Effects of Fermented Cassava with Saccharomyces cerevisiae on Rumen Fermentation Characteristics and Nutrient Utilization of Beef Cattle in Southern Thailand

Effects of Fermented Cassava with Saccharomyces cerevisiae on Rumen Fermentation Characteristics and Nutrient Utilization of Beef Cattle in Southern Thailand | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Effects of Fermented Cassava with Saccharomyces cerevisiae on Rumen Fermentation Characteristics and Nutrient Utilization of Beef Cattle in Southern Thailand Chanadol Supapong, Bunthum Sangkaew, Wuttichai Seephueak, Chatchai Sriperm, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8577117/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study aimed to evaluate the effects of yeast-fermented cassava supplementation on the chemical composition of growth performance, feed intake, rumen fermentation, and blood biochemical parameters in Brahman and Kamphaeng Saen cattle breeds. The experimental diet consisted of a concentrate mixed with yeast-fermented cassava, which contained 63.27% dry matter, 18.67% crude protein, and 89.02% organic matter. In comparison, yeast-fermented cassava alone contained 22.95% dry matter, 8.74% crude protein, and 95.44% organic matter. The results showed that Kamphaeng Saen cattle supplemented with yeast-fermented cassava had significantly higher (P < 0.05) concentrate and total feed intake than Brahman cattle, while there was no significant difference in roughage intake. Although the final body weight, average daily gain (ADG), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were numerically higher in Kamphaeng Saen cattle, the differences were not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Additionally, Kamphaeng Saen cattle had a significantly higher (P < 0.05) protozoa count in the rumen and fasting blood sugar (FBS) levels than Brahman cattle, indicating improved digestive and energy metabolism processes. In conclusion, supplementation with yeast-fermented cassava appears to enhance feed intake and energy metabolism efficiency, particularly in Kamphaeng Saen cattle. However, further research on economic feasibility and long-term effects is recommended to assess the potential of yeast-fermented cassava as a sustainable component in cattle feeding programs. Biological sciences/Biological techniques Biological sciences/Biotechnology Biological sciences/Microbiology Biological sciences/Zoology Cattle Yeast Cassava Introduction Beef cattle farming in southern Thailand, particularly in Nakhon Si Thammarat province, faces challenges in providing appropriate animal feed due to the region’s high rainfall and humidity. These climatic conditions prevent feed ingredients, especially cassava, from being preserved or processed through sun-drying, which is a common practice in other regions of the country. The inability to sun-dry cassava leads to rapid spoilage, decreased nutritional value, and losses before utilization. Therefore, fermentation is necessary to extend the shelf life and enhance the nutritional quality of cassava. The average annual rainfall in southern Thailand over the past 30 years (1991–2020) is approximately 2,334 mm 1 . This indicates that southern Thailand receives higher annual rainfall than the national average, resulting in high humidity and frequent rainfall throughout the year. Such conditions make sun-drying cassava difficult, as the high moisture accelerates its deterioration. Cassava is primarily cultivated by farmers as livestock feed due to its high carbohydrate content, providing an efficient energy source for cattle. However, fresh cassava has several limitations, including rapid spoilage and the presence of cyanogenic compounds that can be toxic to animals 2 . Therefore, fermentation techniques are suitable for improving the quality of cassava for use as animal feed. Fermentation of cassava with Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been shown to enhance nutritional value, including increasing protein and fat content, reducing toxic compounds, and improving digestibility in animals 3 . Additionally, feed fermentation promotes the growth of rumen microorganisms and increases the production of volatile fatty acids, which serve as an important energy source for cattle 4 . These factors are critical for sustainable beef production, especially in regions with climatic and feed storage constraints. Therefore, investigating the supplementation of yeast-fermented cassava in concentrate diets for Brahman and Kamphaeng Saen cattle is important both academically and practically. It is expected to improve beef production efficiency, reduce feed losses, and provide a strategy for developing sustainable feed management techniques in southern Thailand. Materials and methods Animal care All experimental procedures involving animals were conducted at the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya and were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations for the care and use of experimental animals, with approval granted by the Research and Development Institute, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya (Record no. IAC 01–11-2023). Additionally, all methods are reported in accordance with the ARRIVE (Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments) guidelines. Animals, Feed, and Treatments Twelve beef cattle, comprising six Brahman and six Kamphaeng Saen, with initial body weights ranging from 258.25 ± 8.92 kg and an average age of 2 years, were used in this experiment. The animals were housed individually in pens equipped with feed mixers, plastic containers with lids, and scales for weighing feed and animals. Prior to the experiment, all animals were received an anthelmintic drug, Ivermec F® (ivermectin and clorsulon), at a dose of 200 µg/kg, administered subcutaneously and supplemented with AD3E to ensure their health. The experimental concentrate feed consisted of yeast-fermented cassava (52%), palm kernel cake (40%), urea (1.5%), mineral premix (1.5%), salt (1%), dicalcium phosphate (1%), sulfur (1%), and molasses (2%) on a dry matter basis (Table 1 ). Fresh cassava was chopped, packed tightly into plastic fermentation tanks, and mixed with water (100 L), molasses (5 L), urea (500 g), and saccharomyces cerevisiae (1.0 × 10 8 CFU/g). The mixture was fermented for 14 days in a dark, dry location to prevent exposure to light and moisture. Two dietary treatments were applied to treatment 1 used Brahman cattle fed concentrate supplemented with yeast-fermented cassava and rice straw. Treatment 2 were used Kamphaeng Saen cattle fed concentrate supplemented with yeast-fermented cassava and rice straw. Cattle were fed ad libitum for concentrate and 2 kg of rice straw per day. Feed intake, refusals, and body weight were recorded throughout the 155-day experimental period. Clean drinking water is available at all times. Data Collection and Chemical Analysis Feed and refusal samples were collected during the final 7 days of the experiment. Fecal samples were collected for three consecutive days at 07:00 h to determine dry matter and chemical composition. Approximately 5% of total feces was sampled daily; one portion was used for immediate dry matter (DM) analysis, and the remaining portion was stored at 4°C and pooled by animal at the end of the collection period for chemical analysis. All feed, refusal, and fecal samples were oven-dried at 60°C and ground through a 1-mm screen using a Cyclotec mill (Tecator, Höganäs, Sweden). Samples were analyzed for DM, crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), ash 5 , and fiber fractions including acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) according to Van Soest et al. 6 with α-amylase but without sodium sulfite. Fecal and feed composition data were used to calculate nutrient digestibility according to Schnieder and Flatt 7 . Rumen Fluid Sampling and Blood Samples Analysis Rumen fluid was collected at 0 and 4 hours post-feeding on the last day of the experiment using a stomach tube connected to a vacuum pump. Approximately 50 mL of rumen fluid was collected for immediate pH measurement using a digital pH meter (HANNA Instruments, HI 98153). An additional 40 mL was acidified with 1 mL of 1 M H₂SO₄ per 10 mL of sample, centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 15 minutes, and the supernatant stored at − 20°C for subsequent analysis. Ammonia-nitrogen (NH₃-N) was determined by the distillation method 8 , and total volatile fatty acids (TVFA), including acetic acid (C2), propionic acid (C3), and butyric acid (C4), were assessed using gas chromatograph (Nexis GC-2030, SHIMADZU, Shimadzu Corp., Kyoto). Protozoal populations in the rumen were estimated via direct microscopic counting 9 . Blood samples (10 mL) were collected from the jugular vein at 0 and 4 hours post-feeding. Blood chemistry was analyzed using a clinical chemistry analyzer (PKL PPC 125, Salerno, Italy), and hematological parameters were assessed using an automated hematology analyzer (Mindray BC-5000, Wanda Center, China). Calculations and Statistical Analysis Feed intake was calculated as the difference between feed offered and refusals. Body weight gain was recorded at the beginning and end of the experiment. Nutrient digestibility, rumen, and blood parameters were calculated based on feed, fecal, rumen fluid, and blood composition as previously described. All data were tested for normality and homogeneity of variances prior to analysis. Differences between the two cattle breeds (Brahman vs Kamphaeng Saen) were analyzed using independent t-tests. Statistical analysis was performed using the GLM procedure in SAS (Cary, NC, USA). Results are presented as mean ± standard error. Differences were considered statistically significant at P < 0.05. The statistical model used for each variable was: Y i = µ + B i + ε i where Y i is the response variable for the i -th animal, µ is the overall mean, B i is the effect of breed (Brahman or Kamphaeng Saen), and ε i ​ is the random error. Results and discussion Chemical contents in the diets The chemical composition of the concentrate diet supplemented with yeast-fermented cassava and the fermented cassava itself is presented in Table 1 . These results indicate that the concentrate diet supplemented with fermented cassava provides a balanced nutrient profile suitable for beef cattle, with higher protein and fiber content compared to the fermented cassava alone. The relatively lower DM content in yeast-fermented cassava compared to fresh cassava (22.95% vs. 87.7%) suggests increased moisture retention as a result of the fermentation process. Although this may reduce its storage stability, the higher moisture level could facilitate feed intake and palatability, especially in tropical climates where feed drying is a challenge. Moreover, fermentation improved the CP content in yeast-fermented cassava (8.74%) was significantly higher than that of fresh cassava (2.5%), reflecting the protein-enriching effect of yeast metabolism 10 . This enrichment makes the fermented cassava a more valuable energy-protein supplement than unprocessed cassava. Fiber composition also showed important differences. The concentrate had higher NDF (34.65%) and ADF (14.51%) compared to both fermented (26.31% and 5.06%) and fresh cassava (8.9% and 6%). Higher NDF content generally supports rumen fill and chewing activity, which helps maintain rumen health, while moderate ADF ensures digestibility 11 . The lower ADF in yeast-fermented cassava (5.06%) compared to the concentrate indicates its relatively higher digestibility and energy availability, which is desirable for fattening cattle. Table 1 Composition of Concentrate Feed with Yeast-Fermented Cassava Item Concentrate Feed Yeast-Fermented Cassava Fresh Cassava Ingredients, % DM Yeast-fermented cassava 52 – – Palm kernel cake 40 – – Urea 1.5 – – Mineral mix 1.5 – – Salt 1 – – Dicalcium phosphate 1 – – Sulfur 1 – – Molasses 2 – – Chemical composition, % DM Dry matter (DM) 63.27 22.95 87.7 Organic matter (OM) 89.02 95.44 95.5 Ash 10.08 4.56 3.9 Crude protein (CP) 18.67 8.74 2.5 Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) 34.65 26.31 8.9 Acid detergent fiber (ADF) 14.51 5.06 6 Growth Performance, Feed Intake, and Production Cost The effects of yeast-fermented cassava supplementation on growth performance, feed intake, and production costs in Brahman and Kamphaeng Saen cattle are summarized in Table 2 . Initial body weights of both groups were not significantly different (P > 0.05), with 249.33 kg in Brahman (Group 1) and 267.17 kg in Kamphaeng Saen (Group 2). Similarly, body weights at month 1 and 2 showed no significant difference (P > 0.05). Final body weight of Kamphaeng Saen cattle was higher (304.0 kg) than Brahman cattle (278.0 kg), but the difference was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Kamphaeng Saen cattle consumed significantly more concentrate feed (5.08 kg/animal/day) compared to Brahman cattle (4.23 kg/animal/day; P < 0.05). Total feed intake was also significantly higher in Kamphaeng Saen (6.76 kg/animal/day) than Brahman cattle (5.90 kg/animal/day; P 0.05). Higher feed intake in Kamphaeng Saen may reflect faster growth rates and increased energy requirements 12 . Average daily gain (ADG) was 1.24 kg/day for Kamphaeng Saen and 0.99 kg/day for Brahman, but this difference was not significant (P > 0.05). Feed conversion ratio (FCR) was lower in Kamphaeng Saen (1.65) compared to Brahman (2.10), indicating more efficient feed utilization, although differences were not statistically significant (P > 0.05). Feed costs were higher for Kamphaeng Saen (30.24 Baht/animal/day) than Brahman (27.14 Baht/animal/day), but no statistical differences were observed (P > 0.05). These results suggest that yeast-fermented cassava supplementation can enhance feed intake and potentially improve growth performance, though short-term feed costs may increase. Behavioral differences between breeds may also influence feed consumption 13 . Table 2 Effects of yeast-fermented cassava supplementation on growthperformance, feed intake, and production cost Parameter Group 1 (Brahman) Group 2 (Kamphaeng Saen) SEM P-value Initial body weight, kg 249.33 267.17 2.56 0.45 Body weight month 1, kg 235.5 253.67 2.41 0.39 Body weight month 2, kg 248.5 267 2.56 0.43 Final body weight, kg 278 304 2.77 0.35 Concentrate intake, kg/animal/day 4.23a 5.08b 0.25 0.03 Roughage intake, kg/animal/day 1.68 1.68 0.11 0.92 Total feed intake, kg/animal/day 5.90a 6.76b 0.26 0.04 Total feed intake (% DM) 4.18a 4.73b 0.21 0.05 ADG, kg/day 0.99 1.24 0.23 0.21 FCR 2.1 1.65 0.31 0.21 Feed cost, Baht/animal/day 27.14 30.24 0.96 0.35 Feed cost 30 days, Baht/animal 814.33 907.14 5.23 0.35 Group 1 = Brahman breed, Group 2 = Kamphaeng Saen breed, ADG = Average daily gain, FCR = Feed conversion ratio, a,b Means with different superscript letters in a row differ significantly (P 0.05), indicating that yeast-fermented cassava did not influence rumen acidity. The observed pH values remained within the optimal range (6.0–7.0) for microbial activity, fiber digestion, and volatile fatty acid (VFA) production, supporting previous findings that dietary yeast supplementation generally stabilizes rumen pH by enhancing microbial balance 14 . Kamphaeng Saen cattle had significantly higher protozoal populations (39.0 ×10⁵ cells/mL) compared to Brahman cattle (23.4 ×10⁵ cells/mL; P < 0.05). This suggests that yeast-fermented cassava may have provided fermentable substrates or growth-promoting factors that stimulated protozoal proliferation. Increased protozoal populations are often associated with improved fiber digestion, as protozoa play a key role in degrading plant cell walls and regulating bacterial populations in the rumen. However, excessive protozoal activity may also increase nitrogen turnover through bacterial predation, potentially reducing microbial protein flow to the intestine 15 . Therefore, the balance between enhanced fermentation and nitrogen utilization efficiency should be considered. Total VFA concentrations were numerically higher in Kamphaeng Saen cattle (111.43 mmol/L) than in Brahman cattle (92.30 mmol/L), although the difference was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). This trend suggests that yeast-fermented cassava may enhance overall rumen fermentation activity, possibly by providing additional fermentable carbohydrates and improving microbial growth conditions. Higher VFA concentrations typically reflect greater energy supply to the host animal, as VFAs are the primary energy source for ruminants. The molar proportions of acetate (C2), propionate (C3), and butyrate (C4) did not differ significantly between breeds, indicating that yeast-fermented cassava supplementation did not substantially alter the VFA profile. The acetate-to-propionate ratio, an indicator of fermentation type, remained stable, suggesting that fermentation pathways were not shifted toward either fiber- or starch-based metabolism 16 . This stability is advantageous because drastic shifts in VFA patterns could negatively affect energy partitioning, fat deposition, or glucose availability for the animal. Table 3 Effects of yeast-fermented cassava supplementation on rumen fermentation Parameter Group 1 Group 2 SEM P-value Rumen pH 6.22 6.13 0.16 0.39 Protozoa, ×10⁵ cells/mL 23.4 a 39.0 b 1.33 0.03 Total VFA, mmol/L 92.3 111.43 2.41 0.29 Acetic acid (C2), % 64.26 71.45 1.78 0.45 Propionic acid (C3), % 15.4 23.53 1.49 0.24 Butyric acid (C4), % 9.76 10.46 0.82 0.72 Group 1 = Brahman breed, Group 2 = Kamphaeng Saen breed, a,b Means with different superscript letters in a row differ significantly (P < 0.05) Concentrations of blood metabolite The results indicated that supplementation with yeast-fermented cassava influenced certain blood chemical parameters in both Brahman and Kamphaeng Saen cattle (Table 4 ). Fasting Blood Sugar (FBS) concentrations were significantly higher in Kamphaeng Saen cattle compared with Brahman cattle (P < 0.05), with mean values of 66.83 and 50.67 mg/dL, respectively. This finding suggests that yeast-fermented cassava supplementation may enhance blood glucose availability in Kamphaeng Saen cattle, possibly due to breed-related differences in carbohydrate utilization and metabolic efficiency, as previously reported by Karisa et al. 17 . The observed increase in FBS may be associated with alterations in ruminal fermentation patterns, leading to increased propionate production, which serves as a primary gluconeogenic precursor in ruminants 18 . Fasting blood sugar is a key indicator of carbohydrate metabolism in cattle, reflecting the balance between glucose production and utilization. While elevated FBS levels can indicate improved energy status, excessively high concentrations may suggest hyperglycemia, which could negatively affect growth performance and, in lactating cows, potentially impair long-term milk production. Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) concentrations did not differ significantly between Brahman and Kamphaeng Saen cattle (P > 0.05), with mean values of 10.10 and 8.65 mg/dL, respectively. This indicates that yeast-fermented cassava supplementation did not markedly influence nitrogen metabolism or protein utilization in either breed, consistent with the findings of Suntara et al. 19 . Blood urea nitrogen is a widely used indicator of protein balance, ruminal ammonia utilization, and kidney function in cattle. Elevated BUN levels may reflect excessive protein degradation, inefficient nitrogen utilization, or dehydration, which could place additional stress on renal function. Conversely, low BUN concentrations may indicate inadequate protein intake or nutrient deficiencies, potentially impairing growth performance and overall health. The comparable BUN values observed in both breeds suggest that yeast-fermented cassava supplementation maintained an appropriate balance of dietary protein and nitrogen metabolism. Table 4 Effects of yeast-fermented cassava supplementation on blood metabolites Parameter Group 1 (Brahman) Group 2 (Kamphaeng Saen) SEM P-value Complete Blood Count Hemoglobin (g/dL) 9.85 10.12 0.28 0.38 Hematocrit (%) 30.25 31.40 0.85 0.41 Red Blood Cell (×10 6 /µL) 6.25 6.48 0.21 0.47 Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV, fL) 48.40 48.95 1.10 0.72 Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin (MCH, pg) 15.75 15.60 0.42 0.81 Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC, g/dL) 32.55 31.85 0.65 0.44 White Blood Cell (cells/µL) 8,950 9,280 310 0.52 Blood Metabolites Fasting blood sugar, mg/dL 50.67 66.83 1.13 0.01 Blood urea nitrogen, mg/dL 10.1 8.65 0.56 0.21 Group 1 = Brahman breed, Group 2 = Kamphaeng Saen breed Conclusions and recommendations The present study evaluated the effects of yeast-fermented cassava supplementation on growth performance, feed intake, rumen fermentation, and blood metabolites in Brahman and Kamphaeng Saen cattle. The results indicated that Kamphaeng Saen cattle supplemented with yeast-fermented cassava exhibited higher concentrate and total feed intake compared to Brahman cattle. Yeast supplementation effectively enhanced concentrate and total feed consumption in Kamphaeng Saen cattle, whereas roughage intake did not differ significantly between the two groups. Additionally, the protozoal population in the rumen was higher in Kamphaeng Saen cattle than in Brahman cattle, which may contribute to improved nutrient digestion. Fasting blood sugar (FBS) levels were also higher in Kamphaeng Saen cattle, suggesting that yeast-fermented cassava supplementation may enhance energy metabolism in this breed. Overall, yeast-fermented cassava appears to be a beneficial dietary supplement for improving feed intake, rumen microbial activity, and metabolic status in Kamphaeng Saen cattle. Declarations Ethics approval The study was conducted at the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya. Research and Development Institute, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Thailand gave its approval and authorization to all protocols and procedures (Record no. IAC 01–11-2023). Additionally, all methods are reported in accordance with the ARRIVE (Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments) guidelines. Declaration of interest None Acknowledgements This research was financially supported by the Talent Resource Management Platform (TRM) under Grant No. TMH2566-1008. We sincerely appreciate their funding and support. We would also like to extend our heart­felt thanks to the Animal Feed Analysis Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, for their invaluable assistance in conducting the animal feed experiment. Author contributions Planning and design of the study, Chanadol Supapong (C.S.), Bunthum Sangkaew (B.S.), and Wuttichai Seephueak (W.S.); conducting the experiment and project administration, C.S. and B.S.; methodology development, C.S., B.S., and Chatchai Sriperm (C.Sr.); sample collection and resources, C.S., B.S., and W.S.; statistical analysis, C.Sr. and Anusorn Cherdthong (A.C.); manuscript drafting, C.S.; manuscript review, editing, and finalizing, C.S. and A.C.; supervision, W.S. and A.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding This research was financially supported by the Talent Resource Management Platform (TRM) under Grant No. TMH2566-1008, Thailand. Data Availability All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article. References Thai Meteorological Department. Thai Meteorological Department. http://www.tmd.go.th/en (2025). Wanapat, M. Manipulation of cassava cultivation and utilization to improve protein to energy biomass for livestock feeding in the tropics. Asian-Australas. J. Anim. Sci. 16, 463–472 (2003). Boonnop, K., Wanapat, M., Nontaso, N. & Wanapat, S. Enriching nutritive value of cassava root by yeast fermentation. Sci. Agric. 66, 629–633 (2009). Dagaew, G., Wongtangtintharn, S., Suntara, C., Prachumchai, R., Wanapat, M. & Cherdthong, A. Feed utilization efficiency and ruminal metabolites in beef cattle fed with cassava pulp fermented yeast waste replacement soybean meal. Sci. Rep. 12, 16090 (2022). AOAC International. Official methods of analysis of AOAC International (19th ed.). AOAC International, Gaithersburg, MD, USA (2012). Van Soest, P. V., Robertson, J. B. & Lewis, B. A. Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and nonstarch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J. Dairy Sci. 74, 3583–3597 (1991). Schnieder, B. H. & Flatt, W. P. The evaluation of feed through digestibility experiment. Athens (1975). Bremner, J. M. & Keeney, D. R. Steam distillation methods for determination of ammonium, nitrate and nitrite. Anal. Chim. Acta 32, 485–495 (1965). Galyean, M. Laboratory procedure in animal nutrition research. Department of Animal and Life Science, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, USA (1989). Rodrigues, A. A., Reis, S. S., Costa, D. C. C. C., Dos Santos, M. A., Paulino, R. D. S., Rufino, M. D. O. A. & Neto, S. G. Yeast-fermented cassava as a protein source in cattle feed: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 55, 67 (2023). Harper, K. J. & McNeill, D. M. The role of iNDF in the regulation of feed intake and the importance of its assessment in subtropical ruminant systems. Agriculture 5, 778–790 (2015). Inngarm, E., Pilajun, R., Thummasaeng, K., Lunpha, A. & Morm, S. Production performance of Charolais crossbred steers fed total mixed ration containing a high level of dried cassava top. J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res. 10, 507 (2023). Swanson, K. & Miller, S. Factors regulating feed efficiency and nutrient utilization in beef cattle. CABI Publishing (2008). Makkar, H. P. S. Recent advances in the in vitro gas method for evaluation of nutritional quality of feed resources. In Assessing quality and safety of animal feeds (FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 160) 55–88 (FAO, 2004). Hristov, A. N. & Jouany, J. P. Factors affecting the efficiency of nitrogen utilization in the rumen. In Nitrogen and phosphorus nutrition of cattle: Reducing the environmental impact of cattle operations 117–166 (CABI Publishing, 2005). Er, M. & Cengiz, Ö. The effects of ration particle size and live yeast supplementation on dairy cows performance under heat stress conditions. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 55, 130 (2023). Karisa, B. K., Thomson, J., Wang, Z., Li, C., Montanholi, Y. R., Miller, S. P., Moore, S. S. & Plastow, G. S. Plasma metabolites associated with residual feed intake and other productivity performance traits in beef cattle. Livest. Sci. 165, 200–211 (2014). Huntington, G. B., Harmon, D. L. & Richards, C. J. Sites, rates, and limits of starch digestion and glucose metabolism in growing cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 84 (Suppl. 13), E14–E24 (2006). Suntara, C., Wanapat, M., Chankaew, S., Khonkhaeng, B., Supapong, C., Chanjula, P., Gunun, P., Gunun, N., Foiklang, S., Phesatcha, K. & Cherdthong, A. Improvement of the nutritional quality of Psophocarpus tetragonolobus tubers by fermentation with ruminal Crabtree-negative yeasts on the in vitro digestibility and fermentation in rumen fluid. Fermentation 8, 209 (2022). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8577117","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":580637337,"identity":"eab0565e-f6b2-432d-8249-70b6fa6d12b3","order_by":0,"name":"Chanadol Supapong","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA0ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCRDBxiDDz8MG5soQrYVHsgeihYd4LQZnwFoYCGvhn9387MGPMhse4zPH0qRu1FjwMLAfProBryV3jpkb9pxL4zE723ZMOucY0GE8aWk38GkxkEgwk+BtO8xjdp69TTqHDahFgseMgJb0b5J/gVqM+0Fa/hGlJcdMGmSLAS/QYbltRGiRuJFTJi0D9IvEmWPJ1rl9EjxshPzCPyN9m+SbMhs5/p40w9s53+rk+NkPH8OrBROwkaZ8FIyCUTAKRgE2AADNBD3GLPwvTAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Rajamangala University of Technology Isan","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chanadol","middleName":"","lastName":"Supapong","suffix":""},{"id":580637342,"identity":"ef00d979-979e-42d7-ae38-f0f4adae1ae3","order_by":1,"name":"Bunthum Sangkaew","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bunthum","middleName":"","lastName":"Sangkaew","suffix":""},{"id":580637344,"identity":"c99e9f0f-7ede-4218-ac3f-9baecb5d562a","order_by":2,"name":"Wuttichai Seephueak","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wuttichai","middleName":"","lastName":"Seephueak","suffix":""},{"id":580637345,"identity":"a86028c3-e128-4406-a93e-3c46ed981340","order_by":3,"name":"Chatchai Sriperm","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chatchai","middleName":"","lastName":"Sriperm","suffix":""},{"id":580637348,"identity":"96521720-b70e-4fb8-8d26-291d97e07ae8","order_by":4,"name":"Anusorn Cherdthong","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Khon Kaen University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Anusorn","middleName":"","lastName":"Cherdthong","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-12 04:08:29","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8577117/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8577117/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102289670,"identity":"4a120f69-bfa0-4e56-9216-bab5b714fc94","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 08:57:53","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":696049,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8577117/v1/7d2dd0a9-2428-4f6a-ba30-ff3e64666e6e.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Effects of Fermented Cassava with Saccharomyces cerevisiae on Rumen Fermentation Characteristics and Nutrient Utilization of Beef Cattle in Southern Thailand","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eBeef cattle farming in southern Thailand, particularly in Nakhon Si Thammarat province, faces challenges in providing appropriate animal feed due to the region\u0026rsquo;s high rainfall and humidity. These climatic conditions prevent feed ingredients, especially cassava, from being preserved or processed through sun-drying, which is a common practice in other regions of the country. The inability to sun-dry cassava leads to rapid spoilage, decreased nutritional value, and losses before utilization. Therefore, fermentation is necessary to extend the shelf life and enhance the nutritional quality of cassava. The average annual rainfall in southern Thailand over the past 30 years (1991\u0026ndash;2020) is approximately 2,334 mm\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e. This indicates that southern Thailand receives higher annual rainfall than the national average, resulting in high humidity and frequent rainfall throughout the year. Such conditions make sun-drying cassava difficult, as the high moisture accelerates its deterioration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCassava is primarily cultivated by farmers as livestock feed due to its high carbohydrate content, providing an efficient energy source for cattle. However, fresh cassava has several limitations, including rapid spoilage and the presence of cyanogenic compounds that can be toxic to animals\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, fermentation techniques are suitable for improving the quality of cassava for use as animal feed. Fermentation of cassava with \u003cem\u003eSaccharomyces cerevisiae\u003c/em\u003e has been shown to enhance nutritional value, including increasing protein and fat content, reducing toxic compounds, and improving digestibility in animals\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Additionally, feed fermentation promotes the growth of rumen microorganisms and increases the production of volatile fatty acids, which serve as an important energy source for cattle\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. These factors are critical for sustainable beef production, especially in regions with climatic and feed storage constraints.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, investigating the supplementation of yeast-fermented cassava in concentrate diets for Brahman and Kamphaeng Saen cattle is important both academically and practically. It is expected to improve beef production efficiency, reduce feed losses, and provide a strategy for developing sustainable feed management techniques in southern Thailand.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eAnimal care\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e All experimental procedures involving animals were conducted at the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya and were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations for the care and use of experimental animals, with approval granted by the Research and Development Institute, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya (Record no. IAC 01\u0026ndash;11-2023). Additionally, all methods are reported in accordance with the ARRIVE (Animal Research: Reporting of \u003cem\u003eIn Vivo\u003c/em\u003e Experiments) guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnimals, Feed, and Treatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwelve beef cattle, comprising six Brahman and six Kamphaeng Saen, with initial body weights ranging from 258.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.92 kg and an average age of 2 years, were used in this experiment. The animals were housed individually in pens equipped with feed mixers, plastic containers with lids, and scales for weighing feed and animals. Prior to the experiment, all animals were received an anthelmintic drug, Ivermec F\u0026reg; (ivermectin and clorsulon), at a dose of 200 \u0026micro;g/kg, administered subcutaneously and supplemented with AD3E to ensure their health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experimental concentrate feed consisted of yeast-fermented cassava (52%), palm kernel cake (40%), urea (1.5%), mineral premix (1.5%), salt (1%), dicalcium phosphate (1%), sulfur (1%), and molasses (2%) on a dry matter basis (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Fresh cassava was chopped, packed tightly into plastic fermentation tanks, and mixed with water (100 L), molasses (5 L), urea (500 g), and \u003cem\u003esaccharomyces cerevisiae\u003c/em\u003e (1.0 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003eCFU/g). The mixture was fermented for 14 days in a dark, dry location to prevent exposure to light and moisture. Two dietary treatments were applied to treatment 1 used Brahman cattle fed concentrate supplemented with yeast-fermented cassava and rice straw. Treatment 2 were used Kamphaeng Saen cattle fed concentrate supplemented with yeast-fermented cassava and rice straw.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCattle were fed \u003cem\u003ead libitum\u003c/em\u003e for concentrate and 2 kg of rice straw per day. Feed intake, refusals, and body weight were recorded throughout the 155-day experimental period. Clean drinking water is available at all times.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData Collection and Chemical Analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeed and refusal samples were collected during the final 7 days of the experiment. Fecal samples were collected for three consecutive days at 07:00 h to determine dry matter and chemical composition. Approximately 5% of total feces was sampled daily; one portion was used for immediate dry matter (DM) analysis, and the remaining portion was stored at 4\u0026deg;C and pooled by animal at the end of the collection period for chemical analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll feed, refusal, and fecal samples were oven-dried at 60\u0026deg;C and ground through a 1-mm screen using a Cyclotec mill (Tecator, H\u0026ouml;gan\u0026auml;s, Sweden). Samples were analyzed for DM, crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), ash\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and fiber fractions including acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) according to Van Soest et al. \u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e with α-amylase but without sodium sulfite. Fecal and feed composition data were used to calculate nutrient digestibility according to Schnieder and Flatt\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRumen Fluid Sampling and Blood Samples Analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRumen fluid was collected at 0 and 4 hours post-feeding on the last day of the experiment using a stomach tube connected to a vacuum pump. Approximately 50 mL of rumen fluid was collected for immediate pH measurement using a digital pH meter (HANNA Instruments, HI 98153). An additional 40 mL was acidified with 1 mL of 1 M H₂SO₄ per 10 mL of sample, centrifuged at 3,000 rpm for 15 minutes, and the supernatant stored at \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;20\u0026deg;C for subsequent analysis. Ammonia-nitrogen (NH₃-N) was determined by the distillation method\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and total volatile fatty acids (TVFA), including acetic acid (C2), propionic acid (C3), and butyric acid (C4), were assessed using gas chromatograph (Nexis GC-2030, SHIMADZU, Shimadzu Corp., Kyoto). Protozoal populations in the rumen were estimated via direct microscopic counting\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood samples (10 mL) were collected from the jugular vein at 0 and 4 hours post-feeding. Blood chemistry was analyzed using a clinical chemistry analyzer (PKL PPC 125, Salerno, Italy), and hematological parameters were assessed using an automated hematology analyzer (Mindray BC-5000, Wanda Center, China).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCalculations and Statistical Analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeed intake was calculated as the difference between feed offered and refusals. Body weight gain was recorded at the beginning and end of the experiment. Nutrient digestibility, rumen, and blood parameters were calculated based on feed, fecal, rumen fluid, and blood composition as previously described.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll data were tested for normality and homogeneity of variances prior to analysis. Differences between the two cattle breeds (Brahman vs Kamphaeng Saen) were analyzed using independent t-tests. Statistical analysis was performed using the GLM procedure in SAS (Cary, NC, USA). Results are presented as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard error. Differences were considered statistically significant at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe statistical model used for each variable was:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eY\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026micro;\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;B\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;ε\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003eY\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e is the response variable for the \u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e-th animal, \u003cem\u003e\u0026micro;\u003c/em\u003e is the overall mean, \u003cem\u003eB\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e is the effect of breed (Brahman or Kamphaeng Saen), and \u003cem\u003eε\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e​ is the random error.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eChemical contents in the diets\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe chemical composition of the concentrate diet supplemented with yeast-fermented cassava and the fermented cassava itself is presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. These results indicate that the concentrate diet supplemented with fermented cassava provides a balanced nutrient profile suitable for beef cattle, with higher protein and fiber content compared to the fermented cassava alone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe relatively lower DM content in yeast-fermented cassava compared to fresh cassava (22.95% vs. 87.7%) suggests increased moisture retention as a result of the fermentation process. Although this may reduce its storage stability, the higher moisture level could facilitate feed intake and palatability, especially in tropical climates where feed drying is a challenge. Moreover, fermentation improved the CP content in yeast-fermented cassava (8.74%) was significantly higher than that of fresh cassava (2.5%), reflecting the protein-enriching effect of yeast metabolism\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This enrichment makes the fermented cassava a more valuable energy-protein supplement than unprocessed cassava.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFiber composition also showed important differences. The concentrate had higher NDF (34.65%) and ADF (14.51%) compared to both fermented (26.31% and 5.06%) and fresh cassava (8.9% and 6%). Higher NDF content generally supports rumen fill and chewing activity, which helps maintain rumen health, while moderate ADF ensures digestibility \u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The lower ADF in yeast-fermented cassava (5.06%) compared to the concentrate indicates its relatively higher digestibility and energy availability, which is desirable for fattening cattle.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComposition of Concentrate Feed with Yeast-Fermented Cassava\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentrate Feed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYeast-Fermented Cassava\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFresh Cassava\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIngredients, % DM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYeast-fermented cassava\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePalm kernel cake\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrea\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMineral mix\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSalt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDicalcium phosphate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSulfur\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMolasses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical composition, % DM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry matter (DM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOrganic matter (OM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrude protein (CP)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeutral detergent fiber (NDF)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcid detergent fiber (ADF)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGrowth Performance, Feed Intake, and Production Cost\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe effects of yeast-fermented cassava supplementation on growth performance, feed intake, and production costs in Brahman and Kamphaeng Saen cattle are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Initial body weights of both groups were not significantly different (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), with 249.33 kg in Brahman (Group 1) and 267.17 kg in Kamphaeng Saen (Group 2). Similarly, body weights at month 1 and 2 showed no significant difference (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Final body weight of Kamphaeng Saen cattle was higher (304.0 kg) than Brahman cattle (278.0 kg), but the difference was not statistically significant (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKamphaeng Saen cattle consumed significantly more concentrate feed (5.08 kg/animal/day) compared to Brahman cattle (4.23 kg/animal/day; P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Total feed intake was also significantly higher in Kamphaeng Saen (6.76 kg/animal/day) than Brahman cattle (5.90 kg/animal/day; P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). However, roughage intake was similar between groups (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Higher feed intake in Kamphaeng Saen may reflect faster growth rates and increased energy requirements\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAverage daily gain (ADG) was 1.24 kg/day for Kamphaeng Saen and 0.99 kg/day for Brahman, but this difference was not significant (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Feed conversion ratio (FCR) was lower in Kamphaeng Saen (1.65) compared to Brahman (2.10), indicating more efficient feed utilization, although differences were not statistically significant (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Feed costs were higher for Kamphaeng Saen (30.24 Baht/animal/day) than Brahman (27.14 Baht/animal/day), but no statistical differences were observed (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). These results suggest that yeast-fermented cassava supplementation can enhance feed intake and potentially improve growth performance, though short-term feed costs may increase. Behavioral differences between breeds may also influence feed consumption\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffects of yeast-fermented cassava supplementation on growthperformance, feed intake, and production cost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup 1 (Brahman)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup 2 (Kamphaeng Saen)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInitial body weight, kg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e249.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e267.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody weight month 1, kg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e235.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e253.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody weight month 2, kg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e248.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e267\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinal body weight, kg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e278\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e304\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConcentrate intake, kg/animal/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.23a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.08b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoughage intake, kg/animal/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal feed intake, kg/animal/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.90a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.76b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal feed intake (% DM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.18a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.73b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eADG, kg/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFCR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeed cost, Baht/animal/day\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeed cost 30 days, Baht/animal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e814.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e907.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eGroup 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Brahman breed, Group 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Kamphaeng Saen breed, ADG\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Average daily gain, FCR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Feed conversion ratio, \u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e Means with different superscript letters in a row differ significantly (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRumen characteristics\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRumen fermentation parameters are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. There were no significant differences in ruminal pH between Brahman (6.22) and Kamphaeng Saen (6.13; P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), indicating that yeast-fermented cassava did not influence rumen acidity. The observed pH values remained within the optimal range (6.0\u0026ndash;7.0) for microbial activity, fiber digestion, and volatile fatty acid (VFA) production, supporting previous findings that dietary yeast supplementation generally stabilizes rumen pH by enhancing microbial balance\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eKamphaeng Saen cattle had significantly higher protozoal populations (39.0 \u0026times;10⁵ cells/mL) compared to Brahman cattle (23.4 \u0026times;10⁵ cells/mL; P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). This suggests that yeast-fermented cassava may have provided fermentable substrates or growth-promoting factors that stimulated protozoal proliferation. Increased protozoal populations are often associated with improved fiber digestion, as protozoa play a key role in degrading plant cell walls and regulating bacterial populations in the rumen. However, excessive protozoal activity may also increase nitrogen turnover through bacterial predation, potentially reducing microbial protein flow to the intestine\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, the balance between enhanced fermentation and nitrogen utilization efficiency should be considered.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal VFA concentrations were numerically higher in Kamphaeng Saen cattle (111.43 mmol/L) than in Brahman cattle (92.30 mmol/L), although the difference was not statistically significant (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). This trend suggests that yeast-fermented cassava may enhance overall rumen fermentation activity, possibly by providing additional fermentable carbohydrates and improving microbial growth conditions. Higher VFA concentrations typically reflect greater energy supply to the host animal, as VFAs are the primary energy source for ruminants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe molar proportions of acetate (C2), propionate (C3), and butyrate (C4) did not differ significantly between breeds, indicating that yeast-fermented cassava supplementation did not substantially alter the VFA profile. The acetate-to-propionate ratio, an indicator of fermentation type, remained stable, suggesting that fermentation pathways were not shifted toward either fiber- or starch-based metabolism\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. This stability is advantageous because drastic shifts in VFA patterns could negatively affect energy partitioning, fat deposition, or glucose availability for the animal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffects of yeast-fermented cassava supplementation on rumen fermentation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup 1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRumen pH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtozoa, \u0026times;10⁵ cells/mL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.0\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal VFA, mmol/L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcetic acid (C2), %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePropionic acid (C3), %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eButyric acid (C4), %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eGroup 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Brahman breed, Group 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Kamphaeng Saen breed, \u003csup\u003ea,b\u003c/sup\u003e Means with different superscript letters in a row differ significantly (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConcentrations of blood metabolite\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results indicated that supplementation with yeast-fermented cassava influenced certain blood chemical parameters in both Brahman and Kamphaeng Saen cattle (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Fasting Blood Sugar (FBS) concentrations were significantly higher in Kamphaeng Saen cattle compared with Brahman cattle (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), with mean values of 66.83 and 50.67 mg/dL, respectively. This finding suggests that yeast-fermented cassava supplementation may enhance blood glucose availability in Kamphaeng Saen cattle, possibly due to breed-related differences in carbohydrate utilization and metabolic efficiency, as previously reported by Karisa et al.\u003csup\u003e17\u003c/sup\u003e .\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe observed increase in FBS may be associated with alterations in ruminal fermentation patterns, leading to increased propionate production, which serves as a primary gluconeogenic precursor in ruminants\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Fasting blood sugar is a key indicator of carbohydrate metabolism in cattle, reflecting the balance between glucose production and utilization. While elevated FBS levels can indicate improved energy status, excessively high concentrations may suggest hyperglycemia, which could negatively affect growth performance and, in lactating cows, potentially impair long-term milk production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) concentrations did not differ significantly between Brahman and Kamphaeng Saen cattle (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), with mean values of 10.10 and 8.65 mg/dL, respectively. This indicates that yeast-fermented cassava supplementation did not markedly influence nitrogen metabolism or protein utilization in either breed, consistent with the findings of Suntara et al. \u003csup\u003e19\u003c/sup\u003e. Blood urea nitrogen is a widely used indicator of protein balance, ruminal ammonia utilization, and kidney function in cattle. Elevated BUN levels may reflect excessive protein degradation, inefficient nitrogen utilization, or dehydration, which could place additional stress on renal function. Conversely, low BUN concentrations may indicate inadequate protein intake or nutrient deficiencies, potentially impairing growth performance and overall health. The comparable BUN values observed in both breeds suggest that yeast-fermented cassava supplementation maintained an appropriate balance of dietary protein and nitrogen metabolism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffects of yeast-fermented cassava supplementation on blood metabolites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup 1 (Brahman)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup 2 (Kamphaeng Saen)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComplete Blood Count\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHemoglobin (g/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHematocrit (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRed Blood Cell (\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e/\u0026micro;L)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Corpuscular Volume (MCV, fL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Corpuscular Hemoglobin (MCH, pg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC, g/dL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhite Blood Cell (cells/\u0026micro;L)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,950\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9,280\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e310\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood Metabolites\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFasting blood sugar, mg/dL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood urea nitrogen, mg/dL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eGroup 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Brahman breed, Group 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Kamphaeng Saen breed\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions and recommendations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study evaluated the effects of yeast-fermented cassava supplementation on growth performance, feed intake, rumen fermentation, and blood metabolites in Brahman and Kamphaeng Saen cattle. The results indicated that Kamphaeng Saen cattle supplemented with yeast-fermented cassava exhibited higher concentrate and total feed intake compared to Brahman cattle. Yeast supplementation effectively enhanced concentrate and total feed consumption in Kamphaeng Saen cattle, whereas roughage intake did not differ significantly between the two groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the protozoal population in the rumen was higher in Kamphaeng Saen cattle than in Brahman cattle, which may contribute to improved nutrient digestion. Fasting blood sugar (FBS) levels were also higher in Kamphaeng Saen cattle, suggesting that yeast-fermented cassava supplementation may enhance energy metabolism in this breed. Overall, yeast-fermented cassava appears to be a beneficial dietary supplement for improving feed intake, rumen microbial activity, and metabolic status in Kamphaeng Saen cattle.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted at the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya. Research and Development Institute, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Thailand gave its approval and authorization to all protocols and procedures (Record no.\u0026nbsp;IAC 01–11-2023). Additionally, all methods are reported in accordance with the ARRIVE (Animal Research: Reporting of \u003cem\u003eIn Vivo\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eExperiments) guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was financially supported by the Talent Resource Management Platform (TRM) under Grant No. TMH2566-1008. We sincerely appreciate their funding and support. We would also like to extend our heart­felt thanks to the Animal Feed Analysis Laboratory, Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, for their invaluable assistance in conducting the animal feed experiment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlanning and design of the study, Chanadol Supapong (C.S.), Bunthum Sangkaew (B.S.), and Wuttichai Seephueak (W.S.); conducting the experiment and project administration, C.S. and B.S.; methodology development, C.S., B.S., and Chatchai Sriperm (C.Sr.); sample collection and resources, C.S., B.S., and W.S.; statistical analysis, C.Sr. and Anusorn Cherdthong (A.C.); manuscript drafting, C.S.; manuscript review, editing, and finalizing, C.S. and A.C.; supervision, W.S. and A.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was financially supported by the Talent Resource Management Platform (TRM) under Grant No. TMH2566-1008, Thailand.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThai Meteorological Department. Thai Meteorological Department. http://www.tmd.go.th/en (2025).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWanapat, M. Manipulation of cassava cultivation and utilization to improve protein to energy biomass for livestock feeding in the tropics. Asian-Australas. J. Anim. Sci. 16, 463\u0026ndash;472 (2003).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBoonnop, K., Wanapat, M., Nontaso, N. \u0026amp; Wanapat, S. Enriching nutritive value of cassava root by yeast fermentation. Sci. Agric. 66, 629\u0026ndash;633 (2009).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDagaew, G., Wongtangtintharn, S., Suntara, C., Prachumchai, R., Wanapat, M. \u0026amp; Cherdthong, A. Feed utilization efficiency and ruminal metabolites in beef cattle fed with cassava pulp fermented yeast waste replacement soybean meal. Sci. Rep. 12, 16090 (2022).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAOAC International. Official methods of analysis of AOAC International (19th ed.). AOAC International, Gaithersburg, MD, USA (2012).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVan Soest, P. V., Robertson, J. B. \u0026amp; Lewis, B. A. Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber, and nonstarch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J. Dairy Sci. 74, 3583\u0026ndash;3597 (1991).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSchnieder, B. H. \u0026amp; Flatt, W. P. The evaluation of feed through digestibility experiment. Athens (1975).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBremner, J. M. \u0026amp; Keeney, D. R. Steam distillation methods for determination of ammonium, nitrate and nitrite. Anal. Chim. Acta 32, 485\u0026ndash;495 (1965).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGalyean, M. Laboratory procedure in animal nutrition research. Department of Animal and Life Science, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, USA (1989).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRodrigues, A. A., Reis, S. S., Costa, D. C. C. C., Dos Santos, M. A., Paulino, R. D. S., Rufino, M. D. O. A. \u0026amp; Neto, S. G. Yeast-fermented cassava as a protein source in cattle feed: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 55, 67 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHarper, K. J. \u0026amp; McNeill, D. M. The role of iNDF in the regulation of feed intake and the importance of its assessment in subtropical ruminant systems. Agriculture 5, 778\u0026ndash;790 (2015).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eInngarm, E., Pilajun, R., Thummasaeng, K., Lunpha, A. \u0026amp; Morm, S. Production performance of Charolais crossbred steers fed total mixed ration containing a high level of dried cassava top. J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res. 10, 507 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSwanson, K. \u0026amp; Miller, S. Factors regulating feed efficiency and nutrient utilization in beef cattle. CABI Publishing (2008).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMakkar, H. P. S. Recent advances in the in vitro gas method for evaluation of nutritional quality of feed resources. In Assessing quality and safety of animal feeds (FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 160) 55\u0026ndash;88 (FAO, 2004).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHristov, A. N. \u0026amp; Jouany, J. P. Factors affecting the efficiency of nitrogen utilization in the rumen. In Nitrogen and phosphorus nutrition of cattle: Reducing the environmental impact of cattle operations 117\u0026ndash;166 (CABI Publishing, 2005).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eEr, M. \u0026amp; Cengiz, \u0026Ouml;. The effects of ration particle size and live yeast supplementation on dairy cows performance under heat stress conditions. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 55, 130 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKarisa, B. K., Thomson, J., Wang, Z., Li, C., Montanholi, Y. R., Miller, S. P., Moore, S. S. \u0026amp; Plastow, G. S. Plasma metabolites associated with residual feed intake and other productivity performance traits in beef cattle. Livest. Sci. 165, 200\u0026ndash;211 (2014).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHuntington, G. B., Harmon, D. L. \u0026amp; Richards, C. J. Sites, rates, and limits of starch digestion and glucose metabolism in growing cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 84 (Suppl. 13), E14\u0026ndash;E24 (2006).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSuntara, C., Wanapat, M., Chankaew, S., Khonkhaeng, B., Supapong, C., Chanjula, P., Gunun, P., Gunun, N., Foiklang, S., Phesatcha, K. \u0026amp; Cherdthong, A. Improvement of the nutritional quality of Psophocarpus tetragonolobus tubers by fermentation with ruminal Crabtree-negative yeasts on the in vitro digestibility and fermentation in rumen fluid. Fermentation 8, 209 (2022).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Cattle, Yeast, Cassava","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8577117/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8577117/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to evaluate the effects of yeast-fermented cassava supplementation on the chemical composition of growth performance, feed intake, rumen fermentation, and blood biochemical parameters in Brahman and Kamphaeng Saen cattle breeds. The experimental diet consisted of a concentrate mixed with yeast-fermented cassava, which contained 63.27% dry matter, 18.67% crude protein, and 89.02% organic matter. In comparison, yeast-fermented cassava alone contained 22.95% dry matter, 8.74% crude protein, and 95.44% organic matter. The results showed that Kamphaeng Saen cattle supplemented with yeast-fermented cassava had significantly higher (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) concentrate and total feed intake than Brahman cattle, while there was no significant difference in roughage intake. Although the final body weight, average daily gain (ADG), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were numerically higher in Kamphaeng Saen cattle, the differences were not statistically significant (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Additionally, Kamphaeng Saen cattle had a significantly higher (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) protozoa count in the rumen and fasting blood sugar (FBS) levels than Brahman cattle, indicating improved digestive and energy metabolism processes. In conclusion, supplementation with yeast-fermented cassava appears to enhance feed intake and energy metabolism efficiency, particularly in Kamphaeng Saen cattle. However, further research on economic feasibility and long-term effects is recommended to assess the potential of yeast-fermented cassava as a sustainable component in cattle feeding programs.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effects of Fermented Cassava with Saccharomyces cerevisiae on Rumen Fermentation Characteristics and Nutrient Utilization of Beef Cattle in Southern Thailand","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-28 15:10:17","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8577117/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f01985f6-fc54-490d-a9f8-c969d4eddf7d","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 28th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":61768659,"name":"Biological sciences/Biological techniques"},{"id":61768660,"name":"Biological sciences/Biotechnology"},{"id":61768661,"name":"Biological sciences/Microbiology"},{"id":61768662,"name":"Biological sciences/Zoology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-10T08:57:17+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-28 15:10:17","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8577117","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8577117","identity":"rs-8577117","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}