Sleep Quality as a Low-Burden Indicator of Sleep-Wake Strain and Academic Functioning in Two-Year College Students

Sleep Quality as a Low-Burden Indicator of Sleep-Wake Strain and Academic Functioning in Two-Year College Students | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Sleep Quality as a Low-Burden Indicator of Sleep-Wake Strain and Academic Functioning in Two-Year College Students Ryan Ismail, Razi Lawabni This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9335852/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background/Objectives: To test whether subjective sleep quality is associated with academic functioning in two-year college students and to evaluate the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) as a low-burden indicator of sleep-wake strain. Methods We conducted a one-time, anonymous web-based survey at a Midwestern two-year community college (n = 209). Sleep quality was assessed with the PSQI (0–21, with higher scores indicating worse sleep). Students self-reported cumulative grade point average (GPA; 0–4). We used linear regression models for cumulative GPA and logistic regression models for GPA 5) was prevalent (73.7%). Higher PSQI scores were associated with lower cumulative GPA (β = -0.05; 95% confidence interval [CI], -0.08 to -0.02), corresponding to an estimated 0.05-point decrease in GPA on the 0–4 scale for each 1-point increase in PSQI. Higher PSQI scores were also associated with higher odds of GPA < 3.0 (OR = 1.18; 95% CI, 1.09–1.29), corresponding to an 18% increase in the odds of GPA < 3.0 for each 1-point increase in PSQI. Conclusions Worse subjective sleep quality was associated with poorer academic performance and greater odds of GPA < 3.0 among two-year college students. As a brief screening tool, the PSQI may serve as a first-pass indicator of sleep-wake strain in two-year college settings. However, it does not directly measure circadian phase, sleep timing, social jetlag, or day-to-day regularity. Future studies should incorporate rhythm-specific measures to clarify circadian and homeostatic pathways more directly. Psychology sleep quality sleep-wake regulation biological rhythms Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index academic performance community college students Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Many college students experience short or disrupted sleep, and poorer subjective sleep quality can interfere with attention, learning, and academic performance [ 1 – 5 ]. In the United States, two-year community colleges are open-access postsecondary institutions that typically award associate degrees and certificates and differ from four-year universities in enrollment patterns: nationally, 65% of students at 2-year institutions attend part time versus 27% at 4-year institutions, and only a minority of public community colleges offer on-campus housing [ 6 , 7 ]. From a biological rhythms perspective, daytime function reflects the interaction of circadian timing and homeostatic sleep pressure, and insufficient or disrupted sleep can reduce cognitive performance and memory consolidation [ 8 – 10 ]. Two-year college settings may warrant separate study because, relative to four-year institutions, they enroll far more part-time students nationally (65% vs 27%) and commonly serve nonresidential populations [ 6 , 7 ]. This broader context is also reflected at North Hennepin Community College, where publicly available institutional data report an average student age of 23 years and describe part-time students as the majority of enrollment [ 11 ]. These structural features may increase exposure to competing work and caregiving demands that constrain sleep opportunity and destabilize sleep timing [ 12 – 14 ]. Yet most sleep-academic research has focused on four-year university samples [ 15 – 17 ]. Evidence in two-year settings is needed to guide rhythm-relevant assessment and intervention. Sleep timing and continuity are shaped by two interacting processes: a circadian (~ 24-hour) timing system and a homeostatic drive that increases with time awake [ 18 , 19 ]. When externally imposed schedules require wake times that conflict with internal timing, students may experience circadian misalignment (social jetlag) and greater day-to-day variability in bed and wake times [ 20 – 22 ]. In college samples, irregular sleep-wake timing and lower sleep regularity are associated with poorer academic performance [ 21 , 22 ]. In this study, we assessed subjective sleep quality with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), a widely used self-report instrument covering the past month [ 23 , 24 ]. We treat the PSQI global score as a low-burden downstream indicator of sleep-wake strain (e.g., insufficient or disrupted sleep and daytime impairment), rather than as a direct measure of circadian phase or sleep timing regularity. The PSQI does not directly quantify circadian phase, chronotype, social jetlag, or day-to-day regularity; rather, it summarizes seven domains (subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, habitual sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, sleep medication use, and daytime dysfunction) into a global score (0–21), with higher scores indicating poorer sleep quality [ 23 – 25 ]. Prior work in university samples links higher PSQI scores with lower academic performance [ 16 , 26 ]. We therefore tested whether higher PSQI global score is associated with lower cumulative GPA and higher odds of academic risk (GPA < 3.0) in a two-year college sample. Here, cumulative GPA refers to the standard U.S. 0–4 academic grading scale, where higher values indicate stronger academic performance; we used GPA < 3.0 as a pragmatic marker of lower academic standing for this analysis. Methods Study design and setting We conducted a cross-sectional, anonymous web-based survey at North Hennepin Community College (NHCC), a public two-year community college in Minnesota. NHCC is a predominantly nonresidential institution; publicly available institutional data indicate that part-time students comprise the majority of enrollment, and the college offers associate degrees, transfer pathways, and certificate programs [ 27 , 28 ]. Data were collected from August to November 2025. Participants completed the survey once during that period. Accordingly, PSQI responses reflected sleep over the prior month, whereas GPA reflected cumulative academic performance reported at the time of survey. The NHCC Institutional Review Board approved the study, and all participants provided informed consent. Participants Eligibility criteria were (1) age 18 years or older and (2) current NHCC enrollment, both confirmed by screening items. The initial dataset included 222 survey submissions. We excluded 13 submissions because respondents were ineligible or did not provide consent, yielding an analytic sample of 209 participants. The analytic sample therefore comprised currently enrolled adult NHCC students who met eligibility criteria and consented to participate.We did not collect students’ year in program (e.g., first year vs second year), academic major/field of study, commuting status, employment hours, caregiving or parenting responsibilities, or housing status. Ethics Participants provided electronic informed consent before beginning the survey. The survey was anonymous and did not collect direct identifiers. The protocol was approved by the NHCC Institutional Review Board (ID: 250923_Ismail). Measures Subjective sleep quality was assessed with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) [ 23 , 24 ], a self-report questionnaire about sleep over the past month. The PSQI global score ranges from 0 to 21, with higher scores indicating poorer subjective sleep quality [ 23 , 24 ]. As a self-report instrument, the PSQI functions as a downstream indicator of sleep-wake strain, but it does not directly quantify circadian phase, chronotype, social jetlag, or day-to-day timing variability or sleep regularity. For descriptive prevalence estimates, we classified PSQI > 5 as poor sleep [ 23 , 25 ]. Scoring followed standard published instructions [ 23 , 24 ]. Academic functioning was measured as self-reported cumulative grade point average (GPA), using the standard U.S. 0–4 academic scale on which higher values indicate stronger academic performance [ 29 ]. Participants selected one of six GPA categories (< 2.0 to 4.0); for analyses treating GPA as continuous, categories were converted to category midpoints. This approach provided an approximate continuous scale while preserving the ordered structure of the original responses. For the logistic model, academic risk was operationalized as GPA < 3.0, a pragmatic threshold representing lower academic standing within the present analytic framework [ 30 – 32 ]. Self-reported GPA has shown acceptable validity in prior work [ 33 ]. Participants also reported age, gender, race/ethnicity, and enrollment status. Age, gender, and enrollment status were prespecified covariates in adjusted models because they are readily interpretable demographic and enrollment characteristics that may relate to both sleep and academic functioning. Statistical analysis We treated PSQI global score as a continuous predictor, interpreted per 1-point increase. We fit (1) a linear regression model with cumulative GPA (category midpoints) as the outcome and (2) a logistic regression model with GPA < 3.0 as the outcome. Both models adjusted for age, gender, and enrollment status. In the linear model, the unstandardized regression coefficient (beta) represents the expected change in GPA on the 0–4 scale for each 1-point higher PSQI score, holding covariates constant. In the logistic model, the odds ratio (OR) represents the change in the odds of GPA < 3.0 for each 1-point higher PSQI score. To aid interpretation, we also present predicted probabilities across PSQI scores from the adjusted logistic model (Fig. 3 ). We report 95% confidence intervals and two-sided P values, with alpha set at 0.05. Model fit is summarized with R² and adjusted R² for the linear model and Akaike information criterion (AIC) for the logistic model. Analyses were conducted in R. Results Sample characteristics and sleep quality prevalence Table 1 summarizes sample characteristics for the 209 participants included in the analytic sample. Mean age was 25.5 years (SD 6.98), mean PSQI global score was 8.55 (SD 4.12), and mean cumulative GPA was 3.27 (SD 0.62). Table 2 shows category frequencies. Nearly three-quarters of students met the PSQI cutoff for poor sleep (PSQI > 5; 73.7%, 154/209). Figure 1 shows the distribution of PSQI global scores, and Fig. 2 shows cumulative GPA by sleep quality group. Table 1 Descriptive statistics for continuous study variables (age, cumulative GPA, PSQI global score) among two-year college students (N = 209). Variable N Mean SD Age (years) 209 25.5 6.98 Cumulative GPA 209 3.27 0.62 PSQI global score 209 8.55 4.12 Table 2 Frequencies and proportions of sleep quality and GPA categories among two-year college students (N = 209). Variable Category N Proportion Sleep quality (PSQI) Good sleepers (PSQI ≤ 5) 55 0.263 Sleep quality (PSQI) Poor sleepers (PSQI > 5) 154 0.737 Cumulative GPA category (cut-point 3.0) GPA ≥ 3.0 149 0.713 Cumulative GPA category (cut-point 3.0) GPA < 3.0 60 0.287 Cumulative GPA category (cut-point 2.0) GPA ≥ 2.0 202 0.967 Cumulative GPA category (cut-point 2.0) GPA < 2.0 7 0.034 Adjusted regression models In the adjusted linear model (Table 3 ), worse sleep quality was associated with lower cumulative GPA. Each 1-point higher PSQI score corresponded to a 0.049-point lower cumulative GPA on the 0–4 scale (β = -0.049; SE = 0.010; t = -5.046; P < 0.001). The model explained 17% of the variance in GPA (R² = 0.17; adjusted R² = 0.15). Table 3 Multiple linear regression predicting cumulative GPA from PSQI global score and covariates (age, gender, and enrollment status). Predictor Unstandardized β SE t value P value Constant 3.367 0.184 18.278 P < 0.001 PSQI global score -0.049 0.01 -5.046 P < 0.001 Age (years) 0.012 0.006 1.962 0.051 Gender: Non-binary (vs Man) 0.004 0.235 0.017 0.987 Gender: Prefer not to say (vs Man) -0.418 0.247 -1.689 0.093 Gender: Woman (vs Man) 0.203 0.09 2.241 0.026 Enrollment status: Part-time student (vs Full-time) -0.223 0.084 -2.659 0.008 In the adjusted logistic model predicting GPA < 3.0, each 1-point higher PSQI global score was associated with higher odds of being in the lower GPA category (adjusted OR = 1.18; 95% CI 1.09–1.29; P < 0.001). Model AIC was 231.09. Figure 3 displays predicted probabilities of GPA < 3.0 across PSQI scores from the adjusted model. Discussion In this two-year college sample, poor subjective sleep quality was common, and students who reported worse sleep quality also reported lower cumulative GPA. This association remained after adjustment for age, gender, and enrollment status: worse sleep quality was linked with lower cumulative GPA (Table 3 ) and higher odds of GPA < 3.0 (Fig. 3 ). These findings align with prior studies in four-year university students showing that higher PSQI scores are linked with lower academic performance [ 16 , 26 ]. Our results extend this pattern to a two-year college setting, a population that remains underrepresented in the sleep and academic performance literature despite the large number of students served by community colleges [ 17 , 34 ]. The PSQI is a brief questionnaire summarizing sleep over the past month; higher global scores reflect poorer perceived sleep quality and typically capture combinations of shorter or more disrupted sleep, longer sleep latency, and greater daytime impairment [ 23 , 24 ]. From a clinical perspective, sleep-wake patterns reflect circadian timing and homeostatic sleep pressure [ 18 , 19 ]. When schedules require early wake times or vary across days, students may experience circadian misalignment (social jetlag) and lower sleep regularity [ 20 – 22 ]. Irregular sleep-wake timing has been linked to delayed circadian timing and poorer academic performance in college samples [ 21 ], and sleep regularity is recognized as a core dimension of sleep health [ 22 ]. The two-year college context may amplify these pressures because community colleges often serve students managing work, commuting, and caregiving demands that can limit control over sleep opportunity and timing [ 6 , 7 , 11 – 14 ]. In our adjusted model, part-time enrollment was associated with lower cumulative GPA, which may be consistent with greater competing time demands, although these specific demands were not directly measured in the present study. These associations are consistent with pathways linking insufficient or disrupted sleep to reduced attention and cognitive performance, as well as with the role of sleep in learning and memory consolidation [ 8 – 10 ]. Given the cross-sectional design, however, these findings should be interpreted as associations rather than evidence of temporal ordering or causality. Practically, these results support the potential value of brief sleep screening in community college settings. The PSQI can serve as a low-burden first-pass screen for sleep-wake strain, with elevated scores motivating follow-up assessment of rhythm-relevant constructs such as sleep timing, social jetlag, and day-to-day regularity, as well as targeted education or support. Future work should test temporal ordering with longitudinal designs and include objective sleep measures where feasible. Periods of heightened academic demand (e.g., exam weeks) may be useful windows for intervention studies targeting sleep opportunity and schedule regularity [ 35 ]. Together, these directions position sleep timing and regularity as important next-step targets for clarifying pathways and identifying potentially modifiable contributors to academic functioning in two-year college settings. Limitations Because this was a cross-sectional survey, sleep quality and GPA were measured at the same time. We therefore cannot determine whether poorer sleep quality preceded lower GPA or whether academic strain contributed to worse sleep quality. Reverse causality and reciprocal relationships are plausible. All measures were self-reported, including PSQI and cumulative GPA, so some reporting error is possible. However, prior work suggests self-reported GPA is reasonably valid [ 33 ]. Participants were recruited from one public two-year college using convenience sampling. Selection bias is therefore possible, and the findings may not generalize to other community college settings or to four-year university populations. Although models adjusted for age, gender, and enrollment status, unmeasured factors could still confound the association. We did not assess depressive symptoms or other health behaviors that may relate to both sleep and academic outcomes [ 36 – 38 ]. We also did not directly measure contextual demands such as employment schedules, commuting burden, caregiving responsibilities, housing circumstances, academic program, or year in college, all of which may influence sleep opportunity, sleep timing, or academic performance [ 12 – 14 , 39 , 40 ]. Finally, we did not measure chronotype, sleep timing variability, or social jetlag [ 20 ], and we did not include objective sleep measures. The PSQI captures subjective sleep quality over the past month but does not directly quantify circadian phase, day-to-day sleep regularity, or other rhythm-specific dimensions of sleep-wake behavior [ 22 , 23 ]. Strengths This study focuses on two-year college students, a population underrepresented in the sleep and academic performance literature [ 17 ], within a postsecondary setting that often includes heterogeneous time demands such as commuting and work schedules [ 6 , 7 , 11 – 13 ]. We evaluated academic functioning in two complementary ways: cumulative GPA as a continuous outcome and GPA < 3.0 as a secondary categorical indicator of lower academic standing. We reported prevalence estimates and model fit statistics, which supports transparency and reproducibility. These findings motivate longitudinal studies that include sleep timing and day-to-day regularity measures to test whether circadian misalignment may contribute to academic outcomes in two-year colleges. Exam periods may be a useful window for interventions that increase sleep opportunity and schedule regularity [ 35 ]. Conclusions Poor subjective sleep quality was common in this two-year college sample and was associated with lower self-reported cumulative GPA and greater odds of GPA < 3.0. These findings support the PSQI as a practical, low-burden first-line screen for sleep-wake strain in two-year college settings. Because the PSQI does not directly measure sleep timing, circadian phase, or day-to-day regularity, and because the present design was cross-sectional, future longitudinal and intervention studies should incorporate rhythm-specific measures (e.g., sleep timing, social jetlag, and schedule regularity) and objective sleep assessment where feasible to clarify potentially modifiable rhythm-related contributors to academic functioning. Declarations Conflict of Interest: R. Ismail and R. Lawabni declare that they have no conflict of interest. Ethical statement: All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the North Hennepin Community College Institutional Review Board and all procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Research involving Human Participants and/or Animals: Human participants. No animal research. Informed consent: Electronic informed consent was obtained from all participants. Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest: The authors declare no competing interests. Acknowledgments: We thank the North Hennepin Community College Institutional Review Board for study approval. We thank NHCC senior research mentors and staff for support. We also thank our research team, including student research assistants from the University of Minnesota. Funding information: This research was funded by North Hennepin Community College Student Life through Academic Outreach ($200). Written Consent for publication: Not applicable. Availability of data and material: De-identified data are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Code availability: Analysis code is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Large Language Model (LLM): Not applicable. *Authors’ contributions: R. Ismail. conceptualized the study, led IRB coordination and data collection, conducted analyses, and drafted the manuscript. R. Lawabni contributed to study design, interpretation of findings, and manuscript drafting and critical revision. R. Ismail and R. Lawabni approved the final manuscript and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work. 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Curr Opin Behav Sci 33:70–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2019.11.009 Dewald JF, Meijer AM, Oort FJ, Kerkhof GA, Bögels SM (2010) The influence of sleep quality, sleep duration and sleepiness on school performance in children and adolescents: a meta-analytic review. Sleep Med Rev 14(3):179–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2009.10.004 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9335852","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":618368809,"identity":"2a94941f-4cdb-464a-83ff-236accdf3c14","order_by":0,"name":"Ryan Ismail","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA8UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC+QYgkVBhI8cP5hrAxNlwawFLJZxJM5ZsIEkLY9vhxA0HMMVxaOE/nfjhARsz4+Zrh499riioYzC4dvYAw4eyw7i1SORulkjgYWM2u52WPPOMwWEGg9t5CYwzzuHTwrtBIkGCh83sdo4xY4PBAaCWHANm3jY8WvjPbv6RYCDBYzwbrKUOouUvPi0MudskEoB6DKTBWpghWhjxaZHI3WaRcACoB+gXoJbDPJJALQd7zqXj1CLff3bzzZ///tf3z04+zNjwp06O73aO4YMfZdY4tWAAHhBxgHj1o2AUjIJRMAqwAQArm1GXGFYn7QAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-7352-2705","institution":"University of Minnesota Morris","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ryan","middleName":"","lastName":"Ismail","suffix":""},{"id":618369006,"identity":"9beb708a-ae8b-4962-9beb-9308b95220e1","order_by":1,"name":"Razi Lawabni","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAuElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACPiBmZjCQkOOH8JkJa2EDK6uwMZZsIE3LmbTEDQeI1sJ+xvBzYdthY+Mb2WkPGCqsExsIauHJMZae2XZYzuxG7nYDhjPpRGhhyN0gzQu0BahlmwRj22EitPC/3fwbqCVx8wyQln/EaJHI3SbNA/K+BEhLA1Fa3n+zngEMZIkzb7dJJBxLNyaohZ8/Lfl2ASgq24G2fKixliWoBRUkkKZ8FIyCUTAKRgEuAAADOjw43vEnogAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Minnesota Twin cities","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Razi","middleName":"","lastName":"Lawabni","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-06 16:34:30","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9335852/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9335852/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106320752,"identity":"f1e88979-8487-4a38-9f10-83df9e2745f6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 12:14:56","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23029,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of PSQI global scores among two-year college students (N = 209).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1DistributionofPSQIglobalscores.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9335852/v1/95fa240c6dbeb768a9c3cc48.png"},{"id":106320753,"identity":"bcf54e8f-85d7-43ea-9d20-9722ee1f118b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 12:14:56","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22619,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCumulative GPA by sleep quality group. Good sleepers (PSQI ≤ 5) and poor sleepers (PSQI \u0026gt; 5).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2CumulativeGPAbysleepqualitygroup.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9335852/v1/36865b6eeff61c1a72be316e.png"},{"id":106404798,"identity":"d8214ca4-a0f7-43a7-be5f-dabbe8b12483","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:17:09","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41556,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePredicted probability of cumulative GPA \u0026lt; 3.0 across PSQI global scores from the adjusted logistic regression model (adjusted for age, gender, and enrollment status).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3PredictedprobabilityofGPAlessthan3.0byPSQI.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9335852/v1/6e256485230eb3ee33e9733e.png"},{"id":106406069,"identity":"c58d3f08-0046-43fa-b9ce-d0bf14b54372","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:29:39","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":623834,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9335852/v1/72bbcc43-796c-4613-9aad-fe638f0aaeaf.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eSleep Quality as a Low-Burden Indicator of Sleep-Wake Strain and Academic Functioning in Two-Year College Students\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMany college students experience short or disrupted sleep, and poorer subjective sleep quality can interfere with attention, learning, and academic performance [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3 CR4\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. In the United States, two-year community colleges are open-access postsecondary institutions that typically award associate degrees and certificates and differ from four-year universities in enrollment patterns: nationally, 65% of students at 2-year institutions attend part time versus 27% at 4-year institutions, and only a minority of public community colleges offer on-campus housing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. From a biological rhythms perspective, daytime function reflects the interaction of circadian timing and homeostatic sleep pressure, and insufficient or disrupted sleep can reduce cognitive performance and memory consolidation [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo-year college settings may warrant separate study because, relative to four-year institutions, they enroll far more part-time students nationally (65% vs 27%) and commonly serve nonresidential populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. This broader context is also reflected at North Hennepin Community College, where publicly available institutional data report an average student age of 23 years and describe part-time students as the majority of enrollment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. These structural features may increase exposure to competing work and caregiving demands that constrain sleep opportunity and destabilize sleep timing [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Yet most sleep-academic research has focused on four-year university samples [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR16\" citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Evidence in two-year settings is needed to guide rhythm-relevant assessment and intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSleep timing and continuity are shaped by two interacting processes: a circadian (~\u0026thinsp;24-hour) timing system and a homeostatic drive that increases with time awake [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. When externally imposed schedules require wake times that conflict with internal timing, students may experience circadian misalignment (social jetlag) and greater day-to-day variability in bed and wake times [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR21\" citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. In college samples, irregular sleep-wake timing and lower sleep regularity are associated with poorer academic performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, we assessed subjective sleep quality with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), a widely used self-report instrument covering the past month [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. We treat the PSQI global score as a low-burden downstream indicator of sleep-wake strain (e.g., insufficient or disrupted sleep and daytime impairment), rather than as a direct measure of circadian phase or sleep timing regularity. The PSQI does not directly quantify circadian phase, chronotype, social jetlag, or day-to-day regularity; rather, it summarizes seven domains (subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, habitual sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, sleep medication use, and daytime dysfunction) into a global score (0\u0026ndash;21), with higher scores indicating poorer sleep quality [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR24\" citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior work in university samples links higher PSQI scores with lower academic performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. We therefore tested whether higher PSQI global score is associated with lower cumulative GPA and higher odds of academic risk (GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0) in a two-year college sample. Here, cumulative GPA refers to the standard U.S. 0\u0026ndash;4 academic grading scale, where higher values indicate stronger academic performance; we used GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0 as a pragmatic marker of lower academic standing for this analysis.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy design and setting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted a cross-sectional, anonymous web-based survey at North Hennepin Community College (NHCC), a public two-year community college in Minnesota. NHCC is a predominantly nonresidential institution; publicly available institutional data indicate that part-time students comprise the majority of enrollment, and the college offers associate degrees, transfer pathways, and certificate programs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Data were collected from August to November 2025. Participants completed the survey once during that period. Accordingly, PSQI responses reflected sleep over the prior month, whereas GPA reflected cumulative academic performance reported at the time of survey. The NHCC Institutional Review Board approved the study, and all participants provided informed consent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eParticipants\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEligibility criteria were (1) age 18 years or older and (2) current NHCC enrollment, both confirmed by screening items. The initial dataset included 222 survey submissions. We excluded 13 submissions because respondents were ineligible or did not provide consent, yielding an analytic sample of 209 participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analytic sample therefore comprised currently enrolled adult NHCC students who met eligibility criteria and consented to participate.We did not collect students\u0026rsquo; year in program (e.g., first year vs second year), academic major/field of study, commuting status, employment hours, caregiving or parenting responsibilities, or housing status.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEthics\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants provided electronic informed consent before beginning the survey. The survey was anonymous and did not collect direct identifiers. The protocol was approved by the NHCC Institutional Review Board (ID: 250923_Ismail).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMeasures\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSubjective sleep quality was assessed with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e], a self-report questionnaire about sleep over the past month. The PSQI global score ranges from 0 to 21, with higher scores indicating poorer subjective sleep quality [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. As a self-report instrument, the PSQI functions as a downstream indicator of sleep-wake strain, but it does not directly quantify circadian phase, chronotype, social jetlag, or day-to-day timing variability or sleep regularity. For descriptive prevalence estimates, we classified PSQI\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;5 as poor sleep [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Scoring followed standard published instructions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcademic functioning was measured as self-reported cumulative grade point average (GPA), using the standard U.S. 0\u0026ndash;4 academic scale on which higher values indicate stronger academic performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Participants selected one of six GPA categories (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2.0 to 4.0); for analyses treating GPA as continuous, categories were converted to category midpoints. This approach provided an approximate continuous scale while preserving the ordered structure of the original responses. For the logistic model, academic risk was operationalized as GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0, a pragmatic threshold representing lower academic standing within the present analytic framework [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR31\" citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Self-reported GPA has shown acceptable validity in prior work [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants also reported age, gender, race/ethnicity, and enrollment status. Age, gender, and enrollment status were prespecified covariates in adjusted models because they are readily interpretable demographic and enrollment characteristics that may relate to both sleep and academic functioning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe treated PSQI global score as a continuous predictor, interpreted per 1-point increase. We fit (1) a linear regression model with cumulative GPA (category midpoints) as the outcome and (2) a logistic regression model with GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0 as the outcome. Both models adjusted for age, gender, and enrollment status.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the linear model, the unstandardized regression coefficient (beta) represents the expected change in GPA on the 0\u0026ndash;4 scale for each 1-point higher PSQI score, holding covariates constant. In the logistic model, the odds ratio (OR) represents the change in the odds of GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0 for each 1-point higher PSQI score. To aid interpretation, we also present predicted probabilities across PSQI scores from the adjusted logistic model (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). We report 95% confidence intervals and two-sided P values, with alpha set at 0.05. Model fit is summarized with R\u0026sup2; and adjusted R\u0026sup2; for the linear model and Akaike information criterion (AIC) for the logistic model. Analyses were conducted in R.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSample characteristics and sleep quality prevalence\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e summarizes sample characteristics for the 209 participants included in the analytic sample. Mean age was 25.5 years (SD 6.98), mean PSQI global score was 8.55 (SD 4.12), and mean cumulative GPA was 3.27 (SD 0.62). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows category frequencies. Nearly three-quarters of students met the PSQI cutoff for poor sleep (PSQI\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;5; 73.7%, 154/209). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the distribution of PSQI global scores, and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows cumulative GPA by sleep quality group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics for continuous study variables (age, cumulative GPA, PSQI global score) among two-year college students (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;209).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e209\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCumulative GPA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e209\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSQI global score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e209\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequencies and proportions of sleep quality and GPA categories among two-year college students (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;209).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProportion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSleep quality (PSQI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGood sleepers (PSQI \u0026le;\u0026nbsp;5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.263\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSleep quality (PSQI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor sleepers (PSQI \u0026gt;\u0026nbsp;5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e154\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.737\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCumulative GPA category (cut-point 3.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;3.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e149\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.713\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCumulative GPA category (cut-point 3.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.287\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCumulative GPA category (cut-point 2.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;2.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e202\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.967\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCumulative GPA category (cut-point 2.0)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.034\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAdjusted regression models\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the adjusted linear model (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), worse sleep quality was associated with lower cumulative GPA. Each 1-point higher PSQI score corresponded to a 0.049-point lower cumulative GPA on the 0\u0026ndash;4 scale (β = -0.049; SE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.010; t = -5.046; P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). The model explained 17% of the variance in GPA (R\u0026sup2; = 0.17; adjusted R\u0026sup2; = 0.15).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple linear regression predicting cumulative GPA from PSQI global score and covariates (age, gender, and enrollment status).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePredictor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnstandardized β\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.367\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.184\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.278\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePSQI global score\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-5.046\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.962\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender: Non-binary (vs Man)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.235\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.987\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender: Prefer not to say (vs Man)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.418\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.247\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.689\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.093\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender: Woman (vs Man)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.203\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.241\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnrollment status: Part-time student (vs Full-time)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.223\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.084\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.659\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the adjusted logistic model predicting GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0, each 1-point higher PSQI global score was associated with higher odds of being in the lower GPA category (adjusted OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.18; 95% CI 1.09\u0026ndash;1.29; P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Model AIC was 231.09. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e displays predicted probabilities of GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0 across PSQI scores from the adjusted model.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this two-year college sample, poor subjective sleep quality was common, and students who reported worse sleep quality also reported lower cumulative GPA. This association remained after adjustment for age, gender, and enrollment status: worse sleep quality was linked with lower cumulative GPA (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) and higher odds of GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings align with prior studies in four-year university students showing that higher PSQI scores are linked with lower academic performance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Our results extend this pattern to a two-year college setting, a population that remains underrepresented in the sleep and academic performance literature despite the large number of students served by community colleges [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe PSQI is a brief questionnaire summarizing sleep over the past month; higher global scores reflect poorer perceived sleep quality and typically capture combinations of shorter or more disrupted sleep, longer sleep latency, and greater daytime impairment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a clinical perspective, sleep-wake patterns reflect circadian timing and homeostatic sleep pressure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. When schedules require early wake times or vary across days, students may experience circadian misalignment (social jetlag) and lower sleep regularity [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR21\" citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Irregular sleep-wake timing has been linked to delayed circadian timing and poorer academic performance in college samples [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e], and sleep regularity is recognized as a core dimension of sleep health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe two-year college context may amplify these pressures because community colleges often serve students managing work, commuting, and caregiving demands that can limit control over sleep opportunity and timing [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR12 CR13\" citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. In our adjusted model, part-time enrollment was associated with lower cumulative GPA, which may be consistent with greater competing time demands, although these specific demands were not directly measured in the present study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese associations are consistent with pathways linking insufficient or disrupted sleep to reduced attention and cognitive performance, as well as with the role of sleep in learning and memory consolidation [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. Given the cross-sectional design, however, these findings should be interpreted as associations rather than evidence of temporal ordering or causality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePractically, these results support the potential value of brief sleep screening in community college settings. The PSQI can serve as a low-burden first-pass screen for sleep-wake strain, with elevated scores motivating follow-up assessment of rhythm-relevant constructs such as sleep timing, social jetlag, and day-to-day regularity, as well as targeted education or support.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture work should test temporal ordering with longitudinal designs and include objective sleep measures where feasible. Periods of heightened academic demand (e.g., exam weeks) may be useful windows for intervention studies targeting sleep opportunity and schedule regularity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Together, these directions position sleep timing and regularity as important next-step targets for clarifying pathways and identifying potentially modifiable contributors to academic functioning in two-year college settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBecause this was a cross-sectional survey, sleep quality and GPA were measured at the same time. We therefore cannot determine whether poorer sleep quality preceded lower GPA or whether academic strain contributed to worse sleep quality. Reverse causality and reciprocal relationships are plausible.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll measures were self-reported, including PSQI and cumulative GPA, so some reporting error is possible. However, prior work suggests self-reported GPA is reasonably valid [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants were recruited from one public two-year college using convenience sampling. Selection bias is therefore possible, and the findings may not generalize to other community college settings or to four-year university populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough models adjusted for age, gender, and enrollment status, unmeasured factors could still confound the association. We did not assess depressive symptoms or other health behaviors that may relate to both sleep and academic outcomes [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR37\" citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. We also did not directly measure contextual demands such as employment schedules, commuting burden, caregiving responsibilities, housing circumstances, academic program, or year in college, all of which may influence sleep opportunity, sleep timing, or academic performance [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR13\" citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Finally, we did not measure chronotype, sleep timing variability, or social jetlag [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], and we did not include objective sleep measures. The PSQI captures subjective sleep quality over the past month but does not directly quantify circadian phase, day-to-day sleep regularity, or other rhythm-specific dimensions of sleep-wake behavior [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStrengths\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study focuses on two-year college students, a population underrepresented in the sleep and academic performance literature [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], within a postsecondary setting that often includes heterogeneous time demands such as commuting and work schedules [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR12\" citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe evaluated academic functioning in two complementary ways: cumulative GPA as a continuous outcome and GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0 as a secondary categorical indicator of lower academic standing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe reported prevalence estimates and model fit statistics, which supports transparency and reproducibility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings motivate longitudinal studies that include sleep timing and day-to-day regularity measures to test whether circadian misalignment may contribute to academic outcomes in two-year colleges. Exam periods may be a useful window for interventions that increase sleep opportunity and schedule regularity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003ePoor subjective sleep quality was common in this two-year college sample and was associated with lower self-reported cumulative GPA and greater odds of GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0. These findings support the PSQI as a practical, low-burden first-line screen for sleep-wake strain in two-year college settings. Because the PSQI does not directly measure sleep timing, circadian phase, or day-to-day regularity, and because the present design was cross-sectional, future longitudinal and intervention studies should incorporate rhythm-specific measures (e.g., sleep timing, social jetlag, and schedule regularity) and objective sleep assessment where feasible to clarify potentially modifiable rhythm-related contributors to academic functioning.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eConflict of Interest: R. Ismail and R. Lawabni declare that they have no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical statement: All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the North Hennepin Community College Institutional Review Board and all procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Research involving Human Participants and/or Animals: Human participants. No animal research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Informed consent: Electronic informed consent was obtained from all participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDisclosure of potential conflicts of interest: The authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Acknowledgments: We thank the North Hennepin Community College Institutional Review Board for study approval. We thank NHCC senior research mentors and staff for support. We also thank our research team, including student research assistants from the University of Minnesota.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Funding information: This research was funded by North Hennepin Community College Student Life through Academic Outreach ($200).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWritten Consent for publication: Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAvailability of data and material: De-identified data are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Code availability: Analysis code is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Large Language Model (LLM): Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;*Authors\u0026rsquo; contributions: R. Ismail. conceptualized the study, led IRB coordination and data collection, conducted analyses, and drafted the manuscript. R. 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Sleep Med Rev 14(3):179\u0026ndash;189. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2009.10.004\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.smrv.2009.10.004\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"North Hennepin Community College","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"sleep quality, sleep-wake regulation, biological rhythms, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, academic performance, community college students","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9335852/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9335852/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground/Objectives:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo test whether subjective sleep quality is associated with academic functioning in two-year college students and to evaluate the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) as a low-burden indicator of sleep-wake strain.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted a one-time, anonymous web-based survey at a Midwestern two-year community college (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;209). Sleep quality was assessed with the PSQI (0\u0026ndash;21, with higher scores indicating worse sleep). Students self-reported cumulative grade point average (GPA; 0\u0026ndash;4). We used linear regression models for cumulative GPA and logistic regression models for GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0, adjusted for age, gender, and enrollment status.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor sleep quality (PSQI\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;5) was prevalent (73.7%). Higher PSQI scores were associated with lower cumulative GPA (β = -0.05; 95% confidence interval [CI], -0.08 to -0.02), corresponding to an estimated 0.05-point decrease in GPA on the 0\u0026ndash;4 scale for each 1-point increase in PSQI. Higher PSQI scores were also associated with higher odds of GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0 (OR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.18; 95% CI, 1.09\u0026ndash;1.29), corresponding to an 18% increase in the odds of GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0 for each 1-point increase in PSQI.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWorse subjective sleep quality was associated with poorer academic performance and greater odds of GPA\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3.0 among two-year college students. As a brief screening tool, the PSQI may serve as a first-pass indicator of sleep-wake strain in two-year college settings. However, it does not directly measure circadian phase, sleep timing, social jetlag, or day-to-day regularity. Future studies should incorporate rhythm-specific measures to clarify circadian and homeostatic pathways more directly.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Sleep Quality as a Low-Burden Indicator of Sleep-Wake Strain and Academic Functioning in Two-Year College Students","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-07 12:14:52","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9335852/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7a8da779-27fb-4f4c-a3be-69300388051d","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 7th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":65800664,"name":"Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-07T12:14:52+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-07 12:14:52","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9335852","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9335852","identity":"rs-9335852","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}