Phubbing and Alexithymia Levels in University Students: Determining Influencing Factors

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Methods: The research was conducted using a descriptive correlational design. Through the snowball sampling method, 417 university students studying in Istanbul were included. Personal Information Form, General Phubbing Scale (GPS), and Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS) were used for collecting data. Statistical data were analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 24, New York). Results were evaluated at a 95% confidence interval and a significance level of p < 0.05. Results: The students’ mean age was 20.87 ± 2.09 years. Furthermore, 85% were female, 64.1% were enrolled in health sciences program, and 35.9% were first-year students. Students reported spending 5.22 ± 2.20 hours per day on their smartphones, with 70.3% using Instagram the most and 56.7% evaluating their interpersonal relationships as good. Male students had lower phubbing scores than females ( p = 0.002). Those who reported good/very good interpersonal relationships had lower GPS and TAS scores ( p < 0.001). Conclusion: A relationship exists between smartphone usage, phubbing behavior, and alexithymia levels. Therefore, programs for university students should promote conscious digital media use while strengthening interpersonal relationships. University Students Phubbing Alexithymia Background Technological developments have made computers, smartphones, and internet access indispensable in everyday life. Technological devices, now functioning as personal pocket computers for various purposes, have significantly impacted our physical, psychological, and social lives [1,2]. One of the emerging related issues is “phubbing,” a term derived from “phone” and “snubbing,” refers to the act of ignoring others in favor of smartphone use [3,4,5]. Phubbing is related to smartphone addiction, where individuals prioritize smartphone use to interpersonal communication. Furthermore, this behavior has been associated with loneliness and interpersonal difficulties [6,7,8]. Technology addiction, including phubbing, can impair individuals’ ability to recognize and express their emotions. Introduced in the 1970s by Nemiah and Sifneos, alexithymia refers to difficulties in emotional awareness and expression [9,10]. It is characterized by difficulties identifying emotions, distinguishing between feelings and bodily sensations, limited imagination caused by emotional deprivation, and avoidance of emotional thinking [9,11,12,13,14]. Smartphone usage for social media has been associated with increased levels of alexithymia [1,2]. Using a descriptive correlational design, this study aimed to determine the relationship between phubbing and alexithymia levels among university students. Research Questions What is the level of phubbing among university students in Istanbul? Is there a relationship between phubbing and alexithymia levels among university students in Istanbul? Methods Population and Sample University students in Istanbul were enrolled in this study, selected regardless of the university, department, faculty, or gender. Istanbul was chosen because of its large student population, representing a significant portion of Turkey’s university students (approximately 1,834,000) [15]. Snowball sampling was employed to recruit participants, and data were collected through a Google Forms survey distributed via QR codes. Data Collection Instruments Data were collected through self-report surveys, including the Personal Information Form, General Phubbing Scale (GPS), and Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS), administered online between March and July 2023. Participants provided informed consent before answering the survey. GPS The GPS, which was developed by Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas (2016) and adapted to Turkish by Ergün et al. (2020), includes 15 items and four subscales: Nomophobia (NP), Interpersonal Conflict, Self-isolation (SI), and Problem Acknowledgment. Higher scores indicate greater levels of phubbing behavior. Cronbach’s alpha for the Turkish version was 0.74–0.91, indicating acceptable to excellent internal consistency [16]. TAS First developed by Bagby et al. (1994) and adapted to Turkish by Güleç et al. (2009), TAS measures alexithymia across three subscales: Difficulty Identifying Feelings, Difficulty Describing Feelings, and Externally Oriented Thinking. Higher scores indicate greater levels of alexithymia. Cronbach’s alpha in this study was 0.724, demonstrating good internal consistency [17]. Data Analysis Data were analyzed using SPSS version 24. Descriptive statistics included frequencies and percentages. Parametric (independent samples t -test, one-way ANOVA, and Pearson correlation) and nonparametric tests (Mann–Whitney U test, Kruskal–Wallis test, and Chi-square test) were used where appropriate. A p -value below 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Ethical Considerations Data collection commenced following approval from the ethics committee. Ethics committee approval was reviewed at the ATADEK (Acıbadem University and Acıbadem Healthcare Institutions Medical Research Ethics Committee) meeting on 10 March 2023, under reference number 2022-04/123. This research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. Permissions for the use of data collection tools were obtained electronically, and snowball sampling was used. Questionnaires and measurement tools were administered after obtaining informed consent from participants on a voluntary basis. Participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time. Clinical trial number: not available. Results Table 1 presents the distribution of students’ sociodemographic characteristics. The students’ mean age was 20.87 ± 2.09 years. Among them, 85% were female, 64.1% were enrolled in the Faculty of Health Sciences, and 35.9% were first-year students. On average, students spent 5.22 ± 2.20 h per day on their smartphones, with 70.3% using Instagram the most and 56.7% evaluating their interpersonal relationships as good. When asked how would they feel if they stayed away from their smartphone for a day, 24.1% of them reported feeling deficient, left out, or curious. Table 2 shows the distribution of students’ mean scores on GPS and TAS. The mean total score on the GPS was 43.86 ± 13.46. For TAS, the mean scores for the subscales Difficulty Identifying Feelings, Difficulty Describing Feelings, and Externally Oriented Thinking were 17.61 ± 6.85, 13.17 ± 4.30, and 19.67 ± 4.05, respectively, with a total TAS mean score of 50.46 ± 12.40. On the basis of the TAS cutoff point, 54.1% of the students had no alexithymia. Table 2 presents the comparison of students’ GPS and TAS scores according to their sociodemographic characteristics. A statistically significant difference in GPS scores was found according to gender, with male students having significantly lower phubbing scores than female students ( p = 0.002). A statistically significant difference was also observed in GPS ( p < 0.001) and TAS Difficulty Identifying Feelings subscale scores ( p = 0.009) according to the emotions students reported they would feel if they were separated from their smartphones for a day. Post hoc analysis revealed significantly lower GPS scores among students who felt neutral/normal than among those who felt emptiness, deficiency, anxiety, distress, or fear/negative emotions. Additionally, students who reported feeling relaxed had lower GPS scores than those who experienced anxiety. For the TAS Difficulty Identifying Feelings subscale, students who felt deficient or falling behind had significantly lower scores than those who felt bored. In addition, students who rated their interpersonal relationships as good/very good had significantly lower scores in GPS ( p = 0.002), TAS subscales, namely, Difficulty Identifying Feelings ( p < 0.001), Difficulty Describing Feelings ( p < 0.001), and Externally Oriented Thinking ( p = 0.02), and TAS total score ( p < 0.001) than those with moderate relationships. According to TAS cutoff scores, GPS scores were lower in students without alexithymia than in those with alexithymia ( p 0.05). Table 4 shows the relationship between students’ time spent on smartphones, phubbing, and alexithymia levels. The time spent on smartphones exhibited a positive and moderate correlation with GPS scores ( r = 0.40; p < 0.001), indicating that phubbing levels increase as students spend more time on their smartphones. Moreover, GPS scores had a positive and low-level significant correlation with TAS subscale scores (Difficulty Identifying Feelings [ r = 0.23; p < 0.001], Difficulty Describing Feelings [ r = 0.26; p < 0.001], and Externally Oriented Thinking [ r = 0.21; p < 0.001]), and TAS total score ( r = 0.27; p < 0.001). This result indicates that as students’ phubbing scores increase, their alexithymia total and subscale scores also tend to increase. Table 5 enumerates the results of the linear regression analysis examining the effects of certain student characteristics and alexithymia levels on phubbing. In the model, the total GPS score was the dependent variable, whereas the sociodemographic variables and the TAS total score were the independent variables. In the final stage of the backward regression model, gender, time spent on smartphones, interpersonal relationship quality, and TAS total score significantly affected students’ phubbing levels. Together, these variables accounted for 25% of the variance in phubbing levels. Specifically, increased phubbing levels were associated with increased smartphone use, higher alexithymia scores, and being female. Conversely, students with good/very good interpersonal relationships showed lower phubbing levels. Discussion This study examined the relationships between smartphone use, phubbing behavior, and alexithymia levels among university students. Results indicate that various psychosocial factors affect both phubbing and alexithymia levels. A positive correlation was also observed between phubbing and alexithymia. In our study, students’ mean daily smartphone usage was 5.22 ± 2.20 h, with Instagram being the most frequently used social media platform. Similarly, Toker and Mersin (2024) reported Instagram as the most commonly utilized social media platform among adolescents, with a usage rate of 91% [18]. Other studies also reported the gradual increase of smartphone usage among young adults and Instagram as the most frequently used platform [19,20]. The intensive use of Instagram can be attributed to factors such as free photo sharing, visually enhancing filters, the receipt of likes on posts, and the tendency of young people to repeat sharing behaviors to feel better [21,22]. Our study also showed that phubbing levels differed by gender, with female students showing higher GPS scores than male students. Previous studies have also reported that women tend to have higher phubbing levels than men [1,6]. Women reportedly spend more time on social media and online interactions [23]. Therefore, female students may be more prone to smartphone addiction and, consequently, to phubbing behavior. Moreover, students’ emotional responses to being separated from their smartphones for a day were linked to varying phubbing levels. Students experiencing feelings of deficiency, anxiety, or distress exhibited higher phubbing scores. King (2013) reported that individuals experience anxiety and fear when they cannot access or interact with their mobile devices. This finding supports the relationship between smartphone addiction and fear of missing out [24,25]. Intensive smartphone use can create a need to be online continuously, thereby likely increasing one’s phubbing levels. According to behavioral approaches, the prevention of repeated behaviors may induce anxiety, and efforts to reduce anxiety can, in turn, reinforce the behavior [24,25]. Pavlovian perspectives also suggest that the use of social media platforms that provide likes as a rewarding experience may reinforce such behaviors [21,26]. Furthermore, having good interpersonal relationships was found to mitigate phubbing. Students who evaluated their interpersonal relationships as good or very good had lower phubbing scores; thus, individuals with strong social interactions may be less prone to digital addiction. Similarly, Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas (2016) reported that strong interpersonal relationships can reduce social media and smartphone addiction [7]. Our findings also revealed a positive relationship between alexithymia levels and phubbing. Individuals with higher TAS scores had higher phubbing scores; therefore, those with difficulty expressing their emotions may prefer digital communication to face-to-face interaction, or those with higher smartphone addiction may find expressing their emotions more difficult. Increased social media use among young people is reportedly associated with higher alexithymia levels [2,18]. This finding aligns with earlier research suggesting that individuals with higher alexithymia levels feel more comfortable in digital environments [1]. In our regression analysis, gender, time spent on smartphones, interpersonal relationship quality, and alexithymia levels significantly affected phubbing behavior. Specifically, greater smartphone use and higher alexithymia levels were associated with higher phubbing levels, whereas good interpersonal relationships were linked to lower phubbing levels. Thus, students who are female, who spend more time on their smartphones, who have weaker interpersonal relationships, and who exhibit higher alexithymia levels are at higher risk for phubbing behavior. Conclusion This study highlights the relationships between smartphone use, phubbing behavior, and alexithymia among university students. Phubbing may negatively impact interpersonal relationships. Students who are female, who had higher smartphone usage, and who display higher alexithymia levels are more prone to phubbing. Therefore, the following recommendations are proposed: Educational programs aimed at raising awareness about conscious digital media use should be implemented among university students. Social skills training and activities that support face-to-face communication should be encouraged. Psychosocial support services, including therapeutic interventions that enhance face-to-face communication, should be provided for individuals with high alexithymia levels. Digital detox programs should be developed and offered to students to reduce phubbing behavior. In future studies, a longitudinal design should be applied to better understand the causal relationships between phubbing and alexithymia. Additionally, conducting similar research across diverse age groups and cultural contexts is warranted to provide valuable insights and enhance the generalizability of the findings. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Data collection commenced following approval from the ethics committee. Ethics committee approval was reviewed at the ATADEK (Acıbadem University and Acıbadem Healthcare Institutions Medical Research Ethics Committee) meeting on 10 March 2023, under reference number 2022-04/123. This research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. Permissions for the use of data collection tools were obtained electronically, and snowball sampling was used. Questionnaires and measurement tools were administered after obtaining informed consent from participants on a voluntary basis. Participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time. Clinical trial number: not available. Consent for publication Consent to Publish declaration: not applicable. Availability of data and materials The data are available upon request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding The authors have no funding or conflicts of interest to disclose. This research received no specific grantfrom any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Presented as an oral presentation at the 5th International Congress on Understanding Violence (May 9–10, 2023). Authors’ contributions All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by [Tülay DEMİRAY], [Elif OK], [Mehmet Oğuz POLAT]. The first draft of the manuscript was written by [Tülay DEMİRAY], [Elif OK] and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements All authors have contributed to the paper and have never submitted the manuscript, in whole or in part, to other journals. The manuscript is original, not previously published, and not under concurrent consideration elsewhere. References Van Deursen AJAM, Bolle CL, Hegner SM, Kommers PAM. Modeling habitual and addictive smartphone behavior: The role of smartphone usage types, emotional intelligence, social stress, self-regulation, age, and gender. Comput Hum Behav. 2015;45:411–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.039 . Martingano AJ, Konrath S, Zarins S, Okaomee AA. Empathy, narcissism, alexithymia, and social media use. Psychol Popular Media. 2022;11(4):413–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000419 . 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A social-cognitive view of learning: Albert Bandura. Sosyoloji Notları, 5 (1). Tables Table 1. Distribution of Students’ Sociodemographic Characteristics (n=407) Characteristics n % Gender Female 346 85 Male 61 15 Department of Study Faculty of Health Sciences 261 64,1 Faculty of Pharmacy 42 10,3 Faculty of Engineering 32 7,8 Vocational School of Health Services 40 9,8 Other (Law, Psychology, Architecture, Educational Sciences) 32 7,8 Year of Study 1st year 146 35,9 2nd year 106 26 3rd year 10 25,8 4th year 50 12,3 Most Frequently Used Smartphone Application Instagram 286 70,3 WhatsApp 33 8,1 YouTube 21 5,2 Twiter 31 7,6 Other (Google, shopping sites, digital platforms) 36 8,8 Interpersonal Relationships Moderate 79 19,4 Good 232 56,7 Very Good 96 23,6 How would you feel if you stayed away from your smartphone for one day? (n=394) Emptiness 30 7,6 Deficiency/being left behind/curiosity 95 24,1 Anxiety/restlessness 58 14,7 Neutral/normal 64 16,2 Relief/happiness 24 6,1 Boredom 50 12,7 Fear/feeling bad 73 18,6 Mean± SD Min. Max. Age 20,87±2,09 18 39 Average daily smartphone use (hours) 5,22±2,20 1 16 Table 2. Mean Scores of the General Phubbing Scale and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale Scales Mean± SD Min.-Max. General Phubbing Scale (GPS) 43,86±13,46 15- 87 Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS) TAS – Difficulty Identifying Feelings 17,61±6,85 7- 35 TAS – Difficulty Describing Feelings 13,17±4,30 5- 25 TAS – Externally-Oriented Thinking 19,67±4,05 8- 32 TAÖ Total 50,46±12,40 20- 84 n % TAS Total Score < 51 points (No alexithymia) 220 54,1 ≥ 51 points (Alexithymia present) 187 45,9 Table 3. Comparison of General Phubbing Scale and Toronto Alexithymia Scale Scores by Sociodemographic Characteristics Characteristics GPS Difficulty Identifying Feelings Difficulty Describing Feelings Externally-Oriented Thinking TAS-Total Gender Male 38.85±11.73 17.81±6.68 13.83±3.92 20.42±4.00 52.08±12.02 Female 44.75±13.56 17.57±6.88 13.05±4.36 19.57±4.05 50.17±12.45 Statistical Analysis t -3.192 0.254 1.302 1.571 1.106 p 0.002 0.80 0.19 0.11 0.27 How would you feel if you stayed away from your smartphone for one day? Emptiness 45.90±11.88 19.93±7.52 12.76±5.07 19.73±3.88 52.43±14.03 Deficiency/ being left behind/ curiosity 46.10±13.28 16.01±5.43 12.62±3.79 18.91±4.07 47.54±10.80 Anxiety/restlessness 49.81±14.52 19.18±6.44 13.68±4.05 19.77±3.67 52.65±11.09 Neutral/ normal 34.43±11.08 17.01±8.08 1307±5.06 19.68±4.15 49.78±14.00 Relief/ happiness 38.45±10.60 17.50±6.82 14.25±4.83 18.83±3.72 50.58±12.56 Boredom 45.04±10.60 19.68±7.05 13.98±4.34 19.98±4.78 53.64±13.09 Fear/feeling bad 46.32±12.65 17.08±7.07 13.02±4.02 20.42±3.94 50.53±12.68 Statistical Analysis F 9.905 2.879 0.987 1.182 1.875 p <0.001 0.009 0.43 0.31 0.08 Interpersonal Relationships Modereta 48.05±14.15 20.73±7.23 15.27±4.86 20.54±3.50 56.55±11.62 Good/Very Good 42.86±13.11 16.86±6.54 12.66±4.06 19.46±4.15 48.99±12.14 Statistical Analysis t 3.107 4.620 4.973 2.361 5.008 p 0.002 <0.001 <0.001 0.02 <0.001 Alexithymia Cut-off ≥51 puan 47.83±14.10 t = Student’s t-test; F = One-Way ANOVA (Bonferroni correction); GPS = General Phubbing Scale; TAS = Toronto Alexithymia Scale. <51 puan 40.69±12.04 Statistical Analysis t 5.513 p <0.001 Table 4. Relationship Between Daily Smartphone Use, Phubbing, and Alexithymia Levels Özellikler * GPS Difficulty Identifying Feelings Difficulty Identifying Feelings Difficulty Identifying Feelings Difficulty Identifying Feelings Average daily smartphone use r 0.40 0.07 0.06 -0.02 0.06 p <0.001 0.12 0.23 0.68 0.25 GPS r - 0.23 0.26 0.21 0.27 p - <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 * Pearson Correlation Analysis; GPS = General Phubbing Scale; TAS = Toronto Alexithymia Scale. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviews received at journal 20 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 12 Nov, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 11 Nov, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 05 Nov, 2025 Editor invited by journal 15 Oct, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 13 Oct, 2025 First submitted to journal 13 Oct, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7642821","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":548342719,"identity":"472365f2-0d0d-406b-bf6b-152ae83dfca3","order_by":0,"name":"Tülay 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09:11:56","extension":"html","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":113285,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7642821/v1/aa2e30b39f361294dc782e7f.html"},{"id":96607849,"identity":"739c05f8-f686-42f0-8927-16e7533a3b91","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-24 09:27:58","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1517560,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7642821/v1/b7d318af-cfed-44cb-9fce-1f060bd40e8a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Phubbing and Alexithymia Levels in University Students: Determining Influencing Factors","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eTechnological developments have made computers, smartphones, and internet access indispensable in everyday life. Technological devices, now functioning as personal pocket computers for various purposes, have significantly impacted our physical, psychological, and social lives [1,2]. One of the emerging related issues is \u0026ldquo;phubbing,\u0026rdquo; a term derived from \u0026ldquo;phone\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;snubbing,\u0026rdquo; refers to the act of ignoring others in favor of smartphone use [3,4,5]. Phubbing is related to smartphone addiction, where individuals prioritize smartphone use to interpersonal communication. Furthermore, this behavior has been associated with loneliness and interpersonal difficulties [6,7,8].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTechnology addiction, including phubbing, can impair individuals\u0026rsquo; ability to recognize and express their emotions. Introduced in the 1970s by Nemiah and Sifneos, alexithymia refers to difficulties in emotional awareness and expression [9,10]. It is characterized by difficulties identifying emotions, distinguishing between feelings and bodily sensations, limited imagination caused by emotional deprivation, and avoidance of emotional thinking [9,11,12,13,14]. Smartphone usage for social media has been associated with increased levels of alexithymia [1,2].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUsing a descriptive correlational design, this study aimed to determine the relationship between phubbing and alexithymia levels among university students.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResearch Questions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"1\" type=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWhat is the level of phubbing among university students in Istanbul?\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIs there a relationship between phubbing and alexithymia levels among university students in Istanbul?\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePopulation and Sample\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUniversity students in Istanbul were enrolled in this study, selected regardless of the university, department, faculty, or gender. Istanbul was chosen because of its large student population, representing a significant portion of Turkey\u0026rsquo;s university students (approximately 1,834,000) [15]. \u0026nbsp;Snowball sampling was employed to recruit participants, and data were collected through a Google Forms survey distributed via QR codes.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Collection Instruments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were collected through self-report surveys, including the Personal Information Form, General Phubbing Scale (GPS), and Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS), administered online between March and July 2023. Participants provided informed consent before answering the survey.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGPS\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe GPS, which was developed by Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas (2016) and adapted to Turkish by Erg\u0026uuml;n et al. (2020), includes 15 items and four subscales: Nomophobia (NP), Interpersonal Conflict, Self-isolation (SI), and Problem Acknowledgment. Higher scores indicate greater levels of phubbing behavior. Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha for the Turkish version was 0.74\u0026ndash;0.91, indicating acceptable to excellent internal consistency [16].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTAS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirst developed by Bagby et al. (1994) and adapted to Turkish by G\u0026uuml;le\u0026ccedil; et al. (2009), TAS measures alexithymia across three subscales: Difficulty Identifying Feelings, Difficulty Describing Feelings, and Externally Oriented Thinking. Higher scores indicate greater levels of alexithymia. Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha in this study was 0.724, demonstrating good internal consistency [17].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were analyzed using SPSS version 24. Descriptive statistics included frequencies and percentages. Parametric (independent samples \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-test, one-way ANOVA, and Pearson correlation) and nonparametric tests (Mann\u0026ndash;Whitney \u003cem\u003eU\u003c/em\u003e test, Kruskal\u0026ndash;Wallis test, and Chi-square test) were used where appropriate. A \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value below 0.05 was considered statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Considerations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData collection commenced following approval from the ethics committee. Ethics committee approval was reviewed at the ATADEK (Acıbadem University and Acıbadem Healthcare Institutions Medical Research Ethics Committee) meeting on 10 March 2023, under reference number 2022-04/123. \u0026nbsp; This research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. Permissions for the use of data collection tools were obtained electronically, and snowball sampling was used. Questionnaires and measurement tools were administered after obtaining informed consent from participants on a voluntary basis. Participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time. Clinical trial number: not available. \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1 presents the distribution of students\u0026rsquo; sociodemographic characteristics. The students\u0026rsquo; mean age was 20.87 \u0026plusmn; 2.09 years. Among them, 85% were female, 64.1% were enrolled in the Faculty of Health Sciences, and 35.9% were first-year students. On average, students spent 5.22 \u0026plusmn; 2.20 h per day on their smartphones, with 70.3% using Instagram the most and 56.7% evaluating their interpersonal relationships as good. When asked how would they feel if they stayed away from their smartphone for a day, 24.1% of them reported feeling deficient, left out, or curious.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 shows the distribution of students\u0026rsquo; mean scores on GPS and TAS. The mean total score on the GPS was 43.86 \u0026plusmn; 13.46. For TAS, the mean scores for the subscales Difficulty Identifying Feelings, Difficulty Describing Feelings, and Externally Oriented Thinking were 17.61 \u0026plusmn; 6.85, 13.17 \u0026plusmn; 4.30, and 19.67 \u0026plusmn; 4.05, respectively, with a total TAS mean score of 50.46 \u0026plusmn; 12.40. On the basis of the TAS cutoff point, 54.1% of the students had no alexithymia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 presents the comparison of students\u0026rsquo; GPS and TAS scores according to their sociodemographic characteristics. A statistically significant difference in GPS scores was found according to gender, with male students having significantly lower phubbing scores than female students (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e= 0.002).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA statistically significant difference was also observed in GPS (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001) and TAS Difficulty Identifying Feelings subscale scores (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.009) according to the emotions students reported they would feel if they were separated from their smartphones for a day. Post hoc analysis revealed significantly lower GPS scores among students who felt neutral/normal than among those who felt emptiness, deficiency, anxiety, distress, or fear/negative emotions. Additionally, students who reported feeling relaxed had lower GPS scores than those who experienced anxiety. For the TAS Difficulty Identifying Feelings subscale, students who felt deficient or falling behind had significantly lower scores than those who felt bored.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition, students who rated their interpersonal relationships as good/very good had significantly lower scores in GPS (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.002), TAS subscales, namely, Difficulty Identifying Feelings (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001), Difficulty Describing Feelings (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001), and Externally Oriented Thinking (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.02), and TAS total score (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001) than those with moderate relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to TAS cutoff scores, GPS scores were lower in students without alexithymia than in those with alexithymia (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeanwhile, GPS and TAS scores showed no statistically significance differences according to students\u0026rsquo; age, department, or year of study (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026gt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 4 shows the relationship between students\u0026rsquo; time spent on smartphones, phubbing, and alexithymia levels. The time spent on smartphones exhibited a positive and moderate correlation with GPS scores (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = 0.40; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001), indicating that phubbing levels increase as students spend more time on their smartphones.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, GPS scores had a positive and low-level significant correlation with TAS subscale scores (Difficulty Identifying Feelings [\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = 0.23; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001], Difficulty Describing Feelings [\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = 0.26; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001], and Externally Oriented Thinking [\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = 0.21; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001]), and TAS total score (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = 0.27; \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001). This result indicates that as students\u0026rsquo; phubbing scores increase, their alexithymia total and subscale scores also tend to increase.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 5 enumerates the results of the linear regression analysis examining the effects of certain student characteristics and alexithymia levels on phubbing. In the model, the total GPS score was the dependent variable, whereas the sociodemographic variables and the TAS total score were the independent variables.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the final stage of the backward regression model, gender, time spent on smartphones, interpersonal relationship quality, and TAS total score significantly affected students\u0026rsquo; phubbing levels. Together, these variables accounted for 25% of the variance in phubbing levels. Specifically, increased phubbing levels were associated with increased smartphone use, higher alexithymia scores, and being female. Conversely, students with good/very good interpersonal relationships showed lower phubbing levels.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the relationships between smartphone use, phubbing behavior, and alexithymia levels among university students. Results indicate that various psychosocial factors affect both phubbing and alexithymia levels. A positive correlation was also observed between phubbing and alexithymia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn our study, students\u0026rsquo; mean daily smartphone usage was 5.22 \u0026plusmn; 2.20 h, with Instagram being the most frequently used social media platform. Similarly, Toker and Mersin (2024) reported Instagram as the most commonly utilized social media platform among adolescents, with a usage rate of 91% [18]. Other studies also reported the gradual increase of smartphone usage among young adults and Instagram as the most frequently used platform [19,20]. The intensive use of Instagram can be attributed to factors such as free photo sharing, visually enhancing filters, the receipt of likes on posts, and the tendency of young people to repeat sharing behaviors to feel better [21,22].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur study also showed that phubbing levels differed by gender, with female students showing higher GPS scores than male students. Previous studies have also reported that women tend to have higher phubbing levels than men [1,6]. Women reportedly spend more time on social media and online interactions [23]. Therefore, female students may be more prone to smartphone addiction and, consequently, to phubbing behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, students\u0026rsquo; emotional responses to being separated from their smartphones for a day were linked to varying phubbing levels. Students experiencing feelings of deficiency, anxiety, or distress exhibited higher phubbing scores. King (2013) reported that individuals experience anxiety and fear when they cannot access or interact with their mobile devices. This finding supports the relationship between smartphone addiction and fear of missing out [24,25]. Intensive smartphone use can create a need to be online continuously, thereby likely increasing one\u0026rsquo;s phubbing levels. According to behavioral approaches, the prevention of repeated behaviors may induce anxiety, and efforts to reduce anxiety can, in turn, reinforce the behavior [24,25]. Pavlovian perspectives also suggest that the use of social media platforms that provide likes as a rewarding experience may reinforce such behaviors [21,26].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, having good interpersonal relationships was found to mitigate phubbing. Students who evaluated their interpersonal relationships as good or very good had lower phubbing scores; thus, individuals with strong social interactions may be less prone to digital addiction. Similarly, Chotpitayasunondh and Douglas (2016) reported that strong interpersonal relationships can reduce social media and smartphone addiction [7].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur findings also revealed a positive relationship between alexithymia levels and phubbing. Individuals with higher TAS scores had higher phubbing scores; therefore, those with difficulty expressing their emotions may prefer digital communication to face-to-face interaction, or those with higher smartphone addiction may find expressing their emotions more difficult. Increased social media use among young people is reportedly associated with higher alexithymia levels [2,18]. This finding aligns with earlier research suggesting that individuals with higher alexithymia levels feel more comfortable in digital environments [1].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn our regression analysis, gender, time spent on smartphones, interpersonal relationship quality, and alexithymia levels significantly affected phubbing behavior. Specifically, greater smartphone use and higher alexithymia levels were associated with higher phubbing levels, whereas good interpersonal relationships were linked to lower phubbing levels. Thus, students who are female, who spend more time on their smartphones, who have weaker interpersonal relationships, and who exhibit higher alexithymia levels are at higher risk for phubbing behavior.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights the relationships between smartphone use, phubbing behavior, and alexithymia among university students. Phubbing may negatively impact interpersonal relationships. Students who are female, who had higher smartphone usage, and who display higher alexithymia levels are more prone to phubbing. Therefore, the following recommendations are proposed:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"1\" type=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEducational programs aimed at raising awareness about conscious digital media use should be implemented among university students.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSocial skills training and activities that support face-to-face communication should be encouraged.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePsychosocial support services, including therapeutic interventions that enhance face-to-face communication, should be provided for individuals with high alexithymia levels.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDigital detox programs should be developed and offered to students to reduce phubbing behavior.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn future studies, a longitudinal design should be applied to better understand the causal relationships between phubbing and alexithymia. Additionally, conducting similar research across diverse age groups and cultural contexts is warranted to provide valuable insights and enhance the generalizability of the findings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData collection commenced following approval from the ethics committee. Ethics committee approval was reviewed at the ATADEK (Acıbadem University and Acıbadem Healthcare Institutions Medical Research Ethics Committee) meeting on 10 March 2023, under reference number 2022-04/123. \u0026nbsp; This research was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. Permissions for the use of data collection tools were obtained electronically, and snowball sampling was used. Questionnaires and measurement tools were administered after obtaining informed consent from participants on a voluntary basis. Participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClinical trial number: not available.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent to Publish declaration: not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data are available upon request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no funding or conflicts of interest to disclose.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no specific grantfrom any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePresented as an oral presentation at the 5th International Congress on Understanding Violence (May 9\u0026ndash;10, 2023).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by [T\u0026uuml;lay DEMİRAY], [Elif OK], [Mehmet Oğuz POLAT]. \u0026nbsp;The first draft of the manuscript was written by [T\u0026uuml;lay DEMİRAY], [Elif OK] and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors have contributed to the paper and have never submitted the manuscript, in whole or in part, to other journals. The manuscript is original, not previously published, and not under concurrent consideration elsewhere.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVan Deursen AJAM, Bolle CL, Hegner SM, Kommers PAM. Modeling habitual and addictive smartphone behavior: The role of smartphone usage types, emotional intelligence, social stress, self-regulation, age, and gender. 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Distribution of Students\u0026rsquo; Sociodemographic Characteristics (n=407)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"642\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 451px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003en\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 220px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGender\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFemale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e346\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"5\" style=\"width: 220px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eDepartment of Study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFaculty of Health Sciences\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e261\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64,1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFaculty of Pharmacy\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10,3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFaculty of Engineering\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7,8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVocational School of Health Services\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9,8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOther (Law, Psychology, Architecture, Educational Sciences)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7,8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 220px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYear of \u0026nbsp;Study\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1st year\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e146\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35,9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2nd year\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3rd year\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25,8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4th year\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12,3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"5\" style=\"width: 220px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMost Frequently Used Smartphone Application\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInstagram\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e286\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70,3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWhatsApp\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8,1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYouTube\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5,2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTwiter\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7,6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOther (Google, shopping sites, digital platforms)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8,8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 220px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInterpersonal Relationships\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModerate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19,4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGood\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e232\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56,7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVery Good \u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23,6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"7\" style=\"width: 220px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHow would you feel if you stayed away from your smartphone for one day? (n=394)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEmptiness\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7,6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeficiency/being left behind/curiosity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24,1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnxiety/restlessness\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14,7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNeutral/normal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16,2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelief/happiness\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6,1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBoredom\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12,7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFear/feeling bad\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18,6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 220px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean\u0026plusmn; SD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMin.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMax.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 220px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20,87\u0026plusmn;2,09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 220px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAverage daily smartphone use (hours)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 231px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5,22\u0026plusmn;2,20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2. Mean Scores of the General Phubbing Scale and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"605\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 331px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eScales\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 147px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean\u0026plusmn;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMin.-Max.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 331px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGeneral Phubbing Scale (GPS)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 147px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43,86\u0026plusmn;13,46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15- 87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 605px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eToronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 331px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTAS \u0026ndash; Difficulty Identifying Feelings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 147px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17,61\u0026plusmn;6,85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7- 35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 331px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTAS \u0026ndash; Difficulty Describing Feelings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 147px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13,17\u0026plusmn;4,30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5- 25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 331px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTAS \u0026ndash; Externally-Oriented Thinking\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 147px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19,67\u0026plusmn;4,05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8- 32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 331px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTA\u0026Ouml; Total\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 147px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50,46\u0026plusmn;12,40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20- 84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 331px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 147px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003en\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTAS Total Score\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 189px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt; 51 points (No alexithymia)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 147px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e220\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54,1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 189px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026ge; 51 points (Alexithymia present)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 147px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e187\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 127px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45,9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3. Comparison of General Phubbing Scale and Toronto Alexithymia Scale Scores by Sociodemographic Characteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"652\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 189px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharacteristics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGPS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDifficulty Identifying Feelings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDifficulty Describing Feelings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExternally-Oriented Thinking\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTAS-Total\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGender\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.85\u0026plusmn;11.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.81\u0026plusmn;6.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.83\u0026plusmn;3.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.42\u0026plusmn;4.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.08\u0026plusmn;12.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFemale\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.75\u0026plusmn;13.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.57\u0026plusmn;6.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.05\u0026plusmn;4.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.57\u0026plusmn;4.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.17\u0026plusmn;12.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003et\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.192\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.254\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.302\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.571\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.106\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ep\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.002\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"7\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHow would you feel if you stayed away from your smartphone for one day?\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEmptiness\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.90\u0026plusmn;11.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.93\u0026plusmn;7.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.76\u0026plusmn;5.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.73\u0026plusmn;3.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.43\u0026plusmn;14.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeficiency/\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ebeing left behind/\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ecuriosity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.10\u0026plusmn;13.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.01\u0026plusmn;5.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.62\u0026plusmn;3.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.91\u0026plusmn;4.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.54\u0026plusmn;10.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnxiety/restlessness\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.81\u0026plusmn;14.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.18\u0026plusmn;6.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.68\u0026plusmn;4.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.77\u0026plusmn;3.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.65\u0026plusmn;11.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNeutral/\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003enormal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.43\u0026plusmn;11.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.01\u0026plusmn;8.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1307\u0026plusmn;5.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.68\u0026plusmn;4.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.78\u0026plusmn;14.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelief/\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ehappiness\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.45\u0026plusmn;10.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.50\u0026plusmn;6.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.25\u0026plusmn;4.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.83\u0026plusmn;3.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.58\u0026plusmn;12.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBoredom\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.04\u0026plusmn;10.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.68\u0026plusmn;7.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.98\u0026plusmn;4.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.98\u0026plusmn;4.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53.64\u0026plusmn;13.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFear/feeling bad\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.32\u0026plusmn;12.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.08\u0026plusmn;7.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.02\u0026plusmn;4.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.42\u0026plusmn;3.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.53\u0026plusmn;12.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.905\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.879\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.987\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.182\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.875\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.009\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInterpersonal Relationships\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModereta\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.05\u0026plusmn;14.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.73\u0026plusmn;7.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.27\u0026plusmn;4.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.54\u0026plusmn;3.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.55\u0026plusmn;11.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGood/Very Good\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.86\u0026plusmn;13.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.86\u0026plusmn;6.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.66\u0026plusmn;4.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.46\u0026plusmn;4.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.99\u0026plusmn;12.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.107\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.620\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.973\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.361\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.008\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.002\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.02\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAlexithymia Cut-off\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;51 puan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.83\u0026plusmn;14.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 373px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003et = Student\u0026rsquo;s t-test; F = One-Way ANOVA (Bonferroni correction); GPS = General Phubbing Scale; TAS = Toronto Alexithymia Scale.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;51 puan\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.69\u0026plusmn;12.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 373px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 104px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.513\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 373px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 90px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 373px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4. Relationship Between Daily Smartphone Use, Phubbing, and Alexithymia Levels\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"655\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026Ouml;zellikler\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGPS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDifficulty Identifying Feelings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDifficulty Identifying Feelings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDifficulty Identifying Feelings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDifficulty Identifying Feelings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAverage daily smartphone use\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGPS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 30px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 109px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u003c/strong\u003ePearson Correlation Analysis; \u003cstrong\u003eGPS\u003c/strong\u003e = General Phubbing Scale; \u003cstrong\u003eTAS\u003c/strong\u003e = Toronto Alexithymia Scale.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"University Students, Phubbing, Alexithymia","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7642821/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7642821/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground:\u003c/strong\u003e This study aimed to describe the relationship between phubbing levels and alexithymia levels among university students.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods:\u003c/strong\u003e The research was conducted using a descriptive correlational design. Through the snowball sampling method, 417 university students studying in Istanbul were included. Personal Information Form, General Phubbing Scale (GPS), and Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS) were used for collecting data. Statistical data were analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 24, New York). Results were evaluated at a 95% confidence interval and a significance level of \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults:\u003c/strong\u003e The students’ mean age was 20.87 ± 2.09 years. Furthermore, 85% were female, 64.1% were enrolled in health sciences program, and 35.9% were first-year students. Students reported spending 5.22 ± 2.20 hours per day on their smartphones, with 70.3% using Instagram the most and 56.7% evaluating their interpersonal relationships as good. Male students had lower phubbing scores than females (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.002). Those who reported good/very good interpersonal relationships had lower GPS and TAS scores (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion:\u003c/strong\u003e A relationship exists between smartphone usage, phubbing behavior, and alexithymia levels. Therefore, programs for university students should promote conscious digital media use while strengthening interpersonal relationships.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Phubbing and Alexithymia Levels in University Students: Determining Influencing Factors","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-22 12:49:36","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7642821/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-20T20:14:53+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"264893474744316760692371695692163688738","date":"2025-11-12T08:50:01+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-11T16:18:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-05T09:23:27+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-15T06:27:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-10-14T03:42:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Psychology","date":"2025-10-14T03:39:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"dd7491b2-22e0-4fc2-acbd-01ff58cfaf7f","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-22T12:49:36+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-22 12:49:36","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7642821","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7642821","identity":"rs-7642821","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}