Street Politics and Class Dynamics: Hawkers in Dhaka’s New Market

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Habibullah Kaiser This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7608304/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study presents a theoretical analysis of the political exploitation of street hawkers in the New Market region of Bangladesh. By examining socio-economic and political demographics, this study emphasizes the evolving class status of street hawkers. The implications of this exploitation and its impact on the way of life of hawkers are detailed in this document. Additionally, the potential dangers, risks, and uncertainties regarding the future are revealed. This study also offers recommendations for sustainable enhancements for street hawkers. Business and commerce/Economics Social science/Economics Social science/Sociology class position class structure downward extortion inflation mobility Figures Figure 1 Introduction Dhaka is the most densely populated city in Bangladesh, housing over 24 million residents ( World Population Review 2023 ) . In Dhaka, street vending has emerged as a notable urban trend, manifesting in both stationary and mobile forms across various locations in the city. Consequently, these individuals are referred to as hawkers or hawkers who operate without permanent business establishments ( Bhowmik, 2005 ) . Street hawkers, who are independent contractors within the unorganized sector, lack a fixed, ongoing contract that mandates the sale of their products or services ( Saha, 2011 ) . In a specific area, New Market in Dhaka, some economically marginalized individuals have sustained their livelihoods through street vending, such as selling local garments, food, small furniture, books, cosmetics, vegetables, and jewelry. This study seeks to investigate the vulnerability of street hawkers due to political manipulation by examining their socio-demographic conditions and the resulting shifts in their class positions, ranging from upward to downward mobility. They are a particularly vulnerable and marginalized group of urban poor. However, they are an important source of income because they help meet the needs of the urban population of Dhaka by producing durable and reasonably priced goods and creating opportunities and income for many people. There are few job opportunities in Bangladesh because of its large population, especially for those who lack education and skills. For these individuals, street vending is the only method of survival. They encounter numerous challenges, such as insufficient space, harassment from law enforcement and private shopkeepers, eviction from selling sites, unprofitable business conditions, lack of access to credit, restricted freedom, and absence of social security during their operations. The activities and cleanliness of their work environment are also affected. Furthermore, they often resort to borrowing from moneylenders to support their economic activities and social security, incurring high-interest debts to pay off law enforcement officials. Local cadres extorted them, preventing them from living their lives normally. The rise in commodity prices has increased inflation, adversely affecting people’s way of life. Consequently, they are perpetually anxious about extortion and harassment, as they have had everything taken from them to exist under dangerous circumstances. Literature Review The informal sector is crucial for a nation's economic growth (World Bank, 2007) . It is estimated that over 60% of the global employed population earns a livelihood within the informal economy (International Labor Organization [ILO], 2018) . This sector is particularly significant in a country like Bangladesh. Due to the formal sector's inability to provide sufficient job opportunities, individuals are compelled to participate in informal employment (Ali, 2013) . The Bangladesh Quarterly Labor Force Survey 2015-16 indicates that 86.2% of the employed population is involved in informal work (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), 2017) . Street hawkers are defined as individuals who sell goods and services to the public without a permanent or fixed location or the necessary arrangements to conduct business (Bhowmik, 2005; Saha, 2011). Muzaffar and Huq (2009) noted that street food vending is a prominent and unique aspect of the extensive informal sector in Dhaka City, the Bangladeshi capital. They sought to understand the operations of street food hawkers, focusing on issues related to business practices, knowledge, extortion, and product offerings. Rahman and Junayed (2007) assessed the unemployment issue and the reasons why individuals living below the poverty line are resorting to street vending as a means of livelihood. Faruque and Haque (2010) analyzed the socioeconomic, demographic, and food safety aspects of street food vending in selected wards of the Dhaka City Corporation. Khan and Rahman (2019) investigated the socioeconomic demographics, risks, threats, insecurities, and support systems related to the street vending characteristics of hawkers in Bangladesh. However, none of the above-mentioned studies have examined how political factors influence and redefine the class position of street hawkers in Bangladesh. The present study focuses on how politics has changed the class position of street hawkers in the New Market Area of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Methodology This study was mixed (Qualitative and Quantitative) in nature. This was carried out using primary data. Primary data were gathered through a structured questionnaire and comprehensive interviews, which included both open- and closed-ended questions. Following the pre-test survey and subsequent discussions, the final questionnaire was developed, which addressed political influences on vending, such as extortion, harassment, threats, bribes, and political manipulation concerning the socio-economic status of hawkers, as well as their demographic characteristics, living conditions, livelihoods, and satisfaction of basic needs. We conducted brief interviews—each approximately 15 to 20 minutes long—with street hawkers from diverse trades, such as vegetables, food, local apparel, cosmetics, books, and jewelry. To enhance the organization of the fieldwork, the research area was segmented into zones spanning the distance from Nilkhet to the Science Laboratory in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Samples were collected from each zone every two days. In addition, we dedicated two days to conducting an initial survey to assess field conditions. A random sampling design was used for the survey. Approximately 6,000 street hawkers operate in the area. Data were collected using random sampling, and 60 samples and seven case studies of street hawkers were collected from the period of 14 October to 28 October, 2023. The interviews were documented with the street hawkers’ consent. No interviews were recorded without the participants’ permission. However, considering the business risks, some hawkers declined to participate in the interviews. The response rate was 60%. The data were analyzed using various statistical methods, specifically frequency distribution and cross-tabulation, using SPSS 26 software. Picture-1: Area filled in red was included in our survey. (Collected from Google Maps) The specific zones surveyed in this study are visually represented in Picture-1 , covering the area from Nilkhet to the Science Laboratory. Objective of the Study This study aims to ascertain the evolving class positions of street hawkers through the manipulation of local politics and various other factors. In addition, it examines the income levels, access to finance, working hours, employment status, educational attainment, marital status, and the influence of social capital on street hawkers. In addition, the repercussions of shifting class positions exacerbate current lifestyles and negatively affect the families. Similarly- To determine the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of street hawkers in the New Market area, along with the diversity of goods and services. Learning about the potential risks or challenges that may emerge in their profession. Main Findings Street vending is an essential part of the economic structure for individuals living below the poverty line who rely entirely on this profession. Street hawkers can be found selling on street corners, sidewalks, local markets, and even in vans (Pandey & Jaani, 2020). Around 6000 hawkers are present in the New Market area (Dhaka Tribune, April 22, 2022). They face various problems in this profession. We attempted to identify these problems in this study. Their biggest problems were political pressure and charged extortion money. The police appoint linemen and cashiers. Their job is similar to that of government services. The linemen gather the funds from the hawker and return them to the cashiers, who allocate the money to the political leaders and police. We also found that a hawker must pay between 200 and 1000 tk daily, depending on their shop size. The average collection was 300 BDT per day from each street hawker. They also charged an extra 25 to 40 BDT for a light bulb every day if their shop was located near a large market. Although some used their own batteries, many used electricity from nearby shops. It is estimated that “About 18 lac BDT are collected daily from 6000 hawkers. Thus, the monthly total is approximately 5 crores and 40 lacs, while the annual total amounts to 65 crores and 70 lacs, respectively. A one-day closure of shops on footpaths will be a huge loss (for the police). The loss is even greater because of the Eid rush.” Political torsion severely affects the position of street hawkers. Because they do not have any legal business licenses, they carry on their profession on the street; they need to pay the political influencer, leader, and police to survive. We also interrogated some street hawkers and found that if they failed to pay a certain amount of extortion money, they had to suffer in the long run. The police tried to accuse them of various crimes, and many political leaders tortured them both physically and verbally by using bad words. Some individuals also acquired their business products at no cost to the government. They maintained the process in force for their own benefit. Numerous hawkers initiate their businesses by taking loans. Subsequently, they lost everything because they could not repay these loans. As a result, many people become depressed and develop various criminal tendencies. Some individuals do not hesitate to take their lives. The Hawkers worked an average of 12 hours each day. Due to a lack of legal recognition, the government has no mechanism to work towards hawker rights. It also reduces the government's motivation to engage in this sector because financial allocation and resource mobilization present significant challenges. Hawkers work in unsafe conditions and harsh weather without implementing safety precautions. In addition, we observed that a majority of the hawkers have taken over public spaces, which is a primary cause of traffic congestion and hinders crowd movement. There were many shops and people around them, making it difficult for pedestrians to move from one place to another. Dhaka street has continued to fall victim to the encroachment of hawkers and street hawkers. They often damage the street by throwing waste onto the road and polluting the environment. The absence of legal recognition creates problems, such as a lack of rights and proper working conditions. The most critical problem faced by hawkers is constant eviction. As their profession is considered illegal, uncertainty and insecurity are the basic problems that hawkers face. It has also been noted that when a hawker conducts their business in front of a large market or shopping mall, they are required to pay advance fees annually to the owner of the large market or shopping mall to lease the space. Although their income remains unchanged, their means of livelihood face significant hardships due to price increases. They earned little, if anything. Although their expenditure rate increases, their income rate does not increase. (e.g., the hawker earned 700 BDTs daily). They are still earning the same amount, but because of the inflation rate and price hike, they cannot meet the basic necessities of day-to-day life. As a result, their class position has turned from middle class to lower middle class, as well as from lower middle class to lower class. Street hawkers put their money into their businesses by taking loans from banks or non-governmental organizations. However, because of the manipulation and oppression by the ruling political parties and law enforcement, their earnings were low. Most of their income went toward loan repayments and rent. Consequently, they had little savings. This situation led to a decline in their economic status, and an uncertain future. (Figure-1 ) Table-1: Average Monthly Income of Street Hawkers Average Monthly Income of the Participants Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid 1000-10000 11 18.3 18.3 18.3 11000-20000 18 30.0 30.0 48.3 21000-30000 20 33.3 33.3 81.7 31000-40000 4 6.7 6.7 88.3 41000-50000 4 6.7 6.7 95.0 51000-60000 1 1.7 1.7 96.7 61000-Above 2 3.3 3.3 100.0 Total 60 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Survey, October 2023 It can be seen that the majority (34%) of street hawkers’ monthly average income is from 1000 BDT to 20000 BDT that is not sufficient for them as the inflation rate is very high. They do not fulfill the minimum standards of their families. Owing to the present price hike problems, these data indicate that the standard of living has significantly changed from lower to slightly moderate. Therefore, most street hawkers belong to the poor class in the New Market area to meet their basic daily necessities. A few hawkers earn a satisfactory income. (Table1) Table-2: Extortion Rate of different group in a single day Extortion Rate of different group Name of the Group Average amount of Extortion of Tk Percentage Political Leader 200 66% Police 50 17% Student Cadre 50 17% Total 300 100% Source: Field Survey, October 2023 In Table 2, Starting from Tk200, up to Tk1,000 is collected from each hawker of the city every day. The average collection is BDT 300 per day from each hawker. The rate increases one month before Eid. They had to give about 9000tk-10,500tk monthly to the police and linemen. It is obvious that half of their earnings go into this. If they failed to pay, they faced harassment from local authorities or police officers during the vending process. Table-3: Family Size of street Hawkers Family members of the participants Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid 1-3 5 8.3 8.3 8.3 4-6 42 70.0 70.0 78.3 7-above 13 21.7 21.7 100.0 Total 60 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Survey, October 2023 From Table 3, most street hawkers have an average of five family members, including themselves. This is close to the rational family size in Bangladesh (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2022). In addition, almost all were the only earning members of their families. It is clear that the majority (73%) of hawkers have a family size (4-6). Table-4: Marital Status of the Hawkers Marital Status- Married or Unmarried Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Married 39 65.0 65.0 65.0 Unmarried 21 35.0 35.0 100.0 Total 60 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Survey, October 2023 Approximately 65% of the hawkers were married. They had families with children. The remaining (35% of) hawkers were children. Their families cannot afford the costs of their families. Therefore, they are involved in vending activities. (Table 4) Age-wise distribution is illustrated in Graph-1 , which highlights the people in early adulthood people (21-30) are involved in vending. Approximately 19%of the children have also engaged in this profession as workers or helpers of the hawkers because they have no alternative way to lead their lives. A few elderly people (3%) lead their livelihood by selling the cheapest products. Educational background of respondents is shown in Graph-2 , most hawkers (40%) had not completed the minimum (primary) level of education. They were told that they could not get the opportunity to continue their studies because there was no food in their homes. Conversely, some graduates (5%) were also involved in this profession because of a lack of job opportunity .15% of them were completely illiterate. They did not have literacy skills. Table-5: Residential Status of street hawkers Residential Status Residential Status in Dhaka Number of street hawkers Percentage Permanently 3 5% Seasonally 57 95% Total 60 100% Source: Field Survey, October 2023 It is clearly seen from the table 5 that almost all of the hawkers (95%) stay in Dhaka seasonally. They have families in their home districts,such as Barishal, Chandpur, Mymensingh, Cumilla, Noakhali, Faridpur, Munsiganj, and Madaripur, only for their small business purposes. (Table 7) Table-6: Satisfaction level of the hawkers Satisfaction Level of the Participants Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid Highly Satisfied 6 10.0 10.0 10.0 Satisfied 9 15.0 15.0 25.0 Dissatisfied 33 55.0 55.0 80.0 Highly dissatisfied 12 20.0 20.0 100.0 Total 60 100.0 100.0 Source: Field Survey, October 2023 By vending various types of products, hawkers have led their lives from hand to mouth. After one month, they had no savings. The majority (55%) were dissatisfied with their profession. Only a few were satisfied (15%) and highly satisfied (10%).20% of them were very dissatisfied with losing their actual capital. (Table-6) Discussion & Analysis The results of this research illustrate how political extortion, clientelism, and informal governance frameworks influence and redefine the social standing of street hawkers in Dhaka’s New Market. This phenomenon can be examined through classical sociological theories alongside contemporary studies on urban informality. Max Weber identified three aspects of stratification—class, status, and party. The party aspect is particularly relevant for comprehending the impact of political patronage networks on the lives of hawkers. In New Market, the ability of hawkers to retain their vending locations is less contingent upon their class status or lifestyle and more reliant on their connections with political figures and law enforcement. Political parties, student groups, and police officials serve as gatekeepers of public spaces, providing protection in return for extortion payments. This arrangement exemplifies Weber’s concept of party power—a type of collective organization aimed at influencing social actions (Gerth & Mills, 1946). Through the selective enforcement of regulations, political entities perpetuate inequality by linking the survival of hawkers to ongoing patron-client negotiations, thus institutionalizing insecurity. Karl Marx’s idea of exploitation is also evident in the experiences of hawkers. They create value through extensive labor hours, yet a significant portion of their income is diverted by local syndicates, police, and political leaders. This extraction of value, while not occurring within a formal capitalist framework, reflects the dynamics of surplus appropriation that Marx described. The informal economy in this context becomes a domain where hawkers face dual exploitation: firstly, due to the lack of legal recognition and protections; and secondly, from the political apparatus that capitalizes on their vulnerability. Many hawkers find themselves ensnared in debt cycles or experiencing downward mobility—transitioning from lower-middle class to working poor—highlighting how political exploitation exacerbates class disparities and hinders long-term capital accumulation. Émile Durkheim highlighted the importance of solidarity in maintaining the cohesion of societies. In a contemporary, interdependent economy, organic solidarity is expected to foster cooperation among various groups. However, for hawkers, this solidarity is compromised by political co-optation and neglect from the state. Rather than forming a cohesive moral community, hawkers are divided into competing factions, with unions frequently weakened by clientelistic relationships with political leaders. They face stigmatization as "encroachers" who hinder traffic and pollute public spaces, while more influential entities—such as police and party leaders—gain from their vulnerable position. This situation illustrates a breakdown of solidarity, where inequality diminishes trust, mutual assistance, and collective agency, resulting in hawkers being isolated despite their significant numbers. Recent academic work on urban informality enhances this understanding. Keith Hart (1973) was the first to recognize the informal economy as a vital area of survival for the urban impoverished, while Hernando de Soto (1989) contended that the ongoing existence of informality stems from exclusionary legal and property frameworks. In Dhaka, the absence of legal rights for vending keeps hawkers in a constant state of vulnerability to extortion and eviction. Ananya Roy (2005; 2009) further develops this conversation by redefining informality as a form of urban governance—a mechanism through which states and political figures selectively apply regulations. In this context, hawking is not merely "illegal"; instead, its illegality is created and regulated by political actors who decide which hawkers are accepted and which are criminalized at any moment. This selective acceptance turns informality into a means for political rent-seeking, thereby embedding inequality within the very fabric of urban governance. Collectively, these viewpoints indicate that street vending in Dhaka transcends the issues of overcrowding or illegality. It is situated within a larger framework of political exploitation and governance. Political patronage networks perpetuate inequality by making hawkers essential to the urban economy while simultaneously keeping them outside the bounds of legal acknowledgment and protection. Their social standing is continually altered by factors such as extortion, debt, and inflation, which contribute to downward mobility and strengthen structural precarity. Limitations of the Study This study had a few limitations. Due to financial problems, time constraints, and area limitations, not all hawkers can be considered respondents for the study. Other barriers were either hidden or not disclosed. Conclusion This research has demonstrated how political extortion, clientelism, and the lack of legal acknowledgment consistently alter the class status of street hawkers in the New Market area of Dhaka. Hawkers face downward mobility as a significant portion of their earnings is siphoned off by political figures, student groups, and law enforcement, resulting in their entrapment in debt, precariousness, and social stigma. Theoretically, this aligns with Weber’s concept of the “party” aspect of inequality, Marx’s theory of exploitation, and Durkheim’s notion of solidarity dysfunction, in addition to modern interpretations of informality as a governance strategy (Roy, 2005 ; De Soto, 1989 ; Hart, 1973 ). However, while the results highlight structural vulnerabilities, they also suggest potential policy interventions. Several recommendations arise: Legal vending zones: Establishing designated vending locations or “hawker markets,” officially recognized by municipal authorities, would mitigate harassment and extortion while facilitating smoother urban mobility. Such zones are already implemented in cities like Kolkata and Bangkok, providing replicable models for Dhaka. Recognition of hawker unions: Strengthening hawkers’ associations to negotiate with city officials could help balance the unequal power dynamics with political patrons. Legally recognized unions would also create a platform for collective bargaining and diminish fragmentation among hawkers. Microcredit and financial inclusion: Numerous hawkers depend on moneylenders charging exorbitant interest rates. Customized microcredit programs, savings cooperatives, and access to mobile banking could stabilize their income and lessen reliance on exploitative lenders. Social protection: Providing minimal social security—such as health insurance, accident coverage, or subsidized childcare—would acknowledge hawkers as contributors to the urban economy rather than viewing them as encroachers. Urban governance reforms: The existence of political patronage networks is sustained by the informal and selective application of regulations. Implementing transparent licensing systems, enhancing public oversight of vending fees, and establishing accountability mechanisms within municipal governance could mitigate the potential for extortion. In conclusion, this study not only records the influence of politics on the evolving class status of hawkers but also emphasizes avenues for fostering more inclusive urban governance. Acknowledging hawkers as legitimate economic participants, instead of treating them as criminals, would advance both social justice and the sustainable operation of Dhaka’s urban economy. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the local street hawkers, friends, and relatives in New Market, Nilkhet, Science Labrotary and Dhanmondi area who generously assisted in reaching out to the street hawkers and facilitating the data collection process. Without their cooperation and local insight, this research would not have been possible. We are especially grateful to those street hawkers who shared their personal experiences with patience and courage. Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Ethics approval and consent to participate: Ethical approval for this study was granted by the Research Ethics Committee, Department of Sociology, University of Dhaka, on October 10, 2023. The committee does not provide formal approval letters or ID numbers for social science research. This research was conducted following the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and institutional ethical standards. Human Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations : Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection, which took place from October 14 to 28, 2023 approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Department of Sociology, University of Dhaka. Consent for publication: Written informed consent to publish anonymized case details was obtained from all individuals whose case studies are presented in Appendices 1 and 2. Data Availability : The dataset supporting the findings of this study is publicly available on Zenodo: Link:- https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16135359 This includes anonymized (pseudonym) survey responses, tables and data collection instruments in XLSX format. Competing interests : The authors declare that they have no competing interests. References Ali, A. (2013). Informal Labour Force. In Accumulation and Alienation: State of Labour in Bangladesh 2013 (pp. 69-96). Unnayan Onnesha. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. (2017). Report on Labour Force Survey (LFS) 2015-16 . Statistics and Informatics Division, Ministry of Planning, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. (2022). Population & Housing Census 2022: Preliminary Report . Statistics and Informatics Division, Ministry of Planning, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Bhowmik, S. K. (2005). Street Hawkers in Asia: A Review, Economic and Political Weekly, May 28-June 4, pp. 2256-2264. India. De Soto, H. (1989). The Other Path: The Economic Answer to Terrorism. Harper & Row. Faruque, Q. &, Haque, Q. F. (2010 ). Institutionalization of Healthy Street Food System in Bangladesh: A Pilot Study with Three Wards of Dhaka City Corporation as a Model”, National Food Policy Capacity Strengthening Programme (NFPCSP), Final Report PR #7/07, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Gerth, H. H., & Mills, C. W. (1946). From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. Oxford University Press. Hart, K. (1973). Informal Income Opportunities and Urban Employment in Ghana. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 11(1), 61–89. International Labour Organization. (2018). Women and men in the informal economy: A statistical picture . Geneva: International Labour Office. Khan, Z & Rahman, A (2019). The Informal Sector in Bangladesh: A Case Study of Rural and Urban Street Hawkers . Muzaffar, A.T. & Huq, I. (2009). Entrepreneurs of the Streets: an Analytical Work on the Street Food Hawkers of Dhaka City, International Journal of Business and Management, (Vol. 4, No. 2) Pandey, H., & Jaani, S. (2020, June 10). Policy Push: Street vendors' livelihoods in post-covid world. ETGovernment .https://government.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy-push-street-vendors-livelihoods-in-post-covid-world/76296116 Rahman, A. & Junayed, M (2007 ). Livelihood Sustainability of Street Hawkers: A Study in Dhaka City Available at (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317568199_Livelihood_Sustainability_of_Street_Hawkers_A_Study_in_Dhaka_City?fbclid=IwAR3cSJt3RlwM9If_uPjqyoz3zQ4idSD3J6eTOff-fzHQE2K5yTNKPyAVF7Q) Roy, A. (2005). Urban Informality: Toward an Epistemology of Planning. Journal of the American Planning Association, 71(2), 147–158. Roy, A. (2009). Poverty Capital: Microfinance and the Making of Development. Routledge. Saha, D. (2011 ). Working Life of Street Hawkers in Mumbai. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 54(2),301-325. The Daily Dhaka Tribune, (April 22, 2022), Can be accessed in https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/crime World Bank (2007). Informality: Exit and Exclusion . The World Bank. World Population Review (2023). Can be accessed in (https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/dhaka-population) Graphs Graphs 1 and 2 available in the Supplementary Files section. Picture 1 Picture 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Appendices.docx Graph.docx Picture1.png Picture-1: Area filled in red was included in our survey. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7608304","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":593204925,"identity":"3c091e70-0546-43f8-993f-932501a877d5","order_by":0,"name":"Md.Fozle Rabbi","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of Dhaka","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.Fozle","middleName":"","lastName":"Rabbi","suffix":""},{"id":593204926,"identity":"6dd732e4-06cf-44c3-8b2e-28bbb127f578","order_by":1,"name":"Md. Habibullah Kaiser","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Dhaka","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Habibullah","lastName":"Kaiser","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-13 15:38:17","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7608304/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7608304/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102982527,"identity":"ed38fe33-912a-4a49-a355-72c29927da07","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-19 09:23:01","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":299880,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eShows how the hawkers’ class position changes.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7608304/v1/7cd8d3b38d49bbe91c55ac42.png"},{"id":103056981,"identity":"bc90d75f-71f0-4dec-99ba-fa6ed9d57e9c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-20 09:27:15","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":993856,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7608304/v1/0c882a86-b36e-433f-b70d-de2ef33e020b.pdf"},{"id":103056451,"identity":"14d72814-c5ef-4eac-80b6-ffb7bef477fe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-20 09:10:38","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":16600,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendices.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7608304/v1/33fd818d8bbb23d45f5cd7b5.docx"},{"id":102982528,"identity":"df5337ba-7a3b-4739-b314-8d06b3fbcce2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-19 09:23:01","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":38113,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Graph.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7608304/v1/af7ea438ec6d5a5d3827894a.docx"},{"id":102982530,"identity":"9b3763c0-79c7-4ce7-9cda-f30777a87edd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-19 09:23:01","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":375704,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePicture-1: Area filled in red was included in our survey. (Collected from Google Maps)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7608304/v1/721f21cd2cf7cff573163025.png"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Street Politics and Class Dynamics: Hawkers in Dhaka’s New Market","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDhaka is the most densely populated city in Bangladesh, housing over 24\u0026nbsp;million residents \u003cem\u003e(\u003c/em\u003eWorld Population Review \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e. In Dhaka, street vending has emerged as a notable urban trend, manifesting in both stationary and mobile forms across various locations in the city. Consequently, these individuals are referred to as hawkers or hawkers who operate without permanent business establishments \u003cem\u003e(\u003c/em\u003eBhowmik, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e. Street hawkers, who are independent contractors within the unorganized sector, lack a fixed, ongoing contract that mandates the sale of their products or services \u003cem\u003e(\u003c/em\u003eSaha, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e. In a specific area, New Market in Dhaka, some economically marginalized individuals have sustained their livelihoods through street vending, such as selling local garments, food, small furniture, books, cosmetics, vegetables, and jewelry. This study seeks to investigate the vulnerability of street hawkers due to political manipulation by examining their socio-demographic conditions and the resulting shifts in their class positions, ranging from upward to downward mobility. They are a particularly vulnerable and marginalized group of urban poor. However, they are an important source of income because they help meet the needs of the urban population of Dhaka by producing durable and reasonably priced goods and creating opportunities and income for many people. There are few job opportunities in Bangladesh because of its large population, especially for those who lack education and skills.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor these individuals, street vending is the only method of survival. They encounter numerous challenges, such as insufficient space, harassment from law enforcement and private shopkeepers, eviction from selling sites, unprofitable business conditions, lack of access to credit, restricted freedom, and absence of social security during their operations. The activities and cleanliness of their work environment are also affected. Furthermore, they often resort to borrowing from moneylenders to support their economic activities and social security, incurring high-interest debts to pay off law enforcement officials. Local cadres extorted them, preventing them from living their lives normally. The rise in commodity prices has increased inflation, adversely affecting people\u0026rsquo;s way of life. Consequently, they are perpetually anxious about extortion and harassment, as they have had everything taken from them to exist under dangerous circumstances.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe informal sector is crucial for a nation's economic growth \u003cem\u003e(World Bank, 2007)\u003c/em\u003e. It is estimated that over 60% of the global employed population earns a livelihood within the informal economy \u003cem\u003e(International Labor Organization [ILO], 2018)\u003c/em\u003e. This sector is particularly significant in a country like Bangladesh. Due to the formal sector's inability to provide sufficient job opportunities, individuals are compelled to participate in informal employment \u003cem\u003e(Ali, 2013)\u003c/em\u003e. The Bangladesh Quarterly Labor Force Survey 2015-16 indicates that 86.2% of the employed population is involved in informal work \u003cem\u003e(Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), 2017)\u003c/em\u003e. Street hawkers are defined as individuals who sell goods and services to the public without a permanent or fixed location or the necessary arrangements to conduct business \u003cem\u003e(Bhowmik, 2005; Saha, 2011).\u003c/em\u003e Muzaffar and Huq \u003cem\u003e(2009)\u003c/em\u003e noted that street food vending is a prominent and unique aspect of the extensive informal sector in Dhaka City, the Bangladeshi capital. They sought to understand the operations of street food hawkers, focusing on issues related to business practices, knowledge, extortion, and product offerings. Rahman and Junayed \u003cem\u003e(2007)\u003c/em\u003e assessed the unemployment issue and the reasons why individuals living below the poverty line are resorting to street vending as a means of livelihood. Faruque and Haque \u003cem\u003e(2010)\u003c/em\u003e analyzed the socioeconomic, demographic, and food safety aspects of street food vending in selected wards of the Dhaka City Corporation. Khan and Rahman \u003cem\u003e(2019)\u003c/em\u003e investigated the socioeconomic demographics, risks, threats, insecurities, and support systems related to the street vending characteristics of hawkers in Bangladesh. However, none of the above-mentioned studies have examined how political factors influence and redefine the class position of street hawkers in Bangladesh. The present study focuses on how politics has changed the class position of street hawkers in the New Market Area of Dhaka, Bangladesh.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study was mixed (Qualitative and Quantitative) in nature. This was carried out using primary data. Primary data were gathered through a structured questionnaire and comprehensive interviews, which included both open- and closed-ended questions. Following the pre-test survey and subsequent discussions, the final questionnaire was developed, which addressed political influences on vending, such as extortion, harassment, threats, bribes, and political manipulation concerning the socio-economic status of hawkers, as well as their demographic characteristics, living conditions, livelihoods, and satisfaction of basic needs. We conducted brief interviews\u0026mdash;each approximately 15 to 20 minutes long\u0026mdash;with street hawkers from diverse trades, such as vegetables, food, local apparel, cosmetics, books, and jewelry. To enhance the organization of the fieldwork, the research area was segmented into zones spanning the distance from Nilkhet to the Science Laboratory in Dhaka, Bangladesh.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSamples were collected from each zone\u0026nbsp;every two days. In addition, we dedicated two days to conducting an initial survey to assess field conditions. A random sampling design was used for the survey. Approximately 6,000 street hawkers operate in the area. Data were collected using random sampling, and 60 samples and seven case studies of street hawkers were collected from the period of 14 October to 28 October, 2023. The interviews were documented with the street hawkers\u0026rsquo; consent. No interviews were recorded without the participants\u0026rsquo;\u0026nbsp;permission. However, considering the business risks, some hawkers declined to participate in the interviews. The response rate was 60%. The data were analyzed using various statistical methods, specifically frequency distribution and cross-tabulation, using SPSS 26 software.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePicture-1: Area filled in red was included in our survey. (Collected from Google Maps)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe specific zones surveyed in this study are visually represented in \u003cstrong\u003ePicture-1\u003c/strong\u003e, covering the area from Nilkhet to the Science Laboratory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjective of the Study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to ascertain the evolving class positions of street hawkers through the manipulation of local politics and various other factors. In addition, it examines the income levels, access to finance, working hours, employment status, educational attainment, marital status, and the influence of social capital on street hawkers. In addition, the repercussions of shifting class positions exacerbate current lifestyles and negatively affect the families. Similarly-\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTo determine the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of street hawkers in the New Market area, along with the diversity of goods and services.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLearning about the potential risks or challenges that may emerge in their profession.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMain Findings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; Street vending is an essential part of the economic structure for individuals living below the poverty line who rely entirely on this profession. Street hawkers can be found selling on street corners, sidewalks, local markets, and even in vans (Pandey \u0026amp; Jaani, 2020). Around 6000 hawkers are present in the New Market area (Dhaka Tribune, April 22, 2022). They face various problems in this profession. We attempted to identify these problems in this study. Their biggest problems were political pressure and charged extortion money. The police appoint linemen and cashiers. Their job is similar to that of government services. The linemen gather the funds from the hawker and return them to the cashiers, who allocate the money to the political leaders and police. We also found that a hawker must pay between 200 and 1000 tk daily, depending on their shop size. The average collection was 300 BDT per day from each street hawker. They also charged an extra 25 to 40 BDT for a light bulb every day if their shop was located near a large market. Although some used their own batteries, many used electricity from nearby shops. It is estimated that \u0026ldquo;About 18 lac BDT are collected daily from 6000 hawkers. Thus, the monthly total is approximately 5 crores and 40 lacs, while the annual total amounts to 65 crores and 70 lacs, respectively. A one-day closure of shops on footpaths will be a huge loss (for the police). The loss is even greater because of the Eid rush.\u0026rdquo; Political torsion severely affects the position of street hawkers. Because they do not have any legal business licenses, they carry on their profession on the street; they need to pay the political influencer, leader, and police to survive. We also interrogated some street hawkers and found that if they failed to pay a certain amount of extortion money, they had to suffer in the long run. The police tried to accuse them of various crimes, and many political leaders tortured them both physically and verbally by using bad words. Some individuals also acquired their business products at no cost to the government. They maintained the process in force for their own benefit. Numerous hawkers initiate their businesses by taking loans. Subsequently, they lost everything because they could not repay these loans. As a result, many people become depressed and develop various criminal tendencies. Some individuals do not hesitate to take their lives. The Hawkers worked an average of 12 hours each day.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDue to a lack of legal recognition, the government has no mechanism to work towards hawker rights. It also reduces the government\u0026apos;s motivation to engage in this sector because financial allocation and resource mobilization present significant challenges. Hawkers work in unsafe conditions and harsh weather without implementing safety precautions. In addition, we observed that a majority of the hawkers have taken over public spaces, which is a primary cause of traffic congestion and hinders crowd movement. There were many shops and people around them, making it difficult for pedestrians to move from one place to another. Dhaka street has continued to fall victim to the encroachment of hawkers and street hawkers. They often damage the street by throwing waste onto the road and polluting the environment. The absence of legal recognition creates problems, such as a lack of rights and proper working conditions. The most critical problem faced by hawkers is constant eviction. As their profession is considered illegal, uncertainty and insecurity are the basic problems that hawkers face. It has also been noted that when a hawker conducts their business in front of a large market or shopping mall, they are required to pay advance fees annually to the owner of the large market or shopping mall to lease the space. Although their income remains unchanged, their means of livelihood face significant hardships due to price increases. They earned little, if anything. Although their expenditure rate increases, their income rate does not increase. (e.g., the hawker earned 700 BDTs daily). They are still earning the same amount, but because of the inflation rate and price hike, they cannot meet the basic necessities of day-to-day life. As a result, their class position has turned from middle class to lower middle class, as well as from lower middle class to lower class.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStreet hawkers put their money into their businesses by taking loans from banks or non-governmental organizations. However, because of the manipulation and oppression by the ruling political parties and law enforcement, their earnings were low. Most of their income went toward loan repayments and rent. Consequently, they had little savings. This situation led to a decline in their economic status, and an uncertain future. \u003cem\u003e(Figure-1\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable-1: \u0026nbsp;Average Monthly Income of Street Hawkers\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"Left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"488\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 488px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Average Monthly Income of the Participants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 146px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePercent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eValid Percent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCumulative Percent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"8\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eValid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1000-10000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11000-20000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21000-30000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31000-40000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41000-50000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51000-60000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61000-Above\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource: Field Survey, October 2023\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt can be seen that the majority (34%) of street hawkers\u0026rsquo; monthly average income is from 1000 BDT to 20000 BDT that is not sufficient for them as the inflation rate is very high. They do not fulfill the minimum standards of their families. Owing to the present price hike problems, these data indicate that the standard of living has significantly changed from lower to slightly moderate. Therefore, most street hawkers belong to the poor class in the New Market area to meet their basic daily necessities. A few hawkers earn a satisfactory income. (Table1)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable-2: Extortion Rate of different group in a single day\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExtortion Rate of different group\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"Left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eName of the Group\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAverage amount of Extortion of Tk\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercentage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolitical Leader\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePolice\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStudent Cadre\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource: Field Survey, October 2023\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Table 2, Starting from Tk200, up to Tk1,000 is collected from each hawker of the city every day. The average collection is BDT 300 per day from each hawker. The rate increases one month before Eid. They had to give about 9000tk-10,500tk monthly to the police and linemen. It is obvious that half of their earnings go into this. If they failed to pay, they faced harassment from local authorities or police officers during the vending process.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable-3: Family Size of street Hawkers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"Left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"456\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 456px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Family members of the participants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 115px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePercent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eValid Percent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCumulative Percent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"4\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 50px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eValid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1-3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4-6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7-above\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 79px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 69px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 94px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 99px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource: Field Survey, October 2023\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom Table 3, most street hawkers have an average of five family members, including themselves. This is close to the rational family size in Bangladesh (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 2022). In addition, almost all were the only earning members of their families. It is clear that the majority (73%) of hawkers have a family size (4-6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable-4: Marital Status of the Hawkers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"Left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"465\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 465px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Marital Status- Married or Unmarried\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 128px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePercent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eValid Percent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCumulative Percent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eValid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnmarried\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 77px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 68px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 93px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 98px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource: Field Survey, October 2023\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApproximately 65% of the\u0026nbsp;hawkers were married. They had families with children. The remaining (35%\u0026nbsp;of) hawkers were children. Their families cannot afford the costs of their families. Therefore, they are involved in vending\u0026nbsp;activities. (Table 4)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAge-wise distribution is illustrated in \u003cstrong\u003eGraph-1\u003c/strong\u003e, which highlights the people in early adulthood people (21-30) are involved in vending. Approximately 19%of the children have also engaged in this profession as workers or helpers of the hawkers because they have no alternative way to lead their lives. A few elderly people (3%) lead their livelihood by selling the cheapest products.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEducational background of respondents is shown in \u003cstrong\u003eGraph-2\u003c/strong\u003e, most hawkers (40%) had not completed the minimum (primary) level of education. They were told that they could not get the opportunity to continue their studies because there was no food in their homes. Conversely, some graduates (5%) were also involved in this profession because of a lack of job opportunity .15% of them were completely illiterate. They did not have literacy skills.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable-5: Residential Status of street hawkers\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResidential Status\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"Left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResidential Status in Dhaka\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNumber of street hawkers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercentage\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePermanently\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeasonally\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 208px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource: Field Survey, October 2023\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is clearly seen from the table 5 that almost all of the hawkers (95%) stay in Dhaka seasonally. They have families in their home districts,such as Barishal, Chandpur, Mymensingh, Cumilla, Noakhali, Faridpur, Munsiganj, and Madaripur, only for their small business purposes. (Table 7)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable-6: Satisfaction level of the hawkers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv align=\"Left\"\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"549\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 549px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Satisfaction Level of the Participants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 185px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePercent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eValid Percent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCumulative Percent\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"5\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eValid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighly Satisfied\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSatisfied\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDissatisfied\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e80.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighly dissatisfied\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 74px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 100px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 106px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSource: Field Survey, October 2023\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy vending various types of products, hawkers have led their lives from hand to mouth. After one month, they had no savings. The majority (55%) were dissatisfied with their profession. Only a few were satisfied (15%) and highly satisfied (10%).20% of them were very dissatisfied with losing their actual capital. (Table-6)\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion \u0026 Analysis","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of this research illustrate how political extortion, clientelism, and informal governance frameworks influence and redefine the social standing of street hawkers in Dhaka’s New Market. This phenomenon can be examined through classical sociological theories alongside contemporary studies on urban informality.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMax Weber identified three aspects of stratification—class, status, and party. The party aspect is particularly relevant for comprehending the impact of political patronage networks on the lives of hawkers. In New Market, the ability of hawkers to retain their vending locations is less contingent upon their class status or lifestyle and more reliant on their connections with political figures and law enforcement. Political parties, student groups, and police officials serve as gatekeepers of public spaces, providing protection in return for extortion payments. This arrangement exemplifies Weber’s concept of party power—a type of collective organization aimed at influencing social actions (Gerth \u0026amp; Mills, 1946). Through the selective enforcement of regulations, political entities perpetuate inequality by linking the survival of hawkers to ongoing patron-client negotiations, thus institutionalizing insecurity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKarl Marx’s idea of exploitation is also evident in the experiences of hawkers. They create value through extensive labor hours, yet a significant portion of their income is diverted by local syndicates, police, and political leaders. This extraction of value, while not occurring within a formal capitalist framework, reflects the dynamics of surplus appropriation that Marx described. The informal economy in this context becomes a domain where hawkers face dual exploitation: firstly, due to the lack of legal recognition and protections; and secondly, from the political apparatus that capitalizes on their vulnerability. Many hawkers find themselves ensnared in debt cycles or experiencing downward mobility—transitioning from lower-middle class to working poor—highlighting how political exploitation exacerbates class disparities and hinders long-term capital accumulation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eÉmile Durkheim highlighted the importance of solidarity in maintaining the cohesion of societies. In a contemporary, interdependent economy, organic solidarity is expected to foster cooperation among various groups. However, for hawkers, this solidarity is compromised by political co-optation and neglect from the state. Rather than forming a cohesive moral community, hawkers are divided into competing factions, with unions frequently weakened by clientelistic relationships with political leaders. They face stigmatization as \"encroachers\" who hinder traffic and pollute public spaces, while more influential entities—such as police and party leaders—gain from their vulnerable position. This situation illustrates a breakdown of solidarity, where inequality diminishes trust, mutual assistance, and collective agency, resulting in hawkers being isolated despite their significant numbers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecent academic work on urban informality enhances this understanding. Keith Hart (1973) was the first to recognize the informal economy as a vital area of survival for the urban impoverished, while Hernando de Soto (1989) contended that the ongoing existence of informality stems from exclusionary legal and property frameworks. In Dhaka, the absence of legal rights for vending keeps hawkers in a constant state of vulnerability to extortion and eviction. Ananya Roy (2005; 2009) further develops this conversation by redefining informality as a form of urban governance—a mechanism through which states and political figures selectively apply regulations. In this context, hawking is not merely \"illegal\"; instead, its illegality is created and regulated by political actors who decide which hawkers are accepted and which are criminalized at any moment. This selective acceptance turns informality into a means for political rent-seeking, thereby embedding inequality within the very fabric of urban governance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCollectively, these viewpoints indicate that street vending in Dhaka transcends the issues of overcrowding or illegality. It is situated within a larger framework of political exploitation and governance. Political patronage networks perpetuate inequality by making hawkers essential to the urban economy while simultaneously keeping them outside the bounds of legal acknowledgment and protection. Their social standing is continually altered by factors such as extortion, debt, and inflation, which contribute to downward mobility and strengthen structural precarity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLimitations of the Study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;This study had a few limitations. Due to financial problems, time constraints, and area limitations, not all hawkers can be considered respondents for the study. Other barriers were either hidden or not disclosed.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis research has demonstrated how political extortion, clientelism, and the lack of legal acknowledgment consistently alter the class status of street hawkers in the New Market area of Dhaka. Hawkers face downward mobility as a significant portion of their earnings is siphoned off by political figures, student groups, and law enforcement, resulting in their entrapment in debt, precariousness, and social stigma. Theoretically, this aligns with Weber\u0026rsquo;s concept of the \u0026ldquo;party\u0026rdquo; aspect of inequality, Marx\u0026rsquo;s theory of exploitation, and Durkheim\u0026rsquo;s notion of solidarity dysfunction, in addition to modern interpretations of informality as a governance strategy (Roy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; De Soto, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e; Hart, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1973\u003c/span\u003e). However, while the results highlight structural vulnerabilities, they also suggest potential policy interventions. Several recommendations arise:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLegal vending zones: Establishing designated vending locations or \u0026ldquo;hawker markets,\u0026rdquo; officially recognized by municipal authorities, would mitigate harassment and extortion while facilitating smoother urban mobility. Such zones are already implemented in cities like Kolkata and Bangkok, providing replicable models for Dhaka.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecognition of hawker unions: Strengthening hawkers\u0026rsquo; associations to negotiate with city officials could help balance the unequal power dynamics with political patrons. Legally recognized unions would also create a platform for collective bargaining and diminish fragmentation among hawkers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMicrocredit and financial inclusion: Numerous hawkers depend on moneylenders charging exorbitant interest rates. Customized microcredit programs, savings cooperatives, and access to mobile banking could stabilize their income and lessen reliance on exploitative lenders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial protection: Providing minimal social security\u0026mdash;such as health insurance, accident coverage, or subsidized childcare\u0026mdash;would acknowledge hawkers as contributors to the urban economy rather than viewing them as encroachers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban governance reforms: The existence of political patronage networks is sustained by the informal and selective application of regulations. Implementing transparent licensing systems, enhancing public oversight of vending fees, and establishing accountability mechanisms within municipal governance could mitigate the potential for extortion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, this study not only records the influence of politics on the evolving class status of hawkers but also emphasizes avenues for fostering more inclusive urban governance. Acknowledging hawkers as legitimate economic participants, instead of treating them as criminals, would advance both social justice and the sustainable operation of Dhaka\u0026rsquo;s urban economy.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the local street hawkers, friends, and relatives in New Market, Nilkhet, Science Labrotary and Dhanmondi area who generously assisted in reaching out to the street hawkers and facilitating the data collection process. Without their cooperation and local insight, this research would not have been possible. We are especially grateful to those street hawkers who shared their personal experiences with patience and courage.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for this study was granted by the Research Ethics Committee, Department of Sociology, University of Dhaka, on October 10, 2023. The committee does not provide formal approval letters or ID numbers for social science research. This research was conducted following the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and institutional ethical standards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHuman Ethics and Consent to Participate declarations\u003c/strong\u003e: Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection, which took place from October 14 to 28, 2023 approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Department of Sociology, University of Dhaka.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWritten informed consent to publish anonymized case details was obtained from all individuals whose case studies are presented in Appendices 1 and 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e: The dataset supporting the findings of this study is publicly available on \u003cstrong\u003eZenodo:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLink:- https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16135359\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis includes anonymized (pseudonym) survey responses, tables and data collection instruments in XLSX format.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAli, A. 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Livelihood Sustainability of Street Hawkers: A Study in Dhaka City Available at\u003c/em\u003e (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317568199_Livelihood_Sustainability_of_Street_Hawkers_A_Study_in_Dhaka_City?fbclid=IwAR3cSJt3RlwM9If_uPjqyoz3zQ4idSD3J6eTOff-fzHQE2K5yTNKPyAVF7Q)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRoy, A. (2005). Urban Informality: Toward an Epistemology of Planning. Journal of the American Planning Association, 71(2), 147\u0026ndash;158.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRoy, A. (2009). Poverty Capital: Microfinance and the Making of Development. Routledge.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSaha, D. (2011\u003cem\u003e). Working Life of Street Hawkers in Mumbai. Indian Journal of Labour Economics,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e54(2),301-325.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe Daily Dhaka Tribune, (April 22, 2022), Can be accessed in https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/crime\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWorld Bank (2007). \u003cstrong\u003eInformality: Exit and Exclusion\u003c/strong\u003e. The World Bank.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWorld Population Review (2023). Can be accessed in (https://worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/dhaka-population)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Graphs","content":"\u003cp\u003eGraphs 1 and 2 available in the Supplementary Files section.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Picture 1","content":"\u003cp\u003ePicture 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"class position, class structure, downward, extortion, inflation, mobility","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7608304/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7608304/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study presents a theoretical analysis of the political exploitation of street hawkers in the New Market region of Bangladesh. 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