An examination of alcohol outlet density, license type, and area-level deprivation in Ireland

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This study examines the density, distribution, accessibility and license type in Ireland, with attention to area-based socioeconomic and urban–rural variations. Methods Data on liquor licences issued or renewed during 2021–2022 were analysed, and geospatial mapping was conducted using ArcGIS Pro. Outlet density was calculated per 1,000 population based on 2022 Census data. Proximity analysis assessed the proportion of the population living within 300 metres of a licensed premises. Results On-trade premises accounted for 53.8% of licences, while off-trade outlets represented 38.8%. Although most licensed premises were located in areas of average deprivation, disadvantaged areas exhibited a higher density (6.0 per 1,000 population) compared to affluent areas (3.0 per 1,000), although this finding was dependent on licence type. For example, there were more off-licences per capita in disadvantaged areas but more restaurant licences per capita in affluent areas. Urban–rural analysis revealed the highest densities in smaller towns and tourist destinations, with Killarney, a popular tourist destination, recording eight premises per 1,000 population. Nationally, 75.3% of the population resides within 300 metres of a licensed premises. Conclusions Alcohol availability in Ireland is widespread, with notable area-based socioeconomic and geographic disparities. Higher outlet density in disadvantaged areas and tourist towns may have implications for alcohol-related harm and inform targeted policy interventions. Alcohol Availability Deprivation licensed premises Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Background Globally, alcohol use is responsible for over 5% of all deaths every year and is a causal factor in more than 200 disease and injury conditions, affecting not only the individual, but also their family, friends, community, and society at large [ 1 , 2 ]. In Ireland, there are approximately 18,000 alcohol-related hospitalisations annually, approximately 10,000 cases annually of individuals receiving treatment for their alcohol use, over 5,000 drink-driving incidents and almost 10,000 incidents of ‘drunkenness’ recorded by An Garda Siochána annually [ 3 ]. This places a huge burden on already strained health and criminal justice services. Although a 15% decline in per capita alcohol use has been noted since the introduction of the 2018 legislation, alcohol use in Ireland remains high, approximately 35% higher than the Health Service Executive low-risk drinking guidelines [ 4 – 6 ]. The Public Health (Alcohol) Act, enacted in 2018, was a concerted attempt by the Irish Government to reduce population-level alcohol use and the majority of the components of the legislation were commenced between 2019 and 2023 [ 4 , 7 ]. The Act limits alcohol advertising in certain places, includes structural separation (alcohol behind closed doors in mixed retail outlets), minimum unit pricing, and in 2028 will require all alcohol products sold in Ireland to display health warning labels. The commencement of the Act coincided with the COVID-19 pandemic. With the pandemic came the closure of the on-trade (pubs and restaurants, etc.) for extended periods of time resulting in financial losses for the businesses affected. Of note, off licenses remained open during the pandemic as they were considered ‘essential retailers’ [ 8 ]. A combination of the legislation and the closure of the on-trade led to a decline in alcohol use during this period. Despite the decline in pubs, a study using data available on Openstreetmap found that Ireland has the third-highest number of pubs per capita in the world [ 9 , 10 ]. The Report of the Night-Time Economy Taskforce was published in September 2021 in response to the sector badly impacted by the Covid-19 pandemic [ 11 ]. The report made recommendations to revive the ‘diverse social, cultural and economic activity occurring during specified evening and night-time hours’ (p. 8). The report made recommendations to extend opening hours in national cultural institutions, to use more existing venues for late-night use, to encourage more outdoor activities, and to modernise and streamline licensing arrangements and application processes to help businesses selling alcohol to grow and potentially diversify. Shortly after the report was published, the Sale of Alcohol Bill was published [ 12 ]. This proposed legislation intends to modernise and update Ireland’s licensing laws, many of which are dated. Although streamlining and updating licensing laws is welcomed, for those working in public health, concern lies with the elements of the proposed legislation seeking to extend opening hours and increase alcohol availability, which were subsequently divided into a separate Bill, the Intoxicating Liquor Bill, 2024 [ 13 – 15 ]. Alcohol licensing in Ireland is governed by a number of separate pieces of legislation and changes to the legislation that, especially since the turn of the century, have impacted alcohol availability in Irish communities. For example, the Intoxicating Liquor Act, 2000 abolished the restriction on the geographical movement of licences across the country [ 16 ]. Before the introduction of this Act, pub licences could only be transferred through a process that involved extinguishing one or more licences and issuing another licence for the new premises. Furthermore, the abolishment of the Groceries Order in 2006 allowed for below-cost alcohol sales and resulted in a substantial increase in the number of retail outlets selling alcohol. Current legislation in Ireland limits the availability of alcohol by restricting the number of outlets licensed to sell alcohol, limiting the hours of sale, setting a minimum purchase age, minimum unit pricing, preventing sales to intoxicated people, and limiting drinking in public places [ 17 – 19 ]. How easy it is to obtain alcohol is referred to as alcohol availability. Extensive literature indicates that increased alcohol availability is associated with early alcohol initiation, binge drinking, domestic violence, and alcohol-related morbidity and mortality [ 20 – 28 ]. Previous studies in other jurisdictions have also confirmed a higher density of alcohol retailers in areas of greater deprivation. For example, a study conducted in New Zealand found those living in areas of poverty had greater access to alcohol outlets [ 29 ]. Similarly in Scotland [ 30 ], in California [ 31 ], and in Victoria, Australia [ 32 ], the most deprived neighbourhoods had the highest densities of alcohol outlets. Because of the evidence associating alcohol availability and alcohol-related harm, it is important to examine the distribution of licensed premises, especially in relation to areas of deprivation. The latter is particularly pertinent as the literature notes the Alcohol Harm Paradox, the phenomenon whereby those living in more deprived areas experience disproportionate alcohol-related harm despite similar or even lower levels of alcohol use than those in less deprived areas [ 33 – 35 ]. Alcohol use and related harms are associated with deprivation and data from Irish surveys and information systems indicate that those living in more disadvantaged areas are more likely to engage in hazardous alcohol use and are more likely to receive treatment for problematic alcohol use [ 36 , 37 ]. Robust evidence confirms that alcohol contributes to health inequalities and that greater alcohol availability in more disadvantaged areas is associated with increased alcohol-related harm for residents as supply is increased, prices more competitive, and normalises alcohol within such communities [ 28 , 38 – 44 ]. Evidence from an Irish perspective indicate that those living in areas of deprivation have a lower life expectancy than those in areas of affluence, have higher prevalence of chronic diseases, have fewer primary care services locally and yet are more likely to require such services, are more likely to have increased segregation, especially for those with poor English-language proficiency, and have higher suicide rates and self-harm hospitalisations [ 45 – 50 ]. Proposed changes to the legislation in the form of the Sale of Alcohol Bill (2022) and the Intoxicating Liquor Bill (2024) are likely to increase the availability of alcohol [ 12 , 15 ]. Examining how alcohol availability varies across different areas, especially socioeconomically, provides valuable insights into its potential impact on health disparities. This study therefore aims to examine alcohol outlet density in Ireland, and specifically if there is a higher density of such premises in areas of greater deprivation and whether licence type varies based on area of deprivation status. Methods Licensed premises Revenue publish a list of all liquor licences issued and renewed annually and are publicly available [ 51 ]. The types of licences issued in in Ireland, include those issued for premises licensed to trade as pubs, off-trade (including supermarkets and off-licences), on-trade licences (including restaurants and cafes), wholesale dealers. Note that this register is not a complete register due to premises not renewing their licence, or a licence may transfer ownership or be extinguished and traded for a different licence type, often in another location. For the reporting period 2021–2022, Revenue indicated that 19,910 liquor licences were issued or renewed. There are situations whereby multiple licences may be issued for the same premises, for example, a pub might hold a publican licence and a wine retailer on-licence if it serves food as well as operating as a bar, for the purposes of this study, we counted those premises types only once, Once these duplicates were removed, 14,480 unique premises remained, licenced to sell alcohol. These addresses were geocoded (matched) by GeoDirectory to allow the data be converted for geographic information systems (GIS) mapping and analysis [ 52 ]. Through the GeoDirectory matching process, 42% of addresses were matched successfully, an additional 38% were matched using the ‘Address Fix’ tool (matching to the nearest street/road), with the final 2,685 (20%) requiring manual matching using Google Maps due to the limited address details provided. This was achieved by using supplementary database information such as name, or ownership. New licences being issued are now required to provide an Eircode, which will eventually allow precise coordinates to be captures, improving geospatial analysis and overall data quality. We used World Geodetic System version 84 (WGS 84) to match the addresses by assigning a 12-digit latitude and longitude co-ordinate to each point (northing for latitude, easting for longitude). The fully geo-coded dataset was imported into ArcGIS Pro v3.1.2 where licence locations were projected onto the Irish National Grid for display as points over Small Area Units. Small Areas represent the smallest geographic boundary in Ireland, typically covering 80–120 households, and are comparable to the UK’s Output Areas [ 53 ]. Using ArcGIS, we calculated the number and proximity of licensed premises within a 300-metre straight-line (Euclidian) distance of each location. The 300 metre threshold was selected based on previous research and representing a reasonable walking distance between households and the nearest licenced premises [ 54 , 55 ]. Area-level deprivation classification We applied the Pobal HP Deprivation Index to analyse the licence distribution by deprivation level [ 56 ]. Developed by Haase and Pratschke in the 1990’s, and updated using 2022 Census data, the Index scores each Small Area on a scale from extremely disadvantaged (-56.14) to extremely affluent. The distribution is normalised, with about 70% of areas scoring between − 10 and 10. Each 10-point band represents one standard deviation from the mean. Scores were divided into octiles, based on standard deviations from the mean score of 0. Licence locations were classified into these categories, and counts of licences were calculated for each octile using attribute queries from within ArcGIS. These counts were then adjusted by the population of each Small Area to produce rates, both for all licences combined and by licence type. A spatial join (point-in-polygon) in ArcGIS Pro assigned each licence a deprivation score by overlaying its coordinates on the corresponding Small Area polygon. Results Alcohol availability Ireland In 2021/2022, pubs, bars, and restaurants (the on-trade) represented over one-half (53.8%) of liquor licences and shops, garages, supermarkets etc. (the off-trade) represented 38.8% of licences. Figure 1 illustrates the location of all premises licensed to sell alcohol in Ireland and Figure 2 illustrates the location of licensed premises by licence type. Figure 1 Location of all liquor licences issued or renewed for the period 2021—2022 in Ireland, by small area Figure 2a – 2d displays the distribution of the different type of licensed premises. Figure 2 Location of licensed premises in Ireland by licence type; a) Pubs, b) Restaurants, c) Off-licences and d) Other licensed premises Alcohol availability and area of deprivation We calculated the rate of licensed premises per 1,000 of each Small Area population (based on Census 2022 population figures) (Figure 3) [57]. Figure 3 illustrates that areas marginally above average or marginally below average (as with the pattern of the population) feature a greater quantity of licensed premises, however, compared to affluent areas. When affluent - extremely affluent areas (affluent areas) are combined and compared with disadvantaged - extremely disadvantaged areas (deprived areas), it becomes clear that there is a higher rate of licensed premises in deprived areas; 3.0 licensed premises per 1,000 of the population in affluent areas compared to 6.0 per 1,000 of the population in deprived areas. In other words, there were twice as many licensed premises per head of population in deprived areas compared to affluent areas where (Supplementary Table 1). Figure 3 Percentage of Small Area population and rate of licensed premises per 1,000 population, Census 2022 Examination of licence type by area of deprivation further revealed a greater density of pubs per capita in deprived areas (3.0 per 1,000) compared to affluent areas (0.9 per 1,000), and a similar pattern was observed for off-trade premises; 1.9 off-licences per 1,000 people in deprived areas compared to 0.8 per 1,000 residents of affluent communities. The ratio reverses when restaurants are examined, with 0.6 restaurant licences per 1,000 of the population in disadvantaged areas and 1.1 restaurant licences per 1,000 population in affluent areas (Supplementary Table 1). Urban-rural differences Using ArcGIS, we analysed the distribution of licensed premises across urban and rural areas per 1,000 of the population based on 2022 Census figures. The urban-rural classification was based on the new Built Up Urban Areas (BUAs) layer produced for the 2022 Census. The highest rates were observed in smaller villages and towns, particularly along the west coast and in popular tourist destinations. Conversely, newer suburban towns, where population growth has outpaced the development of amenities, tended to have lower densities of licensed premises. Supplementary Table 2 highlights towns in Ireland with populations over 10,000 (based on the 2022 Census) that have the greatest concentration of licensed premises. Killarney, County Kerry ranks highest with 114 licensed premises the town, representing eight licensed premises per 1,000 of the population or 1.2 premises per square kilometre. Geographical proximity to liquor licences Using a geospatial analysis, we calculated the Irish population’s proximity to licensed premises to understand the accessibility to alcohol. Based on the 2022 Census of the population, nationally, 75.3% of the population of Ireland fell within a 300-metre buffer[1] of a licensed premises, or 3.88 million people. [1] Note that this estimate is based on a point-to-point calculation rather than along a road network. Discussion This study identifies significant patterns in alcohol availability across Ireland, with implications for public health and policy. Pubs, bars, and restaurants (on-trade) account for over one-half of licences (53.8%), while the off-trade sector represents 38.8% of licences. This represents a substantial shift over the past decade whereby the off-trade has grown while the on-trade declines and reflects a cultural shift in Ireland where drinking at home has become more commonplace [3]. The COVID-19 pandemic was undoubtedly responsible for expediating many closures of the on-trade sector. Spatial analysis reveals inequalities in access to alcohol. Disadvantaged areas have twice the number of licensed premises per capita compared to areas of affluence. Urban–rural contrasts were also evident and smaller towns and villages, particularly in tourist areas along the west coast, had the highest densities of licensed premises, while suburban areas show relatively lower densities. This pattern appears linked to historical licensing practices and tourism-driven demand rather than recent population growth. The World Health Organization identifies limiting alcohol availability as one of the most effective, and cost-effective, strategies for reducing alcohol-related harm [20,59]. The availability theory posits that greater availability leads to greater consumption, and in turn increases the risk of alcohol-related harms [60]. Easy access along with prominent advertising through signage and marketing outside licensed premises influences drinking behaviours, particularly among adolescents [23,61,62]. Moreover, the visibility and concentration of licensed premises normalises drinking and intoxication within communities [28]. Using 2022 Census figures, our analysis indicates that approximately three-quarters of the Irish population live within walking distance of a licensed premises. Such widespread availability may contribute to normalisation of alcohol use and limit the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing harm through physical access restrictions. Proposed legislation seeking to expand the number of outlets selling alcohol, as well as extending opening hours, could increase per capita alcohol use and associated harms to public health [12,63]. Regulating licence density, especially in deprived areas, is important to avoid oversaturation. These findings emphasise the need for alcohol policies that consider both the numbers of licences and their spatial distribution. Policies targeting outlet density in deprived areas, monitoring urban expansion, and addressing proximity in residential zones could help mitigate alcohol-related harm. Future research should explore temporal trends in licensing, consumption patterns relative to outlet density, and the impact of policy interventions on health outcomes. Strengths and limitations This research has several strengths. This study, updates the report based on 2016 Census data [58] is the first in Ireland to examine alcohol availability by area of deprivation based on Census 2022 providing detailed statistics on licence distribution, deprivation gradients, and proximity measures. The data analysed is publicly available and comprehensive and includes all licence types and using ArcGIS and small-area analysis incorporates spatial distribution, deprivation indices, and urban–rural differences, offering a multidimensional perspective. The findings highlight disparities in alcohol availability by deprivation and proximity, which are critical for public health and policy discussions. The study’s robustness was enhanced by cross-checking distances to licensed premises. While the 300-metre distance was initially calculated as most direct path between the two points, we also conducted a sample testing of a buffer based on distance along the road network, which produced almost identical results. However, there are limitations to this study. The 2021–2022 list of licensed premises was used, despite the availability of more recent versions. This decision was based on the fact that geocoding had already been completed for this dataset. To repeat the geocoding for a more recent list would be time consuming and would have incurred substantial additional costs to repeat the process for a newer list which typically exhibits minimal year-on-year variation [3]. It is important to note that Revenue publishes annual data of the numbers of licensed premises issued or renewed annually. This list may include licensed premises (typically pubs) where the licence was renewed but the premises is not open to the public or has limited opening hours due to lack of demand and/or costs associated with trading. Furthermore, the available data do not indicate the size (or the opening hours) of the premises. This analysis does not consider licence data accuracy, temporal changes, or population mobility. A further limitation of this study is that it does not account for alcohol delivery services, which enable individuals to access alcohol regardless of their proximity to licensed premises. However, this study provides valuable insights for both policymakers and the public regarding the distribution and accessibility of alcohol across communities. Particular attention should be paid to the concentration of off-licences in socioeconomically deprived areas, where alcohol-related harms are known to be more pronounced. Monitoring these patterns is essential for informing equitable public health strategies. Importantly, communities have the right to object to new alcohol licence applications if they believe the area is already sufficiently served or if existing outlets are contributing to public nuisance. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable. As the data are publicly available, ethical approval was not necessary. No individual data and therefore consent not applicable. Availability of data and materials The datasets analysed for this study are publicly available here: https://www.revenue.ie/en/corporate/information-about-revenue/statistics/excise/licences/liquor-licences.aspx https://www.cso.ie/en/statistics/population/censusofpopulation2022/ Funding Declaration All authors declare no funding was received for this study. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests Authors' contributions AD conceived the idea. RF conducted geospatial analysis. AD wrote the manuscript. All authors discussed the results and read and approved the final manuscript. All authors approved the submitted version. Consent for publication All authors have approved the manuscript and consent to its publication. References Murray CJL, Aravkin AY, Zheng P, et al. Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. 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Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs 2018; 79 :58–67. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Supplementarytables.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 27 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 20 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 20 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 04 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 30 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 20 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 19 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 18 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 18 Dec, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 18 Dec, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 03 Dec, 2025 Editor invited by journal 25 Nov, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 25 Nov, 2025 First submitted to journal 25 Nov, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Doyle","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAArklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFCCBAaGBww2CQwSDAwHiNeSwJBGupbDYC3EAf725GMSCRXn88xnNzAe+ECMFokzz9IkEs7cLpa5c4Dh4AyirLmRYyaR2HY7cYYE0Hk8xOiQB2v5dw6i5Q8xWgzAWhoOQLQQ5S7DM8+SLRKOJSfOkDnYcLCHGC1yx5MP3vhQY5c4Q7r58IcfRFnDwMACjRHGBiI1MDAwExUbo2AUjIJRMIIBAEJqOhAPVZmPAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Health Research Board","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Anne","middleName":"","lastName":"Doyle","suffix":""},{"id":563626565,"identity":"843bcd27-99e4-4d57-af61-5de4a70fbda8","order_by":1,"name":"Ronan Foley","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"National University of Ireland, Maynooth","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ronan","middleName":"","lastName":"Foley","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-17 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10:37:12","extension":"xml","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":131250,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"c0b0dcf3bdd84926afbb7ad7ecf831a01structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8137478/v1/27ea3accfedebf113f7b43a8.xml"},{"id":98769967,"identity":"b3ba1875-1e54-49ec-a458-1701a1f19349","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 10:37:12","extension":"html","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":141489,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8137478/v1/0aadcf6b7216f481fc314028.html"},{"id":98769954,"identity":"5c1c5115-6e9a-4d53-9ea6-9f6619bdd302","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 10:37:12","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":612582,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation of all liquor licences issued or renewed for the period 2021—2022 in Ireland, by small area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8137478/v1/d999e6d154eab354f28cfc80.png"},{"id":98769952,"identity":"4503b7b4-e32d-433e-b2cf-c27dd25c3a3f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 10:37:12","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1033532,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLocation of licensed premises in Ireland by licence type; a) Pubs, b) Restaurants, c) Off-licences and d) Other licensed premises\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8137478/v1/5893345c2ea8c42e95c14cad.png"},{"id":98780894,"identity":"9abe92c6-e455-48db-bb1c-5f533f0dd57e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:31:48","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47520,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercentage of Small Area population and rate of licensed premises per 1,000 population, Census 2022\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8137478/v1/bac9c9eed54723476c3a5565.png"},{"id":98784719,"identity":"b38694d3-4d25-47aa-9da0-a1e670a8467b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 12:43:06","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1856839,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8137478/v1/ef5778a3-0cd4-4d38-ac95-31652e4252ff.pdf"},{"id":98769951,"identity":"29cafa99-09b0-4c4f-831c-3901a512c570","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 10:37:12","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":22907,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Supplementarytables.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8137478/v1/11afb32d2e6c829f8ca09ef8.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"An examination of alcohol outlet density, license type, and area-level deprivation in Ireland","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eGlobally, alcohol use is responsible for over 5% of all deaths every year and is a causal factor in more than 200 disease and injury conditions, affecting not only the individual, but also their family, friends, community, and society at large [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. In Ireland, there are approximately 18,000 alcohol-related hospitalisations annually, approximately 10,000 cases annually of individuals receiving treatment for their alcohol use, over 5,000 drink-driving incidents and almost 10,000 incidents of \u0026lsquo;drunkenness\u0026rsquo; recorded by An Garda Sioch\u0026aacute;na annually [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. This places a huge burden on already strained health and criminal justice services.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough a 15% decline in per capita alcohol use has been noted since the introduction of the 2018 legislation, alcohol use in Ireland remains high, approximately 35% higher than the Health Service Executive low-risk drinking guidelines [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR5\" citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. The Public Health (Alcohol) Act, enacted in 2018, was a concerted attempt by the Irish Government to reduce population-level alcohol use and the majority of the components of the legislation were commenced between 2019 and 2023 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. The Act limits alcohol advertising in certain places, includes structural separation (alcohol behind closed doors in mixed retail outlets), minimum unit pricing, and in 2028 will require all alcohol products sold in Ireland to display health warning labels. The commencement of the Act coincided with the COVID-19 pandemic. With the pandemic came the closure of the on-trade (pubs and restaurants, etc.) for extended periods of time resulting in financial losses for the businesses affected. Of note, off licenses remained open during the pandemic as they were considered \u0026lsquo;essential retailers\u0026rsquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. A combination of the legislation and the closure of the on-trade led to a decline in alcohol use during this period. Despite the decline in pubs, a study using data available on Openstreetmap found that Ireland has the third-highest number of pubs per capita in the world [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Report of the Night-Time Economy Taskforce was published in September 2021 in response to the sector badly impacted by the Covid-19 pandemic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. The report made recommendations to revive the \u0026lsquo;diverse social, cultural and economic activity occurring during specified evening and night-time hours\u0026rsquo; (p. 8). The report made recommendations to extend opening hours in national cultural institutions, to use more existing venues for late-night use, to encourage more outdoor activities, and to modernise and streamline licensing arrangements and application processes to help businesses selling alcohol to grow and potentially diversify. Shortly after the report was published, the Sale of Alcohol Bill was published [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. This proposed legislation intends to modernise and update Ireland\u0026rsquo;s licensing laws, many of which are dated. Although streamlining and updating licensing laws is welcomed, for those working in public health, concern lies with the elements of the proposed legislation seeking to extend opening hours and increase alcohol availability, which were subsequently divided into a separate Bill, the Intoxicating Liquor Bill, 2024 [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR14\" citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlcohol licensing in Ireland is governed by a number of separate pieces of legislation and changes to the legislation that, especially since the turn of the century, have impacted alcohol availability in Irish communities. For example, the Intoxicating Liquor Act, 2000 abolished the restriction on the geographical movement of licences across the country [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Before the introduction of this Act, pub licences could only be transferred through a process that involved extinguishing one or more licences and issuing another licence for the new premises. Furthermore, the abolishment of the Groceries Order in 2006 allowed for below-cost alcohol sales and resulted in a substantial increase in the number of retail outlets selling alcohol. Current legislation in Ireland limits the availability of alcohol by restricting the number of outlets licensed to sell alcohol, limiting the hours of sale, setting a minimum purchase age, minimum unit pricing, preventing sales to intoxicated people, and limiting drinking in public places [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR18\" citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow easy it is to obtain alcohol is referred to as alcohol availability. Extensive literature indicates that increased alcohol availability is associated with early alcohol initiation, binge drinking, domestic violence, and alcohol-related morbidity and mortality [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR21 CR22 CR23 CR24 CR25 CR26 CR27\" citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. Previous studies in other jurisdictions have also confirmed a higher density of alcohol retailers in areas of greater deprivation. For example, a study conducted in New Zealand found those living in areas of poverty had greater access to alcohol outlets [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly in Scotland [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e], in California [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e], and in Victoria, Australia [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e], the most deprived neighbourhoods had the highest densities of alcohol outlets.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBecause of the evidence associating alcohol availability and alcohol-related harm, it is important to examine the distribution of licensed premises, especially in relation to areas of deprivation. The latter is particularly pertinent as the literature notes the Alcohol Harm Paradox, the phenomenon whereby those living in more deprived areas experience disproportionate alcohol-related harm despite similar or even lower levels of alcohol use than those in less deprived areas [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR34\" citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Alcohol use and related harms are associated with deprivation and data from Irish surveys and information systems indicate that those living in more disadvantaged areas are more likely to engage in hazardous alcohol use and are more likely to receive treatment for problematic alcohol use [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Robust evidence confirms that alcohol contributes to health inequalities and that greater alcohol availability in more disadvantaged areas is associated with increased alcohol-related harm for residents as supply is increased, prices more competitive, and normalises alcohol within such communities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR39 CR40 CR41 CR42 CR43\" citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvidence from an Irish perspective indicate that those living in areas of deprivation have a lower life expectancy than those in areas of affluence, have higher prevalence of chronic diseases, have fewer primary care services locally and yet are more likely to require such services, are more likely to have increased segregation, especially for those with poor English-language proficiency, and have higher suicide rates and self-harm hospitalisations [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR46 CR47 CR48 CR49\" citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProposed changes to the legislation in the form of the Sale of Alcohol Bill (2022) and the Intoxicating Liquor Bill (2024) are likely to increase the availability of alcohol [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Examining how alcohol availability varies across different areas, especially socioeconomically, provides valuable insights into its potential impact on health disparities. This study therefore aims to examine alcohol outlet density in Ireland, and specifically if there is a higher density of such premises in areas of greater deprivation and whether licence type varies based on area of deprivation status.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLicensed premises\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRevenue publish a list of all liquor licences issued and renewed annually and are publicly available [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. The types of licences issued in in Ireland, include those issued for premises licensed to trade as pubs, off-trade (including supermarkets and off-licences), on-trade licences (including restaurants and cafes), wholesale dealers. Note that this register is not a complete register due to premises not renewing their licence, or a licence may transfer ownership or be extinguished and traded for a different licence type, often in another location.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the reporting period 2021\u0026ndash;2022, Revenue indicated that 19,910 liquor licences were issued or renewed. There are situations whereby multiple licences may be issued for the same premises, for example, a pub might hold a publican licence and a wine retailer on-licence if it serves food as well as operating as a bar, for the purposes of this study, we counted those premises types only once, Once these duplicates were removed, 14,480 unique premises remained, licenced to sell alcohol. These addresses were geocoded (matched) by GeoDirectory to allow the data be converted for geographic information systems (GIS) mapping and analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. Through the GeoDirectory matching process, 42% of addresses were matched successfully, an additional 38% were matched using the \u0026lsquo;Address Fix\u0026rsquo; tool (matching to the nearest street/road), with the final 2,685 (20%) requiring manual matching using Google Maps due to the limited address details provided. This was achieved by using supplementary database information such as name, or ownership. New licences being issued are now required to provide an Eircode, which will eventually allow precise coordinates to be captures, improving geospatial analysis and overall data quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe used World Geodetic System version 84 (WGS 84) to match the addresses by assigning a 12-digit latitude and longitude co-ordinate to each point (northing for latitude, easting for longitude). The fully geo-coded dataset was imported into ArcGIS Pro v3.1.2 where licence locations were projected onto the Irish National Grid for display as points over Small Area Units. Small Areas represent the smallest geographic boundary in Ireland, typically covering 80\u0026ndash;120 households, and are comparable to the UK\u0026rsquo;s Output Areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing ArcGIS, we calculated the number and proximity of licensed premises within a 300-metre straight-line (Euclidian) distance of each location. The 300 metre threshold was selected based on previous research and representing a reasonable walking distance between households and the nearest licenced premises [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eArea-level deprivation classification\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe applied the Pobal HP Deprivation Index to analyse the licence distribution by deprivation level [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. Developed by Haase and Pratschke in the 1990\u0026rsquo;s, and updated using 2022 Census data, the Index scores each Small Area on a scale from extremely disadvantaged (-56.14) to extremely affluent. The distribution is normalised, with about 70% of areas scoring between \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10 and 10. Each 10-point band represents one standard deviation from the mean.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eScores were divided into octiles, based on standard deviations from the mean score of 0. Licence locations were classified into these categories, and counts of licences were calculated for each octile using attribute queries from within ArcGIS. These counts were then adjusted by the population of each Small Area to produce rates, both for all licences combined and by licence type. A spatial join (point-in-polygon) in ArcGIS Pro assigned each licence a deprivation score by overlaying its coordinates on the corresponding Small Area polygon.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eAlcohol availability Ireland\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 2021/2022, pubs, bars, and restaurants (the on-trade) represented over one-half (53.8%) of liquor licences and shops, garages, supermarkets etc. (the off-trade) represented 38.8% of licences. Figure 1 illustrates the location of all premises licensed to sell alcohol in Ireland and Figure 2 illustrates the location of licensed premises by licence type.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure\u0026nbsp;1\u0026nbsp;Location of all liquor licences issued or renewed for the period 2021\u0026mdash;2022 in Ireland, by small area\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 2a \u0026ndash; 2d displays the distribution of the different type of licensed premises.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 2 Location of licensed premises in Ireland by licence type; a) Pubs, b) Restaurants, c) Off-licences and d) Other licensed premises\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"_Toc147475063\"\u003eAlcohol availability and area of deprivation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe calculated the rate of licensed premises per 1,000 of each Small Area population (based on Census 2022 population figures) (Figure 3) [57]. Figure 3 illustrates that areas marginally above average or marginally below average (as with the pattern of the population) feature a greater quantity of licensed premises, however, compared to affluent areas. When affluent - extremely affluent areas (affluent areas) are combined and compared with disadvantaged - extremely disadvantaged areas (deprived areas), it becomes clear that there is a higher rate of licensed premises in deprived areas; 3.0 licensed premises per 1,000 of the population in affluent areas compared to 6.0 per 1,000 of the population in deprived areas. In other words, there were twice as many licensed premises per head of population in deprived areas compared to affluent areas where (Supplementary Table 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 3 Percentage of Small Area population and rate of licensed premises per 1,000 population, Census 2022\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eExamination of licence type by area of deprivation further revealed a greater density of pubs per capita in deprived areas (3.0 per 1,000) compared to affluent areas (0.9 per 1,000), and a similar pattern was observed for off-trade premises; 1.9 off-licences per 1,000 people in deprived areas compared to 0.8 per 1,000 residents of affluent communities. The ratio reverses when restaurants are examined, with 0.6 restaurant licences per 1,000 of the population in disadvantaged areas and 1.1 restaurant licences per 1,000 population in affluent areas (Supplementary Table 1).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUrban-rural differences\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUsing ArcGIS, we analysed the distribution of licensed premises across urban and rural areas per 1,000 of the population based on 2022 Census figures. The urban-rural classification was based on the new Built Up Urban Areas (BUAs)\u0026nbsp;layer produced for the 2022 Census. The highest rates were observed in smaller villages and towns, particularly along the west coast and in popular tourist destinations. Conversely, newer suburban towns, where population growth has outpaced the development of amenities, tended to have lower densities of licensed premises.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupplementary Table 2 highlights towns in Ireland with populations over 10,000 (based on the 2022 Census) that have the greatest concentration of licensed premises. Killarney, County Kerry ranks highest with 114 licensed premises the town, representing eight licensed premises per 1,000 of the population or 1.2 premises per square kilometre.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGeographical proximity to liquor licences\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUsing a geospatial analysis, we calculated the Irish population\u0026rsquo;s proximity to licensed premises to understand the accessibility to alcohol. Based on the 2022 Census of the population, nationally, 75.3% of the population of Ireland fell within a 300-metre buffer[1] of a licensed premises, or 3.88 million people.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[1] Note that this estimate is based on a point-to-point calculation rather than along a road network.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study identifies significant patterns in alcohol availability across Ireland, with implications for public health and policy. Pubs, bars, and restaurants (on-trade) account for over one-half of licences (53.8%), while the off-trade sector represents 38.8% of licences. This represents a substantial shift over the past decade whereby the off-trade has grown while the on-trade declines and reflects a cultural shift in Ireland where drinking at home has become more commonplace [3]. The COVID-19 pandemic was undoubtedly responsible for expediating many closures of the on-trade sector.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpatial analysis reveals inequalities in access to alcohol. Disadvantaged areas have twice the number of licensed premises per capita compared to areas of affluence. Urban–rural contrasts were also evident and smaller towns and villages, particularly in tourist areas along the west coast, had the highest densities of licensed premises, while suburban areas show relatively lower densities. This pattern appears linked to historical licensing practices and tourism-driven demand rather than recent population growth.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe World Health Organization identifies limiting alcohol availability as one of the most effective, and cost-effective, strategies for reducing alcohol-related harm\u0026nbsp;[20,59]. The availability theory posits that greater availability leads to greater consumption, and in turn increases the risk of alcohol-related harms\u0026nbsp;[60]. Easy access along with prominent advertising through signage and marketing outside licensed premises influences drinking behaviours, particularly among adolescents\u0026nbsp;[23,61,62]. Moreover, the visibility and concentration of licensed premises normalises drinking and intoxication within communities\u0026nbsp;[28].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUsing 2022 Census figures, our analysis indicates that approximately three-quarters of the Irish population live within walking distance of a licensed premises. Such widespread availability may contribute to normalisation of alcohol use and limit the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing harm through physical access restrictions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eProposed legislation seeking to expand the number of outlets selling alcohol, as well as extending opening hours, could increase per capita alcohol use and associated harms to public health\u0026nbsp;[12,63]. Regulating licence density, especially in deprived areas, is important to avoid oversaturation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings emphasise the need for alcohol policies that consider both the numbers of licences and their spatial distribution. Policies targeting outlet density in deprived areas, monitoring urban expansion, and addressing proximity in residential zones could help mitigate alcohol-related harm. Future research should explore temporal trends in licensing, consumption patterns relative to outlet density, and the impact of policy interventions on health outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStrengths and limitations\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research has several strengths. This study, updates the report based on 2016 Census data\u0026nbsp;[58]\u0026nbsp;is the first in Ireland to examine alcohol availability by area of deprivation based on Census 2022 providing detailed statistics on licence distribution, deprivation gradients, and proximity measures. The data analysed is publicly available and comprehensive and includes all licence types and using ArcGIS and small-area analysis incorporates spatial distribution, deprivation indices, and urban–rural differences, offering a multidimensional perspective. The findings highlight disparities in alcohol availability by deprivation and proximity, which are critical for public health and policy discussions. The study’s robustness was enhanced by cross-checking distances to licensed premises. While the 300-metre distance was initially calculated as most direct path between the two points, we also conducted a sample testing of a buffer based on distance along the road network, which produced almost identical results.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, there are limitations to this study. The 2021–2022 list of licensed premises was used, despite the availability of more recent versions. This decision was based on the fact that geocoding had already been completed for this dataset. To repeat the geocoding for a more recent list would be time consuming and would have incurred substantial additional costs to repeat the process for a newer list which typically exhibits minimal year-on-year variation\u0026nbsp;[3].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is important to note that Revenue publishes annual data of the numbers of licensed premises issued or renewed annually. This list may include licensed premises (typically pubs) where the licence was renewed but the premises is not open to the public or has limited opening hours due to lack of demand and/or costs associated with trading. Furthermore, the available data do not indicate the size (or the opening hours) of the premises. This analysis does not consider licence data accuracy, temporal changes, or population mobility. A further limitation of this study is that it does not account for alcohol delivery services, which enable individuals to access alcohol regardless of their proximity to licensed premises.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, this study provides valuable insights for both policymakers and the public regarding the distribution and accessibility of alcohol across communities. Particular attention should be paid to the concentration of off-licences in socioeconomically deprived areas, where alcohol-related harms are known to be more pronounced. Monitoring these patterns is essential for informing equitable public health strategies. Importantly, communities have the right to object to new alcohol licence applications if they believe the area is already sufficiently served or if existing outlets are contributing to public nuisance.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable. As the data are publicly available, ethical approval was not necessary. No individual data and therefore consent not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets analysed for this study are publicly available here: \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ehttps://www.revenue.ie/en/corporate/information-about-revenue/statistics/excise/licences/liquor-licences.aspx\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ehttps://www.cso.ie/en/statistics/population/censusofpopulation2022/\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFunding Declaration \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors declare no funding was received for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAD conceived the idea. RF conducted geospatial analysis. AD wrote the manuscript. All authors discussed the results and read and approved the final manuscript. All authors approved the submitted version.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent for publication \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors have approved the manuscript and consent to its publication.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMurray CJL, Aravkin AY, Zheng P, \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Global burden of 87 risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990\u0026ndash;2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. \u003cem\u003eThe Lancet\u003c/em\u003e 2020;\u003cstrong\u003e396\u003c/strong\u003e:1223\u0026ndash;49. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30752-2\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWHO. WHO Alcohol Factsheet. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/alcohol#:~:text=Key%20facts,represents%205.3%25%20of%20all%20deaths. (accessed 22 Jun 2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDoyle A. 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Does alcohol outlet density affect youth access to alcohol? \u003cem\u003eJournal of Adolescent Health\u003c/em\u003e 2009;\u003cstrong\u003e44\u003c/strong\u003e:582\u0026ndash;9.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRoss CS, Maple E, Siegel M, \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e The relationship between population-level exposure to alcohol advertising on television and brand-specific consumption among underage youth in the US. \u003cem\u003eAlcohol and Alcoholism\u003c/em\u003e 2015;\u003cstrong\u003e50\u003c/strong\u003e:358\u0026ndash;64.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSherk A, Stockwell T, Chikritzhs T, \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Alcohol consumption and the physical availability of take-away alcohol: systematic reviews and meta-analyses of the days and hours of sale and outlet density. \u003cem\u003eJournal of studies on alcohol and drugs\u003c/em\u003e 2018;\u003cstrong\u003e79\u003c/strong\u003e:58\u0026ndash;67.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Alcohol, Availability, Deprivation, licensed premises","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8137478/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8137478/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe spatial distribution of alcohol outlets is a key determinant of alcohol availability and related harms. This study examines the density, distribution, accessibility and license type in Ireland, with attention to area-based socioeconomic and urban\u0026ndash;rural variations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData on liquor licences issued or renewed during 2021\u0026ndash;2022 were analysed, and geospatial mapping was conducted using ArcGIS Pro. Outlet density was calculated per 1,000 population based on 2022 Census data. Proximity analysis assessed the proportion of the population living within 300 metres of a licensed premises.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn-trade premises accounted for 53.8% of licences, while off-trade outlets represented 38.8%. Although most licensed premises were located in areas of average deprivation, disadvantaged areas exhibited a higher density (6.0 per 1,000 population) compared to affluent areas (3.0 per 1,000), although this finding was dependent on licence type. For example, there were more off-licences per capita in disadvantaged areas but more restaurant licences per capita in affluent areas. Urban\u0026ndash;rural analysis revealed the highest densities in smaller towns and tourist destinations, with Killarney, a popular tourist destination, recording eight premises per 1,000 population. Nationally, 75.3% of the population resides within 300 metres of a licensed premises.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlcohol availability in Ireland is widespread, with notable area-based socioeconomic and geographic disparities. Higher outlet density in disadvantaged areas and tourist towns may have implications for alcohol-related harm and inform targeted policy interventions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"An examination of alcohol outlet density, license type, and area-level deprivation in Ireland","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-22 10:37:07","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8137478/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-27T10:09:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"64666861111204085675898570416248340935","date":"2026-01-21T00:41:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-20T17:18:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"92439169079450958779127449206146512717","date":"2026-01-14T15:31:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"276999885320951515311897763762419481140","date":"2026-01-14T09:40:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"264301034892100747385085038802048506441","date":"2026-01-14T09:00:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-04T15:25:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-30T21:29:04+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"39693894553015454333957256095994046461","date":"2025-12-20T08:42:36+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"13402271768524744510746198468544757532","date":"2025-12-19T10:17:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"135778048774734627038292205711570815457","date":"2025-12-18T14:50:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"121485946208076462464854262000754485659","date":"2025-12-18T08:20:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-18T07:57:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-12-04T00:50:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-11-25T18:25:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-25T17:11:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Public Health","date":"2025-11-25T17:03:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"367cdf99-3a27-4575-9442-56cb27bf5566","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-20T21:23:15+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-22 10:37:07","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8137478","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8137478","identity":"rs-8137478","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}