. Isolates were categorised as sensitive, intermediate, or resistant using clinical breakpoints and guidelines of CLSI (2020). Resistance to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobials of different categories was taken as multidrug resistance (MDR), according to Dadgostar (2019) and Magiorakos et al. (2012).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.9 Molecular Detection of Resistance Genes\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIsolates that were phenotypically multidrug resistant were subjected to PCR amplification of tetracycline resistance genes (\u003cem\u003etetA, tetB\u003c/em\u003e) [24], sulphonamide resistance genes (\u003cem\u003esul1, sul2\u003c/em\u003e) [25]; [26] and chloramphenicol resistance genes (\u003cem\u003ecatA1, catA2\u003c/em\u003e) [27]; [28] using specific primers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMultiplex PCR was performed to amplify \u003cem\u003esul2\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003etetA.\u003c/em\u003e The PCR was performed in a 25\u0026micro;l reaction volume consisting of 12.5\u0026micro;l of a master mix (Biolabs), 0.5\u0026micro;l of forward primers (IDT\u0026reg;), 0.5\u0026micro;l of reverse primers (IDT\u0026reg;), 6.5\u0026micro;l of nuclease energy-free water (Biolabs), and 4\u0026micro;l of DNA template. The PCR was performed using the DNA amplification method comprising an initial denaturation step at 94℃ for 5 minutes, 35 cycles of denaturation at 94℃ for 30 seconds, 35 cycles of annealing at 53℃ for 30 seconds, and an initial extension at 72℃ for 30 seconds in 35 cycles also and one final extension cycle at 72℃ for 5 minutes. The PCR products were loaded in a 1% agarose gel (Vivantis Incorp, USA), 1x TBE (Vivantis Incorp, USA) buffer (Tris 0.09M- borate 0.09 M-EDTA 0.02M) pre-stained with ethidium bromide (Biotium, Hayward, USA). Electrophoresis was carried out at 70 volts for 70 minutes (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc., USA). Molecular markers of 100bp (GeneDirex, Taiwan) were run in parallel with the DNA samples to indicate the size of PCR amplicons. Gel was visualised under a UV light transilluminator (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc., USA), and the images were taken.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUniplex PCRs were performed to amplify \u003cem\u003esul1\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003etetB, catA1\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ecatA2.\u003c/em\u003e The PCRs were performed in a 25\u0026micro;l reaction volume consisting of 12.5\u0026micro;l of a master mix (Biolabs), 0.5\u0026micro;l of forward primers (IDT\u0026reg;), 0.5\u0026micro;l of reverse primers (IDT\u0026reg;), 9.5\u0026micro;l of nuclease energy-free water (Biolabs), and 2\u0026micro;l of DNA template. The PCRs were performed using DNA amplification methods that comprised temperature conditions, time, and cycles, as described elsewhere (include references).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.10 Data and Statistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData was entered into Microsoft Excel 2016 and later exported to SPSS version 23 (IBM, USA) for inferential statistics. The chi-square test was used to check for any association between the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e and slaughtering points. Cohen\u0026rsquo;s kappa statistic was used to assess the level of agreement between phenotypic resistance and the detection of sulphonamides, chloramphenicol, and tetracycline resistance genes. Cohen\u0026rsquo;s kappa is a statistical measure used to evaluate the level of harmony between two test protocols, assigning a kappa value between zero and one. Values\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0 indicate no agreement; 0.01\u0026ndash;0.20 none to slight; 0.21\u0026ndash;0.40 fair; 0.41\u0026ndash;0.60 moderate; 0.61\u0026ndash;0.80 substantial; and values in the range of 0.81\u0026ndash;1.00 indicate values with nearly perfect agreement (McHugh, 2012). A \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 was considered statistically significant at a 95% confidence interval\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.1 Molecular Prevalence of\u003c/em\u003e E. coli \u003cem\u003ein Dressed Broiler Chickens in Sokoto Metropolis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOut of the 165 samples collected from dressed broiler chickens, 43 (26.1%) isolates were observed to show phenotypic morphology of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, and 28 (17.0%) isolates were identified as presumptive \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e using biochemical identification. In contrast, 27 (16.4%) were confirmed following PCR amplification of the \u003cem\u003euidA\u003c/em\u003e gene (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). From the confirmed isolates, Site A had statistically (χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11,923, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.008) the highest prevalence (7.3%) of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e in dressed broiler chickens, followed by Site B (5.5%). In comparison, Site C and Site D had the lowest prevalence (1.8%), as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIdentification Workflow and Prevalence of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e from Dressed Broiler Chickens from Sokoto, Nigeria\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocations\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCulture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBiochemical\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePCR\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage \u003cb\u003e(%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage \u003cb\u003e(%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage \u003cb\u003e(%)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSite A\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;40)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSite B\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;40)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSite C\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;40)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSite D\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;45)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e43\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e26.1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e28\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17.0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e27\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e16.4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eꭓ2= 11.923\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e value= 0.008\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e3.2 Sensitivity and Resistance Profile of\u003c/em\u003e E. coli \u003cem\u003eIsolates from Dressed Broiler Chickens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfirmed \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e isolates (27) were tested for antibiotic susceptibility to ten of the most commonly used antimicrobials in the field. Susceptibility test on confirmed isolates revealed 26 isolates (96.3%) were resistant to ampicillin, 22 (81.5%) to tetracycline, 21 (77.8%) to trimethoprim, 16 (59.3%) to sulphonamides, and 15 (55.6%) to ceftazidime. However, 5 (18.5%) were resistant to gentamycin, 4 (14.8%) to ciprofloxacin, 12 (44.4%) to chloramphenicol, 9 (33.3%) to nalidixic acid, and 13 (48.2%) to cefotaxime (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Twenty-four (24) isolates, 88.9% (24/27), were reported to be multidrug-resistant (MDR), showing resistance to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobials of different categories [29,30]. Twenty-nine different combinations of resistant profiles were observed. The most common combination of resistance profile is resistance to both tetracycline and trimethoprim (63%), while 59% of the isolates showed a combination of resistance to ampicillin, tetracycline, and trimethoprim (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAntimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Confirmed \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e Isolates from Dressed Broiler Chickens in Sokoto Metropolis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAntimicrobial Class\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCLSI Breakpoints\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage Resistance\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage Intermediate\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage Sensitive\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAminoglycosides\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmpicillin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u0026ndash;16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26 (96.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (3.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGentamycin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u0026ndash;14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (18.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22 (81.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBeta lactams\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCefotaxime\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13 (48.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (18.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeftazidime\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u0026ndash;14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15 (55.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8 (29.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4 (14.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eQuinolones\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCiprofloxacin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4 (14.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14 (51.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNalidixic acid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u0026ndash;18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8 (29.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 (37.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFolate inhibitors\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrimethoprim\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u0026ndash;15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21 (77.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 (3.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (18.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSulphonamides\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u0026ndash;16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16 (59.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11 (40.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePhenicol\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChloramphenicol\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u0026ndash;17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12 (44.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 (7.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13 (48.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTetracycline\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTetracycline\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u0026ndash;14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22 (81.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (18.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eCLSI= Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute, n=27\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResistance Profile of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e Isolates Obtained from Dressed Broiler Chickens in Sokoto Metropolis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSn\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProfile\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CIP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;NA\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CN\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CN\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CN\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CN\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CIP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;NA\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;NA\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CN\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CIP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;NA\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CN\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CN\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CN\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CN\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CN\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;NA\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CIP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;NA\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CAZ\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;CTX\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAMP\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;TE\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;W\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003eN.B.\u003c/b\u003e AMP = Ampicillin, C = Chloramphenicol, CAZ = Ceftazidime, CIP = Ciprofloxacin, CN = Gentamicin, CTX = Cefotaxime, NA = Nalidixic acid, S = Sulphonamide, TE = Tetracycline,\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Molecular Detection of Resistance Genes\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIsolates that were phenotypically multidrug resistant, 88.9% (24/27), were subjected to PCR amplification of genes that confer resistance to tetracycline (tetA, tetB), sulphonamides (sul1, sul2), and chloramphenicol (\u003cem\u003ecatA1, catA2\u003c/em\u003e) (Supplementary Fig.\u0026nbsp;1 to Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). For tetracycline resistance, 91.7% and 58.3% of isolates were found to have the \u003cem\u003etetA\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003etetB\u003c/em\u003e genes, respectively. For sulphonamides, 37.5% and 87.5% isolates were found to have the \u003cem\u003esul1\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003esul2\u003c/em\u003e genes, respectively. Meanwhile, 62.5% and 58.3% of chloramphenicol isolates were found to have the \u003cem\u003ecatA1\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ecatA2\u003c/em\u003e genes, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMolecular Detection of Resistance Genes to Sulphonamides, Tetracycline, and Chloramphenicol among Multidrug-Resistant Isolates from Dressed Broiler Chickens in Sokoto Metropolis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResistant genes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSulphonamides\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003esul1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003esul2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eChloramphenicol\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ecatA1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ecatA2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTetracycline\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003etet(A)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003etet(B)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Association between Phenotypic Resistance and Molecular Detection of Resistance Genes\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere was fair concordance between phenotypic resistance and detection of resistance genes (\u003cem\u003etetA\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003etetB\u003c/em\u003e) to tetracycline, though with no statistically significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.19). Furthermore, no concordance was observed between phenotypic resistance and detection of resistance genes (\u003cem\u003esul1, sul2\u003c/em\u003e) to sulphonamides and chloramphenicol as well (\u003cem\u003ecatA1, catA2\u003c/em\u003e) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCorrelation between Resistance Genes Detection and Phenotypic Resistance of Multidrug-Resistance \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e Isolates\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAntimicrobial\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhenotypic Resistance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGenotypic Resistance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKappa Value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep Value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSulphonamides\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChloramphenicol\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.083\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTetracycline\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe isolation rate of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e recovered in broiler chickens from this study is of public health significance because some strains may be pathogenic. Poultry meat and products are ranked first globally amongst animal products associated with food-borne diseases such as \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e [6]. In the USA, poultry meat is ranked third in cases of food-borne disease outbreaks [7]. Broilers and local chickens serve as the major sources of poultry meat in Nigeria, and consumption occurs independently of religious and ethnic backgrounds [1]. The spread of MDR bacteria has been recognized as an increasing problem in the medical and veterinary fields [12].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we determine the prevalence of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e in dressed broiler chickens at slaughter points within the Sokoto metropolis. In this study, 16.4% of dressed broiler chickens were contaminated with \u003cem\u003eE. coli.\u003c/em\u003e This probably may be largely a result of poor hygienic practices at the poultry slaughter points and partly due to the ubiquitous ability of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e to survive and multiply in a moist environment [31]. The E. coli prevalence in this study is similar to what was reported by Aworh et al. [32], Ema et al., and Ejeh et al. [32\u0026ndash;34], who reported high prevalence rates of 26.8%, 21%, and 20% in broiler chickens at Abuja, Bangladesh, and Zaria metropolis, respectively. Abubakar \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [15] also reported a lower prevalence rate of 12.1% of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e in broiler chickens in the Gusau metropolis. From the confirmed isolates, Site A had the highest prevalence (7.3%) of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e in dressed broiler chickens compared to other locations. The reason for the highest prevalence could probably be a result of the poor sanitary conditions of the environment in this slaughtering point.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOur findings showed that \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e isolates from dressed broiler chickens showed high resistance to ampicillin (96.3%), tetracycline (81.5%), trimethoprim (77.8%), sulphonamides (59.3%), and ceftazidime (55.6%). This is similar to the findings of other studies that reported high ampicillin, tetracycline, and sulphonamides resistance in poultry [32,34,35] in Abuja, Vietnam, and Zaria respectively. In this study, the E. coli isolates identified showed the highest resistance to penicillin (96.3%). This finding is similar to the study carried out by Kazemnia et al. [36], who recovered the antibiotic resistance pattern of different \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e phylogenetic groups from human urinary tract infection and avian colibacillosis. A possible explanation for this disparity may be due to easy access to antimicrobials for both human and veterinary use as opposed to the developed economies where these are strictly prescription-only medicines [37], particularly tetracycline, sulphonamides, and trimethoprim. However, the high resistance to ampicillin, ceftazidime, and cefotaxime is worrisome, as these antibiotics are not usually administered to poultry. The ability of isolates of poultry origin to show resistance to ampicillin and ceftazidime could probably be due to horizontal gene transfer from other pathogens [38]. Furthermore, detecting resistance genes that confer resistance to tested antibiotics was high among isolates. The most prevalent resistance genes observed were \u003cem\u003etetA\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003etetB\u003c/em\u003e, which are responsible for resistance against tetracycline. Of the two genes detected, \u003cem\u003etetA was\u003c/em\u003e the most observed in this study. Regarding the obtained results of \u003cem\u003etetA\u003c/em\u003e, which were detected in almost all tested isolates (91.7%), they were supported by Qurani [39], who found that 93.3% of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e isolates recovered from broiler chickens were positive for \u003cem\u003etetA.\u003c/em\u003e Also, Guerra \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [40] found that the most frequent resistance genes in \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e were \u003cem\u003etetA\u003c/em\u003e (86%) compared to \u003cem\u003etetB\u003c/em\u003e isotypes. Higher prevalence was detected by F.R et al. and Radwan et al. [41,42], who found the \u003cem\u003etetA\u003c/em\u003e gene in all isolates. Moreover, a lower prevalence was recorded by Guerra et al. [27]; 66% for tetA and 42% for tetB [43]; the tetA gene 60%, Momtaz \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [44]; 52.6% for both \u003cem\u003etetA\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003etetB\u003c/em\u003e genes. This finding was not surprising as tetracycline is Nigeria's most misused antibiotic in poultry production [45]. Likewise, the detection of \u003cem\u003esul1, sul2, catA1\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ecatA2\u003c/em\u003e that confer resistance to sulphonamides and chloramphenicol was high. However, for sulphonamide resistance genes, \u003cem\u003esul1\u003c/em\u003e was the most predominant. Similarly, \u003cem\u003ecatA1\u003c/em\u003e is the predominant chloramphenicol resistance gene detected compared to \u003cem\u003ecatA2\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwenty-four 24/27 isolates (88.9%) were reported to be multidrug-resistant (MDR), showing resistance to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobials of different categories. The MDR in this study agreed with several previous reports by Radwan \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [46] that recorded MDR in 90.4% of the isolates, Adelaide \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [47] in Kenya, and Sharada \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e. [48] in India. Amer et al. [49] and Qurani [39] reported higher MDR percentages in Egypt. In contrast to our findings, lower percentages of MDR were recorded by Dou et al. [50] in China, 80.3% by Rahman et al. [4] in Bangladesh, 76% by Aggad et al. [51] in Algeria, 72% by Rahimi [52] in Iran, and 63.3%. Humans are exposed to antimicrobial-resistant bacteria via interactions with poultry, which is the source of MDR [53]. The spread of MDR bacteria has been recognized as an increasing problem in both medical and veterinary fields, and movable DNA elements such as plasmids, integrons, and transposons favour the proliferation of resistance genes in bacteria [54]. Plasmids are the major vector in spreading resistance genes through the bacterial population [46].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study revealed a high prevalence of 16.4% for \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e, and 88.9% of isolates were reported to be multidrug-resistant (MDR) from dressed broiler chickens slaughtered in Sokoto metropolis, Sokoto State. Most isolates showed high resistance to ampicillin, tetracycline, trimethoprim, sulphonamides, and ceftazidime. Many isolates were multidrug-resistant, showing resistance to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobials of different categories. In addition, the detection of resistance genes against sulphonamides, chloramphenicol, and tetracycline was also high among the isolates.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAMR\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Antimicrobial Resistance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMDR\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Multidrug Resistance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePCR\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Polymerase Chain Reaction\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSSIPC \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Sokoto Metropolis Investment Promotion Committee\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor VG would like to acknowledge the support of the project PID2022-143041OB-I00 through the MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and also acknowledge the support of FEDER Una manera de hacer Europa\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor\u0026rsquo;s Contributions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAbdurrahman Hassan Jibril:\u003c/strong\u003e Conceptualization, Supervision, Resources, Review \u0026amp; Editing, Data curation, Writing-original draft preparation. \u003cstrong\u003eMukhtar Kabir:\u003c/strong\u003e Investigation, Methodology, Writing- original draft, Review \u0026amp; Editing. \u003cstrong\u003eAbdullah O Sani\u003c/strong\u003e: Methodology, Review \u0026amp; Editing. \u003cstrong\u003eMohammed Sanusi Yahaya\u003c/strong\u003e: Methodology, Review \u0026amp; Editing, Supervision. \u003cstrong\u003eFatimah M Ballah\u003c/strong\u003e: Methodology, Review \u0026amp; Editing. \u003cstrong\u003eYusuf Yakubu:\u003c/strong\u003e Methodology, Review and Editing, Supervision. \u003cstrong\u003eVanessa Garcia\u003c/strong\u003e: Methodology, Review \u0026amp; Editing, Resources. \u003cstrong\u003eFarhan Rhidor Akorede\u003c/strong\u003e: Visualization, Review \u0026amp; Editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData Availability\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll the data used for the research are described in the article. Additional data are made available upon contacting the corresponding author with reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for sample collection at poultry slaughter points was obtained from the Ministry of Animal Health and Fisheries Development, Sokoto State, Nigeria. With reference number MAH\u0026amp;FD/PLAN/195/Vol.1.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClinical Trial Number\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOmodele T, Okere IA. GIS application in poultry production: Identification of layers as the major commercial product of the poultry sector in Nigeria. Livest Res Rural Dev. 2014; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAjayi FO. Nigerian indigenous chicken: A valuable genetic resource for meat and egg production. Asian J Poult Sci. 2010; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEmaikwu KK, Chikwendu DO, Sani AS. Determinants of flock size in broiler production in Kaduna State of Nigeria. J Agric Ext Rural Dev. 2011; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRahman MA, Rahman AKMA, Islam MA, Alam MM. ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI ISOLATED FROM MILK, BEEF AND CHICKEN MEAT IN BANGLADESH. Bangladesh J Vet Med. 2018; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u0026Ccedil;olak H, Ugurluay G, Nazli B, BIng\u0026ouml;l EB. Paketlemede kullanilan nem tutucu filtrelerin hindi etinin raf \u0026ouml;mr\u0026uuml; \u0026uuml;zerine etkisi. Istanbul Univ Vet Fak Derg. 2011; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKahraman BB, Ak S. A new pathogen in poultry: Helicobacter pullorum. 2012; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUrumova V, Stoyanchev T, Lyutskanov M, Daskalov H, Vashin I, Maramski A. Antimicrobial sensitivity of campylobacter jejuni poultry isolates from the Republic of Bulgaria. Istanbul Univ Vet Fak Derg. 2014; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNarayan KG, Sinha DK, Singh DK. Veterinary Public Health \u0026amp; Epidemiology. Springer; 2023. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlount ZD. The unexhausted potential of E. coli. Elife. 2015; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCDC. National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System for Enteric Bacteria (NARMS): Human Isolates Final Report, 2013. US Department of Health and Human Services, CDC Atlanta, GA; 2013. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLima CM, Souza IEGL, dos Santos Alves T, Leite CC, Evangelista-Barreto NS, de Castro Almeida RC. Antimicrobial resistance in diarrheagenic Escherichia coli from ready-to-eat foods. J Food Sci Technol. 2017; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhao X, Zhao H, Zhou Z, Miao Y, Li R, Yang B, et al. Characterization of Extended-Spectrum \u0026beta;-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli Isolates That Cause Diarrhea in Sheep in Northwest China. Vignoli R, editor. Microbiol Spectr [Internet]. 2022;10. Available from: https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/spectrum.01595-22\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlench R. Traditional Livestock Breeds: Geographical Distribution and Dynamics in Relations to the Ecology of West Africa. Overseas Dev. Inst. Portl. House Stag Place London, SW1E 5DP. 1999. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThrusfield M. Veterinary epidemiology. John Wiley \u0026amp; Sons; 2018. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbubakar Y, Yakubu Y, Garba B, Lawal N, Usman M, Lawal A, et al. Molecular characterization of multi-drug resistance profile of extended spectrum beta lactamase producing Escherichia coli (ESBL) in poultry from Gusau metropolis, Nigeria. Microbes Infect Dis. 2023; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDe Cesare A, Palma F, Lucchi A, Pasquali F, Manfreda G. Microbiological profile of chicken carcasses: A comparative analysis using shotgun metagenomic sequencing. Ital J Food Saf. 2018; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eC Ugwu M, Ofoegbu E, C Ezejiegu K. Spectrum and Antibiogram of Bacteria Isolated from Commercially Available Stockfish in Eke-Awka Market, Anambra Nigeria. Acta Sci Microbiol. 2020; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCheesbrough M. District laboratory practice in tropical countries, second edition. Dist. Lab. Pract. Trop. Countries, Second Ed. 2006. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTawyabur M, Islam MS, Sobur MA, Hossain MJ, Mahmud MM, Paul S, et al. Isolation and characterization of multidrug-resistant escherichia coli and salmonella spp. From healthy and diseased turkeys. Antibiotics. 2020; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSalah FD, Soubeiga ST, Ouattara AK, Sadji AY, Metuor-Dabire A, Obiri-Yeboah D, et al. Distribution of quinolone resistance gene (qnr) in ESBL-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. in Lom\u0026eacute;, Togo. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2019; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eG\u0026oacute;mez-Duarte OG, Arzuza O, Urbina D, Bai J, Guerra J, Montes O, et al. Detection of escherichia coli enteropathogens by multiplex polymerase chain reaction from children\u0026rsquo;s diarrheal stools in two Caribbean-Colombian cities. Foodborne Pathog Dis. 2010; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHassan J, Parvej MS, Rahman MB, Khan MSR, Rahman MT, Kamal T, et al. Prevalence and Characterization of Escherichia coli from Rectal Swab of Apparently Healthy Cattle in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Microbes Heal. 2014; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eClinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. CLSI. Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. J. Serv. Mark. 2021. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRam\u0026iacute;rez-Bayard IE, Mej\u0026iacute;a F, Medina-S\u0026aacute;nchez JR, Cornejo-Reyes H, Castillo M, Querol-Audi J, et al. Prevalence of Plasmid-Associated Tetracycline Resistance Genes in Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli Strains Isolated from Environmental, Animal and Human Samples in Panama. Antibiotics. 2023; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYoon MY, Kim Y Bin, Ha JS, Seo KW, Noh EB, Son SH, et al. Molecular characteristics of fluoroquinolone-resistant avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from broiler chickens. Poult Sci. 2020; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChu C, Chiu CH, Wu WY, Chu CH, Liu TP, Ou JT. Large drug resistance virulence plasmids of clinical isolates of Salmonella enterica serovar Choleraesuis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuerra B, Soto SM, Arg\u0026uuml;elles JM, Mendoza MC. Multidrug resistance is mediated by large plasmids carrying a class 1 integron in the emergent Salmonella enterica serotype [4,5,12:i:-]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGarc\u0026iacute;a V, Mandomando I, Ruiz J, Herrera-Le\u0026oacute;n S, Alonso PL, Rodicio MR. Salmonella enterica serovars typhimurium and enteritidis causing mixed infections in febrile children in Mozambique. Infect Drug Resist. 2018; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMagiorakos A-P, Srinivasan A, Carey RB, Carmeli Y, Falagas ME, Giske CG, et al. Multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant bacteria: an international expert proposal for interim standard definitions for acquired resistance. Clin Microbiol Infect [Internet]. 2012;18:268\u0026ndash;81. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1198743X14616323\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDadgostar P. Antimicrobial resistance: implications and costs. Infect. Drug Resist. 2019. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVan Elsas JD, Semenov A V., Costa R, Trevors JT. Survival of Escherichia coli in the environment: Fundamental and public health aspects. ISME J. 2011. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAworh MK, Kwaga J, Okolocha E, Harden L, Hull D, Hendriksen RS, et al. Extended-spectrum \u0026szlig;-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli among humans, chickens and poultry environments in Abuja, Nigeria. One Heal Outlook. 2020; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEma FA, Shanta RN, Rahman MZ, Islam MA, Khatun MM. Isolation, identification, and antibiogram studies of Escherichia coli from ready-to-eat foods in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Vet World. 2022; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEjeh F, Lawan F, Abdulsalam H, Mamman P, Kwanashie C. Multiple antimicrobial resistance of \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eSalmonella\u003c/em\u003e species isolated from broilers and local chickens retailed along the roadside in Zaria, Nigeria. Sokoto J Vet Sci. 2017; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTrung NV, Jamrozy D, Matamoros S, Carrique-Mas JJ, Mai HH, Hieu TQ, et al. Limited contribution of non-intensive chicken farming to ESBL-producing Escherichia coli colonization in humans in Vietnam: An epidemiological and genomic analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2019; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKazemnia A, Ahmadi M, Dilmaghani M. Antibiotic resistance pattern of different Escherichia coli phylogenetic groups isolated from human urinary tract infection and avian colibacillosis. Iran Biomed J. 2014; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOloso NO, Fagbo S, Garbati M, Olonitola SO, Awosanya EJ, Aworh MK, et al. Antimicrobial Resistance in Food Animals and the Environment in Nigeria: A Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health [Internet]. 2018;15:1284. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/15/6/1284\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCarattoli A. Resistance plasmid families in Enterobacteriaceae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2009. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eQurani RO. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of Trypsin producing Escherichia coli isolated from broiler chickens. Ph. D. Thesis (Microbiology), Fact. Vet. Med., Beni-Suef Univ., Egypt; 2019. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuerra B, Junker E, Schroeter A, Helmuth R, Guth BEC, Beutin L. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli O111 isolates. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eF.R ES, A.H A, M.M. H W, A.S B, Mwafy A. Antimicrobial resistance and molecular characterization of pathogenic E. coli isolated from chickens. J Vet Med Res. 2019; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRadwan I, Abd El-Halim M, Abed A. Molecular characterization of Antimicrobial-Resistant Escherichia coli isolated from broiler chickens. J Vet Med Res. 2020; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYounis G, Awad A, Mohamed N. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of antimicrobial susceptibility of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from broiler chickens. Vet World. 2017; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMomtaz H, Jamshidi A. Shiga toxin-producing escherichia coli isolated from chicken meat in iran: Serogroups, virulence factors, and antimicrobial resistance properties. Poult Sci. 2013; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaba Galad H, Ahmad Geid Y, Usman Sham B, Ibrahim Ab H, Ibrahim B, Waziri A. Survey of Antimicrobial Residue in Table Eggs among Layer Poultry Farmers in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State. Asian J Anim Vet Adv. 2018; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRadwan IA, Abed AH, Abd Al-Wanis SA, Abd El-Aziz GG, El-Shemy A. Antibacterial effect of cinnamon and oreganium oils on multidrug resistant Escherichia coli and Salmonellae isolated from broiler chickens. J Egy Vet Med, Ass. 2016;76:169\u0026ndash;86. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eO.A. A, C. B, P. O. Antibiotic resistance and virulence factors in Escherichia coli from broiler chicken slaughtered at Tigoni processing plant in Limuru, Kenya. East Afr Med J. 2008; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSharada R, Ruban SW, Thiyageeswaran M. Antibiotic resistance pattern of Escherichia coli isolated from poultry in Bangalore. Int J Microbiol. 2009;7. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmer MM, Mekky HM, Amer AM, Fedawy HS. Antimicrobial resistance genes in pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from diseased broiler chickens in Egypt and their relationship with the phenotypic resistance characteristics. Vet World. 2018;11:1082\u0026ndash;8. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDou X, Gong J, Han X, Xu M, Shen H, Zhang D, et al. Characterization of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated in eastern China. Gene [Internet]. 2016;576:244\u0026ndash;8. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378111915012202\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAggad H, Ammar YA, Hammoudi A, Kihal M. Antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli isolated from chickens with colibacillosis. Glob Vet. 2010;4:303\u0026ndash;6. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRahimi M. Antibioresistance profile of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli isolates recovered from broiler chicken farms with colibacillosis in Kermanshah province, Iran. Glob Vet. 2013; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEffendi MH, Tyasningsih W, Yurianti YA, Rahmahani J, Harijani N, Plumeriastuti H. Presence of multidrug resistance (MDR) and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) of Escherichia coli isolated from cloacal swabs of broilers in several wet markets in Surabaya, Indonesia. Biodiversitas. 2021; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJamal AJ, Faheem A, Farooqi L, Zhong XZ, Armstrong I, Boyd DA, et al. Household Transmission of Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales in Ontario, Canada. Clin Infect Dis. 2021; \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Dressed Chicken, E. coli, Nigeria, Molecular prevalence, Multidrug-resistant, Sokoto","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7461615/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7461615/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e causes life-threatening human diseases caused by ingesting contaminated animal products such as milk and meat. Infections are widely distributed among poultry of all ages and types and are primarily related to poor hygienic practices. A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the presence of multidrug-resistant \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e in dressed broiler chickens by conventional bacterial isolation, molecular characterisation, and antibiotic sensitivity testing. Multi-drug resistant \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e were isolated from dressed broiler chickens from slaughter points in Sokoto Metropolis, Nigeria, using conventional isolation methods, molecular characterisation, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. The overall prevalence of \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e based on phenotypic identification was 28% (43/165), and genotypic identification (PCR) was 16.4% (27/165). Antibiotic susceptibility test revealed 96.3% resistance to ampicillin, 81.5% to tetracycline, 77.8% to trimethoprim, and 59.3% to sulphonamides. However, 81.5% were susceptible to gentamycin, 51.9% to ciprofloxacin, and 40.7% to sulphonamides. A significant number (88.9%) were reportedly multidrug-resistant (MDR), with some resistance genes detected. Further studies on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) surveillance should be conducted to reduce the dissemination of pathogenic microbes through the food chain. This would contribute to the ongoing intervention against the spread of antimicrobial resistance, especially in a commonly and readily consumed unsuspecting food source.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Molecular Prevalence of Multi-drug Resistant Escherichia coli in Dressed Broiler Chickens in Sokoto, Nigeria","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-07 08:57:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7461615/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1a00d459-22d8-4de4-b55e-28886ac048ee","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 7th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-20T13:10:48+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-07 08:57:52","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7461615","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7461615","identity":"rs-7461615","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}