Exploring Socio-demographic Predictors of Human Capital Development in Indigenous Igbo Business Mentorship

Exploring Socio-demographic Predictors of Human Capital Development in Indigenous Igbo Business Mentorship | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Exploring Socio-demographic Predictors of Human Capital Development in Indigenous Igbo Business Mentorship Dare Ojo This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7368038/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study explores the sociodemographic predictors of human capital development within the framework of indigenous Igbo business mentorship, addressing a phenomenon that has received limited scholarly attention in the past and in recent times. Employing a qualitative methodology and utilizing purposive and snowball sampling techniques, the research collected rich, contextual data from 75 entrepreneurs who developed their human capital through mentorship and subsequently established businesses in three major Lagos markets: Ladipo Auto Spare Parts, Idumota, and Alaba International in Lagos metropolis, Nigeria. The findings reveal a complex interplay between sociodemographic factors and human capital development, offering a nuanced understanding of the critical role indigenous mentorship plays in shaping entrepreneurial trajectories. The study reinforces social capital theory by highlighting the power of social networks in entrepreneurial development, and underscores the importance of early-age entrepreneurial engagement, as conceptualized through career construction theory. It also draws on the theory of economic development, portraying the entrepreneur as an agent of creative destruction, dismantling outdated educational systems and fostering innovative structures through entrepreneurial activity. Ultimately, the study challenges the dominant Western narrative of entrepreneurial individualism, emphasizing the value of social network and communal support systems in driving entrepreneurial success. By reaffirming the principles of social capital theory, this research contributes a transformative perspective to the discourse on human capital development and entrepreneurship. Socio-demographic predictors human capital development indigenous Igbo business mentorship Figures Figure 1 Introduction Capacity building has been widely recognized by scholars as a powerful catalyst for both social and economic development, as well as a strategic tool for reducing barriers to human and societal advancement (Omonijo, 2024 ; Omonijo, 2025 ). Among its various dimensions, entrepreneurship is frequently highlighted as the most critical aspect, given its pivotal role in driving national economic growth (Mutesi et al., 2025; Ajide & Soyemi, 2022 ; Amoah et al., 2022 ). However, the relationship between entrepreneurship and economic development is not universally straightforward. Alvarez & Barney ( 2014 ) caution that entrepreneurial initiatives, particularly those rooted in self-employment, do not always translate into sustainable or scalable enterprises. Despite this complexity, the broader consensus remains that human and societal progress is closely tied to a nation's capacity to empower its citizens to engage in profitable business ventures. This is especially true in developing economies, where structural barriers often hinder economic participation and income generation leading to high level of poverty (Ezinna, et al., 2024 ). Entrepreneurship within the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries demonstrates notable disparities across societal groups, with women and youth consistently underrepresented (OECD, 2023 ). Although entrepreneurship is frequently celebrated as the imaginative creation and realization of new opportunities, it must also be understood as a dynamic and contextually embedded process (Tillmar, 2006 ; Welter, 2011 ). As Tillmar ( 2006 ) emphasizes, the success of entrepreneurial ventures hinges not only on individual initiative but also on the capacity to cultivate and mobilize networks that connect both human and non-human resources. This understanding reveals the inherently communal and interconnected nature of social phenomena, resonating with the African philosophy of ubuntu. Ubuntu posits that human development and flourishing are inextricably linked to collective efforts and communal well-being (Metz, 2011 ; Ramose, 1999 ). Its emphasis is hinged on synergy and relational interdependence that offers a paradigmatic shift which challenges the dominant Western entrepreneurial narrative, on the ground of often prioritizing individualism and competition (Tutu, 1999 ). Therefore, by foregrounding community-oriented values, ubuntu, provides a culturally grounded lens through which entrepreneurship can be reimagined as a socially embedded and inclusive practice. Classical sociologists, Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber, offered foundational insights into how social structures shape economic life and human capital. Comte’s focus on social cohesion supports collective capacity building (Comte, 1851 ); Durkheim’s concept of solidarity fosters mutual support and social order (Durkheim, 1893); Marx highlighted how education and class dynamics influence well-being and labour equity (Marx, 1867 ); and Weber emphasized how institutions and values shape empowerment, especially in contexts of poverty and unemployment (Weber, 1922 ). Their legacies remain vital for inclusive capacity across both formal and informal economies. Human capital development is a vital component of capacity building, yet the distinction lies in their orientation. While capacity building is organizationally driven, focusing on institutional systems and structures, human capital development centers on the individual, enhancing personal skills, knowledge, and potential. In other words, human capital development is formally driven, while capacity building is formally organised. Despite this difference, however, it could be noted that both aim at human empowerment by equipping individuals with the skills needed for proficiency in work-related environments, enabling income generation and the fulfillment of personal and societal needs. Prior to colonialism, informal human capital development was prevalent in developing countries, where ancestors leveraged traditional skills and knowledge to thrive (Rodeny, 1972). However, colonial imperialism disrupted this trajectory and imposed Western values and systems that have failed to replicate the successes of the Global North. Since then, the Global South has been struggling with capacity building in career development for life empowerment, including indigenous entrepreneurship. Painfully enough, the disruption has led to the neglect of indigenous entrepreneurship Akeredolu-Ale ( 1972 ) which is capable of providing solutions to resolve the problem of unemployment, poverty and production of good and services for local consumption and exportation in African countries. The Igbo people's indigenous business mentorship model offers a compelling example of culturally contextualized human capital development, where traditional apprenticeship and community-driven initiatives foster entrepreneurial success (Omonijo, 2024 ). By leveraging their sociocultural practices, the Igbo people have developed a thriving entrepreneurial ecosystem that prioritizes practical skills, community support, and mutual prosperity (Obi, 2021 ). This approach not only preserves the Igbo cultural heritage but also provides a viable alternative to Western-style formal education, highlighting the importance of locally driven solutions to economic challenges. Therefore, the intersection of sociodemographic predictors and human capital development within indigenous Igbo business mentorship represents a profoundly intricate and under-theorized domain, despite its latent potential to illuminate pathways for sustainable entrepreneurship and inclusive economic transformation. While mainstream entrepreneurship literature has largely centered on formal market mechanisms and Western business models, it has often failed to engage with the culturally embedded systems of enterprise that flourish within indigenous contexts. The Igbo apprenticeship system, known as Igba Boy, is a paradigmatic example of such a system, where mentorship, communal reciprocity, and informal capital accumulation converge to produce resilient entrepreneurial actors. Although Fonseca et al. ( 2024 ) explored broad correlations between sociodemographic variables and entrepreneurial outcomes, and Omonijo ( 2025 ) examined behavioural enablers among the Igbo, these studies stop short of unpacking the nuanced interplay between identity markers, such as age, gender, kinship networks, and access to informal capital, and the cultivation of human capital within culturally specific mentorship frameworks. In Igbo society, entrepreneurship is not merely an economic activity but a rite of passage, deeply entwined with social mobility, intergenerational obligation, and communal legitimacy. The apprenticeship model functions as both a pedagogical and socio-economic institution, where knowledge transfer is mediated through lived experience, moral instruction, and tacit cultural codes. A rigorous investigation into how sociodemographic factors shape human capital development in this context demands an interdisciplinary lens, drawing from anthropology, development economics, and indigenous knowledge systems. Such an inquiry could reveal how structural inequalities are mitigated or reproduced within mentorship networks, how cultural values mediate entrepreneurial risk-taking, and how informal institutions compensate for the absence of formal financial infrastructure. Ultimately, this line of research could reframe human understanding of entrepreneurship not as a universal construct, but as a culturally contingent process shaped by the social architecture of indigenous communities. By investigating how these factors engender human capital development, the research seeks to provide valuable insights for practitioners and scholars, contributing to the existing body of knowledge and informing effective mentorship and entrepreneurial success within the unique cultural context of Igbo entrepreneurship. This study is organized into the following sections: introduction, existing literature and theory, methodology, findings, conclusion, and recommendations. Existing literature The foundational works of sociology's pioneers, such as Simmel ( 1950 ), Bourdieu ( 1977 ), Durkheim ( 1895 ), and Marx ( 1867 ), have profoundly shaped human understanding of social life, extending their influence to entrepreneurship. Consequently, its sociodemographic predictors have been critically examined as evident in age Brownson, ( 2014 ), early career start-up Watermann, et al., ( 2023 ), gender (Muntean & Ozkazanc-Pan, 2015 ; Enfield, 2019 ), marital status (Danes et al., 2016; Jaiwasal & Patel, 2012; Uike, 2019 ; Grable, 2000 ), interests (Renninger & Hidi, 2016 ; Ainley, 2006 ), a supportive social environment and perceived opportunities (Hidayat et al., 2021 ), high rate of unemployment and underemployment (Shojobi, 2015 ; Ekong & Ekong, 2016 ), desire for a stable income stream (Anyadike et al., 2012 ), continuation of family business (Olawore, 2023 ), social pressure or influence (Kanu, 2019 ; Bhukya & Paul, 2023) and education (Block & Stumpf, 1992 ; Kuratko & Hodgetts, 1998 ), poverty, Omonijo et al., ( 2017 ). The foregoing demonstrates socio-demographic predictors of entrepreneurship but the probability of same predicting human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship is yet to be ascertained in academic literature. Even among the extant literature on various aspects of Igbo entrepreneurship, such as Agozino & Anyanike ( 2007 ), Omonijo et al. ( 2019 ), Omonijo et al. (2025), Omonijo ( 2025 ), Anyadike et al. ( 2012 ), Obi ( 2021 ), Iwara et al. ( 2019 ), Anago ( 2023 ), and Nnonyelu et al. ( 2023 ), none investigated the specific roles of socio-demographic predictors in human capital development within the context of indigenous business mentorship and how they predict human capital development, despite their potential significance in shaping entrepreneurial outcomes. These knowledge gaps suggest a pressing need for further research to uncover the complex interplay between socio-demographic factors and human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship to ultimately inform strategies to enhance entrepreneurial success and sustainability within the Igbo community and Africa. Given this, the present study intends to address the following key research questions: What sociodemographic factors engender human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship among the Igbos? How does the sociodemographic factors engender human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship? The Igbo are known for their inclination towards entrepreneurship for wealth accumulation (Kanu, 2019 ; Okeke, 2023 ). While not all entrepreneurs undergo human capital development, the majority do for the financial benefits it brings to business strata, unlike other forms like "umu ahia" (Obi, 2021 ). Therefore, this paper focuses on those who engaged human capital for business ownership in addressing these gaps in knowledge. Social Capital Theory of Human Capital Development in Indigenous Igbo Business Mentorship The development of human capital in entrepreneurship has been extensively explored through various theoretical lenses (Omonijo et al., 2019 ). However, the specific application of social capital theory to human capital development within the context of indigenous Igbo business mentorship remains a relatively underexamined area of research. Social capital theory, as posited by scholars such as Shane ( 2013 ) and further nuanced by Thomas & Gupta ( 2021 ), underscores the significance of social relationships and collective action in fostering entrepreneurial growth. By recognizing humans as inherently social beings who thrive through cooperation and mutual support, this theory highlights the critical role of social connections and collaborative endeavours in shaping entrepreneurial outcomes. The social capital theory and resource-based theory of entrepreneurship are closely intertwined, as both emphasize the crucial role of resources in business establishment and operations. However, a key distinction lies in their focus: while the resource-based theory highlights tangible resources such as time and financial capital, social capital theory underscores the importance of intangible social and human capital resources. These are pivotal role of social networks in facilitating entrepreneurial opportunities, including access to valuable business transactions and relationships According to Shane ( 2013 ) and Preston ( 2004 ), merely recognizing opportunities is insufficient for entrepreneurs; they must also cultivate social networks to actualize these opportunities. Therefore, the role of social network illustrated in the concept of social capital arises from individuals' ability to consider others in their actions and cooperate with them in human capital development endeavours. This study seeks to validate this core tenet of social capital theory by examining its relevance to human capital formation within indigenous Igbo business mentorship. This connection could go a long way to explain human behaviour and motivation, and also highlight the dichotomy between competition and cooperation, as well as instrumental and intrinsic actions in entrepreneurship development. For several decades, Western perspective on competition over cooperation has dominated literature, neglecting collaboration, teamwork, and partnership prevalent in the Global South through sociodemographic factors in human capital development. This raises questions about the role of intrinsic motivations, such as personal growth and community development prevalent in the Global South which needs to be investigated in academic literature. The investigation will explore the integration of social capital theory and human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship via sociodemographic factors in combining sociology with economics to validate or negate the conventional economic notion of 'homo economicus' (Arrow, 1999 ). Since the notion of homo economicus views individuals as self-interested utility maximizers, overlooking other social factors in human capital development as it concerns recycling of mentees into human capital development, settlement through access to startup capital, and extensive networks of clients, customers, and credit facilities is expected to be looked into to illustrate the significance of social connections and cooperation in entrepreneurial endeavours in the Global South. While critics of social capital theory rightly highlight its limitations, particularly in addressing adverse dynamics within social networks such as exploitation, misconduct, and breaches of trust, the theory’s holistic framework remains pertinent. Accordingly, this study seeks to explore its broader implications for human capital development within the context of indigenous Igbo business mentorship, to contribute to scholarly discourse and enhance academic relevance. Methodology Study Design This study employed an exploratory research design to investigate the socio-demographic predictors of human capital development in Igbo business mentorship. According to Saka et al. ( 2023 ), exploratory design is suitable for researching undefined problems. The design involves collecting primary or secondary data in an unstructured format and interpreting it using informal procedures (Bernd, 2017 ). By adopting an exploratory approach, the study intends to gain a nuanced understanding of the complex dynamics in this context to address the scarcity of research on this topic. This design intends to facilitate the collection of rich, contextual data and identification of patterns and themes that can inform future research. Its flexibility allowed the researcher to adapt to emerging insights and themes, ensuring that the findings were grounded in the experiences and perspectives of the respondents. By centering the voices and experiences of Igbo business leaders, this study provides a platform for their stories and insights to be heard and valued. Study Area The study was conducted in Lagos Metropolis, Lagos State, Southwest Nigeria. The city is one of the fastest-growing urban centers in the developing world, with an annual growth rate of 3.2% (Shiru, 2020, as cited in Akiyode & Bob, 2025 ). Research took place in three major markets within the city: Ladipo Auto Spare Parts, Idumota, and Alaba International. The area is predominantly populated by entrepreneurs from diverse ethnic backgrounds across Nigeria, with a significant proportion of Igbo origin. Fig. i: The Map of Lagos Metropolis Culled from Omonijo, ( 2024 ) Population of study and sample size The population of this study comprises entrepreneurs who have benefited from human capital development through indigenous Igbo business mentorship programs and mentees currently undergoing training at prominent markets such as Ladipo Auto Spare Parts, Ladipo, Idumota, and Alaba International Markets. The complex and heterogeneous nature of these markets, characterized by entrepreneurs from diverse backgrounds and industries, poses significant challenges in identifying and accessing the target population. Furthermore, the lack of reliable statistics on entrepreneurs of Igbo extraction, coupled with the likelihood that not all have undergone formal human capital development, necessitates a purposive sampling approach. This technique enables the researcher to selectively identify and recruit 75 participants who meet specific criteria, ensuring a more focused and relevant sample. Method of data collection The data corpus for this study was derived from a qualitative data collection technique, specifically in-depth interviews, to elicit information from entrepreneurs who acquired human capital development in entrepreneurship through indigenous Igbo business mentorship within the locality. The in-depth interviews involved 75 entrepreneurs selected through a combination of purposive and snowball sampling techniques. The sample comprised 45 Nna Ukwu, 15 market leaders, and 15 mentees, distributed across three markets (15 Nna Ukwu, 5 market leaders, and 5 mentees per market). Nna Ukwu were defined as mentors who had never occupied a position of authority in the markets, while market leaders were defined as market leaders and they were selected among Nna Ukwu who had served or are currently serving in one position of authority within the market space. Mentees are currently undergoing human capital development which intend to usher them to the realm of entrepreneurs at the completion of mentorship. Entrepreneurs and mentees who self-identified as adopters of indigenous Igbo business mechanisms participated in the interviews. After each round, they introduced the researcher to additional entrepreneurs and market leaders, expanding the scope of the study. Each interview lasted an average of 31 minutes. In-depth interviews and key informant interviews were utilized as data collection tools, with specifically designed guides for each. One-on-one questioning allowed for insights into participants' experiences and perspectives. According to Kvale (1996), as cited in Omonijo ( 2025 ), interviews yield rich and detailed information about individuals' thoughts, feelings, and experiences. The interview process had two segments: demographic information and a single open-ended question to elicit participants' experiences. The researcher's marital affiliation with an Igbo family and 8-year residency in Igboland for educational purposes facilitated cultural understanding and complemented the interview data. The combination of in-depth and key informant interviews provided a comprehensive representation of the socio-demographic predictors investigated. To preserve the authenticity and contextual richness of the study’s discussions, recordings were transcribed shortly after data collection, capturing not only the verbal responses but also the accompanying nonverbal cues that provided valuable insights into the participants' thoughts and emotions. This meticulous approach ensured that the nuances of expression, tone, and cultural context embedded in the conversations were accurately retained, thereby enhancing the validity and depth of the qualitative data. Rigor and trustworthiness of the study Aside adhering strictly to ethical principles to ensure participants' well-being and rights as stipulated by Babbie ( 2013 ), the rigor was achieved through a number of other procedures, such as member checking. This was done during data collection by intermittently summarizing the respondents’ submission and confirming from the respondents if it captures their opinions. This became essential to ensure that the intent and original contents of the respondent’s views were captured and preserved. Rigor was also achieved through reflexivity and prolonged contact with the respondents in order to aid understanding. Lastly, on trustworthiness, responses were also reported in vignettes to reveal contents of responses provided. Ethical considerations To uphold ethical standards, researchers ensured that participation was voluntary, and participants were informed that the data collected would be used solely for research purposes. Confidentiality and anonymity were guaranteed to protect participants' identities. The study underwent rigorous review by senior experts in the field, who certified its compliance with necessary ethical considerations. Additionally, approval was obtained from the Covenant Health Research Ethics Committee (CHREC) to ensure adherence to established ethical guidelines and standards. The HREC protocol assigned number is NHREC/CU-HREC/11/04/2023 Data analysis The data underwent rigorous thematic analysis, a qualitative method that meticulously identifies, codes, and categorizes patterns and themes within textual data to uncover underlying meanings and relationships. Atlas.ti, a sophisticated computer-assisted tool, played a pivotal role in facilitating the organization, storage, and analysis of the responses, thereby enhancing the efficiency and accuracy of the data analysis process. Through an iterative and inductive process, themes and subthemes emerged organically from the data, revealing nuanced insights into the experiences and perspectives of the respondents. This approach, informed by Crawford et al. (2008) as cited in Omonijo ( 2025 ), allowed for the identification of recurring patterns and motifs that underscored the complexities of the phenomenon under investigation. To maintain the authenticity of the respondents' voices, quotes were either presented verbatim or reframed as statements, with a notation system ('F' with subscript numbers) used to denote entrepreneurs and mentees, ensuring transparency and accountability in the representation of the data. Results The socio-demographic profiles of respondents, highlighted entrepreneurs' ages, educational levels, and marital status. The results show that Nna Ukwu and key informants are predominantly middle-aged (36–45 years old) with substantial business experience, yet most have limited formal education, relying instead on practical knowledge. Notably, both Nna Ukwu and key informants are predominantly married, whereas all mentees are single, suggesting that marital status and family stability may not be prerequisites for effective mentorship. Mentees, all under 18, prioritized entrepreneurship over academic advancement, with a focus on acquiring skills early in life. The importance of hands-on experience and early skill development in entrepreneurship come to play with this analysis. The next section presents thematic analysis drawing on insights gathered from mentors, mentees, and key informants through In-Depth Interviews (IDI) and Key Informant Interviews (KII). The analysis highlights key factors that emerged from the responses, shedding light on the complex dynamics of human capital development in this context. The analysis unearthed seven fundamental themes. These themes are explored in greater detail in the following sections, providing a richer understanding of socio-demographic predictors of human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship. Table i presents themes, subthemes, responses and percentage while Table ii shows how the themes and codes were developed. RQ1 What socio-demographic factors predict human capital development in indigenous Igbo entrepreneurship? As shown in Table i , 7 themes predicted human capital development in Igbo business mentorship. Other subthemes identified appeared under each theme with the percentage of respondence. Consequently, the analysis of themes and subthemes reveals that all participants were male, single, and enrolled at an early age. Participants had varying levels of education, with 40% having no formal or low-level education, 50% some level, and 10% higher education. Key interests in human capital development included self-employment, wealth creation, pursuing business as a career, and having a regular income. Influences on participation came from parental (45%), peer group (30%), and family/community entrepreneurs (25%). In the context of unemployment, 75% had a noted response with 25% indicating No, meaning that unemployment was not a major problem when they enrolled in human capital development. Table i: Themes, Subthemes, Responses and Percentage S/N Themes Subthemes Responses /Percentage Yes No 1 Age Early age enrolment Older age enrolment 100 0 0 0 2 Gender Male Female 100 0 0 0 3 Marital status Single Married 100 0 0 0 4 Education No formal education, Low level of education, Higher level of education Total 40 50 10 100 0 0 0 0 5 Interest Self-employment drive, Wealth creation, Pursuance of business as a career, To have a regular income To train others mentees Total 10 20 20 20 30 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 Influence Parental 45 0 Peer group 30 0 Family/community entrepreneur Total 25 100 0 0 7 Unemployment N/A Total 75 100 25 Culled from Omonijo, ( 2024 ) RQ2. How does socio-demographic factors predict human capital development in indigenous Igbo entrepreneurship? With respect to research question 2, the seven themes generated were analyzed in Table ii , while the subsequent section illustrated how each of them predict human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship. Table ii. Interplay Between Themes and Codes. S/N Simple quotes Coding Theme Research question 1 It provides an opportunity to learn business fundamentals at a tender age, free from responsibilities and distractions Early age enrolment, Older age enrollment Age How does sociodemographic factors predictor human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship 2 The nature of services to be rendered require physical energy and rough conditions which are not suitable for the female. Male, female Gender 3 At the period of enrollment, mentees are usually very small and not mature for marriage. This gives them an advantage to remain focus in the course of human capital development. Single, married Marital status 4 5 6 7 The period for basic education attainment overlaps with the period of human capital development. Because of this overlap, human capital development is considered in place of education since it doesn't require cost implications for business establishment. The interest in participation varies from one person to another but it serves as motivation for actualizing business formation and ownership. Different categories of people can influence participants, especially if those participants are idle and looking for something to do for life empowerment. In Nigeria, employment challenges after school are common. Human capital development offers a viable alternative, providing training to start own businesses Low level education Pursuance of Self-employment, wealth creation, pursuit of business as a career, regular income and human capital development Parental, peer groups, family/community-based entrepreneurs Joblessness, successful uneducated entrepreneurs Lack of employment opportunities. Education Interest Influence Unemployment Culled from Omonijo, ( 2024 ). Age The theme of age predicts human capital development among the youth population by the specific early age enrollment requirement. The significance of early start-ups is evident in the responses from participants, including mentees who are currently under mentorship, who also shared compelling stories of initiating human capital development at a young age. According to the mentors, it provides an opportunity to learn business fundamentals at a tender age, free from responsibilities and distractions F 1 while the subset of key informants stated that it enables mentees to graduate from mentorship and establish businesses early in life. They also emphasized the fact that when a business is established, it needs time to grow. This further supports early age engagement to enable mentees to navigate all the stages involved in business before getting old. The subset of the mentees posit that it allows for the opportunity to nurture the business from an early stage, before taking on additional life responsibilities such as marriage. One mentor aptly summarized this sentiment: 'I, like many of my peers, began my journey in indigenous Igbo business mentorship at the tender age of 12 and it helped us to remain focus through the period of training ' (F 2 ) The views of respondents collectively suggest that early-age enrollment is the most beneficial option for mentees, offering opportunities that may not be as readily available or advantageous for older individuals seeking human capital development. While older persons can participate in the programme, their involvement is limited by factors like marriage and the nature of mentorship services, which often cater to younger populations. Gender Gender emerged a significant theme, with all participants being male, suggesting one gender participation. Divergent reasons were presented on this. These include the barrier of male-dominated mentors’ syndrome which is strongly connected to the residency requirement which mandates mentees to reside with mentors and their families for an extended period. One of the mentors stated that, the scheme is more suitable for male and not female due to the nature of assignments which require physical energy which are not suitable for the female (F 1 ) . The residency requirement according to the subset of the key informants poses difficulties for female participation in a male dominated mentorship programme due to potential marital tensions and accusations of impropriety. Aside that, another key informant presented a view similar to the view of the mentor earlier mentioned above that, cultural norms in Igbo land tend to steer females towards education rather than business mentorship F 2 , resulting in a disparity in participation. Another subset of the mentors noted that, in Igbo culture, education is often viewed as the primary inheritance a father can give to his daughter, as she is expected to marry into another family and relinquish her ties to her natal family(F 3 ). Apart from that, one of the mentees had this to says: The demanding nature of business, which requires perseverance, tiredness and sleeping in shop at night, may be a barrier for many females (F 4 ). The nature of business in Ladipo and Alaba international markets, which involves heavy spare parts or equipment, presents challenges for female participants. This supports the respondent's view on carrying heavy loads that is not suitable for women. Marital Status A notable trend emerged within the theme of marital status, as all participants reported being single during their enrollment in human capital development and remained single until the end of the training. Similarly, the mentees who are currently undergoing training are also all single. Divergent views were also presented on this theme. A subset of mentors attributed the trend to the participants' youthfulness at the stage of enrollment when they are not yet mature enough for marriage. One of them stated that, at the period of enrollment, mentees are usually very small and not expected to get married F 1 . In another development, a subset of the key informants stated that those who are mature for marriage opt to postpone marriage until after establishing their businesses, recognizing the extensive social, economic, emotional, and financial commitments associated with marriage and child-rearing F 2 . This means that mentees will not be able to fulfil these obligations in the course of human capital development. Moreover, one of the key informants underscored the impossibility of transferring the financial implications of marriage and family responsibilities to the mentor, who is primarily focused on nurturing the mentee's entrepreneurial skills and development. One of them stated that at the period of enrollment, mentees are usually very small and not mature for marriage. This gives them an advantage to remain focus in the course of human capital development F3 . A subset of mentees attributed their single status to the residency requirement of the business mentorship, which prohibits them from bringing their families to reside with their mentors. One of them stated that our primary focus during the mentorship is on business training, so as to be able to prioritize professional development over personal life F 4. Education As regards the theme on education, a diverse range of educational backgrounds among participants merged from the narratives. Some participants had no formal education, while others had completed primary and secondary school education but only one holds higher degree certificate but he acquire the degree after he completed human capital development and established his business. This variation demonstrates the inclusive nature of Igbo human capital development in entrepreneurship, which accommodates individuals from different educational backgrounds. It suggests that participation in mentorship is not restricted by educational attainment, but rather by a willingness to learn and engage in entrepreneurial activities. One of the mentors stated that the period for basic education attainment overlaps with the period of human capital development. Because of this overlap, human capital development is considered in place of education since it doesn't require cost implications for business establishment F 1 Among those who did not have formal education, it was gathered from the subset of mentors that entrepreneurial aspirations informed their enrolment while the subset of the key informant averred that lack of education sponsorship informed participation among primary and secondary school holders. In contrast to the mentioned case, some other mentors in the study had completed primary school education but did not proceed to secondary school due to a lack of interest in formal education. One of them said I stopped education at the secondary school level because of lack of interest in education F 2 . This categoryy of respondents believed they had already achieved success in their business endeavours and need not purse education anymore. One of them stated: Attending school holds no significance for me anymore. Education is now reserved for my children F 3 .The view of the subset of mentees is quite different, according to them, education is not prioritized due to the high rate of unemployment in Nigeria. Though some of them completed secondary school education but the fear of unemployment prevented them from proceeding to the higher institution. One of them stated that in Nigeria, education is increasingly perceived as less significant due to the soaring rates of unemployment. Consequently, I question the necessity of formal education when I can acquire business skills and resources to establish my own ventures that offer independence and financial stabilityF 4 . It is important to note that the period for basic education intersect the period of learning the rudimentary of business, business formation and nurture Interest The theme, interest served as a significant entry point into business mentorship but via four distinct ways. A subset of the key informant stated that the interest in participation varies from one person to another but it serves as motivation for actualizing business formation and ownership F 1 . The first group consisted of respondents who demonstrated a strong inclination toward self-employment . Rather than pursuing conventional white-collar careers, these individuals were motivated by a desire for self-reliance and personal independence. To achieve this, they chose to participate in indigenous Igbo business mentorship programs, viewing them as a practical pathway to entrepreneurial success. According to one of them: m y participation in human capital development in business mentorship lies in my determination to establish my own occupation and become self-sufficient, without relying on others for financial support. By undergoing this training and securing the necessary funds, I aim to pave the way for a stable livelihood for myself and my family members F 2 . Contrary to the aforementioned perspective, another subset associated their interest to wealth creation . For these individuals, the primary goal was not merely self-employment but rather the accumulation of wealth and financial prosperity. According to one of them: t he aspiration for wealth was the driving force behind my participation in human capital development F 3 . In Igbo culture, there is a strong belief that wealth is achievable through diligence and dedication to business endeavours. The perspective of the third category of respondents revolves around the realm of training prospective entrepreneurs to reduce high rate of unemployment . These individuals expressed a keen interest in establishing their businesses, not just for personal gain, but also to create a platform for training prospective entrepreneurs. According to one of them My goal is to acquire the necessary training and resources to establish my own business, not only to improve my circumstances but also to serve as a model for others in recycling mentees into human capital development while another one stated that by setting up my own business, I aim to create opportunities for employment and economic empowerment within my community F 4 . Ultimately, I envision a ripple effect where I can train and empower others to become entrepreneurs, thereby contributing to the reduction of unemployment and poverty across Nigeria. The fourth category of subset expressed a distinct interest in earning a regular income through business endeavours . Unlike those primarily motivated by the desire for self-employment, or the establishment of platforms for human capital development, this subset emphasized the importance of generating consistent income streams from their entrepreneurial ventures. Their motivation stemmed from a pragmatic approach to financial stability and economic security, recognizing entrepreneurship as a viable means of achieving regular income. For these participants, the prospect of earning a reliable income through business ownership outweighed other considerations, highlighting a practical orientation towards entrepreneurship as a means of livelihood. The fifth subset of participants explored human capital development as a foundation for initiating intergenerational family businesses . These individuals are driven by a desire to build enduring business empires that span multiple generations. One participant passionately stated: I don’t want my father’s name to die in business . This reflects a deep commitment to preserving family legacy and ensuring that the entrepreneurial spirit continues across generations. Influence The theme of influence as a critical predictor extends beyond parental guidance to peer group pressure and family/community-based entrepreneurs. This broader spectrum of influence shows the complex interplay of social dynamics and cultural factors in shaping individual career choices. Moreover, it highlights the multifaceted nature of influence within the socio-cultural context of Igbo entrepreneurship, where community values and peer interactions play significant roles alongside family guidance. The views presented by the subset of respondents whose parents influenced their participation in human capital development in business mentorship are summed up: Our parents played a pivotal role in influencing in our participation in human capital developmenti. They not only encouraged us but also actively negotiated with our "Nna Ukwu," to ensure favourable terms and conditions for engagement. And tthroughout the training process, our parents remained engaged, receiving updates on our training and offering valuable advice and guidanceF 1 . Although one of the mentors said that different categories of people can influence participants, especially if those participants are idle and looking for something to do for life empowerment but the level of parental involvement highlights the importance of family support in career decisions and demonstrates the significance of intergenerational knowledge transfer within Igbo communities. Aside that, the view of another subset associated their participation to the influence of peer groups. Such included friends who advised them to engage in human capital instead of being idle in the village. And lastly, another subset illustrated the role of family/community-based entrepreneurs, particularly youth without familial ties to business, to pursue entrepreneurial opportunities rather than remaining idle. Unemployment Although, unemployment was discussed in the theme, but not as a major theme as it appears in this section. In the present context the significance of unemployment as a predictor was more pronounced among the mentees compared to the Nna Ukwu and market leaders. This discrepancy may be attributed to the prevailing job market conditions at the time of enrolment of these different categories of respondents. Unlike the mentors and market leaders who enrolled in human capital development when job opportunities were more abundant, the current high level of unemployment in Nigeria served as a driving factor for mentees seeking alternative avenues for economic empowerment. According to one of the mentees: The challenges of securing employment after completing school in Nigeria have become increasingly prevalent. Consequently, participating in human capital development offers a viable alternative, providing individuals with training and support to establish their own businesses. This avenue not only ensures a source of income to meet personal and family needs but also mitigates the risk of financial instability and potential hardship. Discussion of Findings Based on the data collected and analyzed, this study findings affirm existing literature on the sociodemographic predictors of entrepreneurship. Each identified factor, except education, proves relevant to human capital development within the context of indigenous Igbo business mentorship. This alignment may be attributed to the structured pathway through which the mentorship scheme facilitates human capital development and entrepreneurial engagement. Specifically, the study identifies age as a pivotal predictor of human capital development within indigenous Igbo business mentorship. This relationship is particularly evident in the significance of early-age entrepreneurial engagement, as conceptualized through Career Construction Theory (Watermann et al., 2023 ). The findings underscore the strategic advantage of early start-ups, revealing three key benefits associated with beginning entrepreneurial journeys at a young age. First, early engagement provides mentees with the opportunity to acquire foundational business knowledge during a formative period, largely unencumbered by adult responsibilities and social distractions. This cognitive and experiential freedom fosters deeper learning and skill internalization. Second, it enables participants to complete mentorship programmes and transition into business ownership earlier in life, thereby extending the duration of entrepreneurial practice and potential for long-term growth. Third, starting early allows individuals to nurture and stabilize their ventures before encountering life-stage commitments such as marriage, which may introduce competing demands on time, energy, and financial resources. These insights not only reinforce the value of youth entrepreneurship but also highlight the intersection between life-course timing and human capital formation. By engaging in mentorship prior to major life transitions, participants have demonstrated a forward-looking approach to economic empowerment. The study thus contributes to a nuanced understanding of how age-related factors shape entrepreneurial trajectories within culturally embedded mentorship systems. The study identifies gender as a significant predictor of human capital development within business mentorship among indigenous Igbo entrepreneurs, and thereby highlights a predominance of single individuals in business skill acquisition. This finding aligns with Fuller et al. ( 2005 ), who concluded that gender-based exclusion remains a persistent feature of apprenticeship programmes. However, it contrasts with the conclusions of Adebisi & Akinsooto ( 2016 ), Brownson ( 2014 ) and Dawa, et al., ( 2025 ), whose research suggests that apprenticeship participation tends to favour females over males. This divergence contributes fresh insights to the existing body of entrepreneurship literature. The study’s findings on marital status reveal that single individuals exhibit a greater propensity for business skill acquisition compared to their married counterparts. This trend appears to be shaped by the structural requirement within mentorship programmes that participants remain unmarried throughout the training period, a condition that inherently favours single individuals. This aligns with existing scholarship (Jaiwasal & Patel, 2012; Uike, 2019 ), which associates entrepreneurial engagement with unmarried status, suggesting that the absence of marital obligations enables individuals to allocate more cognitive, emotional, and temporal resources to entrepreneurial development. Beyond logistical convenience, the unmarried status may also reflect a broader socio-cultural dynamic in which youth and autonomy are valorized within entrepreneurial ecosystems. By entering apprenticeship programmes at a younger age and prior to marriage, participants demonstrate not only strategic timing but also a proactive orientation toward human capital accumulation. This behaviour underscores the intersection of life-course theory and entrepreneurship, where early-stage decisions, such as delaying marriage, can significantly influence long-term economic trajectories. Moreover, the findings invite a re-examination of mentorship structures that inadvertently privilege certain demographic profiles. If marital status becomes a gatekeeping criterion, it raises questions about inclusivity and the potential marginalization of married individuals, particularly women, whose entrepreneurial aspirations may be constrained by cultural expectations. Thus, the study contributes to a more layered understanding of how personal life circumstances intersect with institutional frameworks to shape access to entrepreneurial opportunities. The findings on education as a factor reveal a surprising trend: the majority of respondents possessed low levels of formal education, contradicting the conventional wisdom that education is essential for entrepreneurial success (Block & Stumpf, 1992 ; Kuratko & Hodgetts, 1998 ). Although education is widely recognized as a key indicator of human development, this study found no significant correlation between educational attainment and entrepreneurial achievement. Instead, respondents tended to prioritize business ventures over formal schooling, challenging prevailing literature that suggests a positive relationship between education and entrepreneurship (Brownson, 2014 ; Storey, 1994 ). This divergence underscores the existence of alternative pathways to entrepreneurship, particularly through practical skill development in contexts where formal education may be inaccessible or deprioritized. In environments where structural conditions result in high educational attainment without corresponding success outcomes, and where many successful entrepreneurs lack formal education (Obi, 2021 ), education may appear less relevant. Such realities may influence younger generations to value tangible business success over academic credentials that do not guarantee economic mobility. These findings resonate with Schumpeter’s seminal work, The Theory of Economic Development (1934), which introduced the concept of the entrepreneur as an agent of creative destruction . Schumpeter argued that economic development is driven by the dismantling of outdated systems and the emergence of innovative structures through entrepreneurial activity. In this context, the traditional model of education that fails to produce employment or economic advancement is being replaced by entrepreneurial-driven human capital development, an embodiment of Schumpeter’s vision of transformative economic progress. The study revealed a strong interest in human capital development through indigenous Igbo business mentorship, fueled by a range of motivations. These included the pursuit of self-employment, aspirations for wealth creation, and the training of future entrepreneurs as a strategy to combat high unemployment rates. Participants also expressed a distinct desire to secure consistent income through business ventures, as well as to lay the groundwork for intergenerational family enterprises. These motivations reflect and reinforce existing literature across multiple domains. They correspond with efforts to address high unemployment (Cuadros et al., 2021 ), the preservation of family enterprises (Aldrich & Cliff, 2003 ; Al-Qadasi et al., 2021 ), and psychological frameworks surrounding wealth creation (Oteh, 2009 ). Additionally, they align with African cultural principles of reciprocity and communalism, such as the concept of ubuntu (Omonijo, 2025 ). The findings also echo Schumpeter’s (1934) portrayal of entrepreneurs as social leaders, resonating with the perspectives of Diekmann ( 2004 ) and Sugant ( 2014 ), while offering a nuanced complement, and at times contrast, to classical profit-maximization theories (Friedman, 1976 ; Smith, 1776 ; Jensen & Meckling, 1976 ; Drucker, 1954 ). Overall, the study underscores the delicate balance between social impact and financial gain, emphasizing the role of consistent income in ensuring financial stability (Lecunna, 2020 ; Willis et al., 2019 ), and highlighting the influence of sociological factors in shaping entrepreneurial career paths (Zisser et al., 2019 ) The study found that parents, family and community entrepreneurs, as well as peer groups, exert influence on human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship. This aligns with existing literature on the influence of these categories of people on entrepreneurship participation (Obunike, 2016; Kocak, et al., 2021; Schellenberg, et al., 2022 ). Parental influence is very crucial in promoting children career development. In this study, there exists a strong connectivity between parental influence and children career which is in tune with Odikpo & Ejide, ( 2021 ). In developing countries, the tradition of orientating children into art/craft occupations of parents has persisted in-spite of the influence of Westernisation and formal education. In such careers, factors such as hereditary and gender are actively engaged to promote human capital development. The case of indigenous Igbo business mentoring is being confirmed with respondents’ submission and it supports the findings of Obunike, (2016) on parental orientation of children to the choice of their careers. The study's findings on unemployment as a factor in participation in human capital development through business mentorship align with Ali et al. ( 2023 ), which suggests that unemployment motivates individuals to seek alternative livelihoods. Despite government efforts, unemployment persists, particularly in developing countries like Ghana and Nigeria. In Nigeria, human capital development in indigenous business mentorship emerges as a viable option, driven by necessity or 'push' factors (Reynolds, 2011 ; Webb, 2013 ; Amorós, 2017 ). Consequently, the study underscores the pivotal role of the informal sector, particularly human capital development through indigenous Igbo business mentorship, in addressing unemployment. In contrast to formal government programmes, indigenous entrepreneurial initiatives present alternative pathways for employment creation and economic empowerment. These informal networks facilitate access to mentorship, skill acquisition, and business opportunities, enabling aspiring entrepreneurs to generate income and establish sustainable livelihoods. This finding reinforces a central tenet of social capital theory which says that social networks Ruef, ( 2010 ) emerge from individuals’ capacity to engage others in cooperative action, especially in endeavours related to human capital development. Conclusion This study concludes that socio-demographic factors, namely age, gender, marital status, interest, influence, and unemployment, serve as key predictors of human capital development within indigenous Igbo business mentorship. The sole exception is formal education, which was found to be irrelevant in the context of entrepreneurial mentorship. This outcome is attributed to the high rate of unemployment among school graduates and the remarkable success of uneducated entrepreneurs within the Igbo community. These findings suggest that education without employment is losing relevance, while lifelong empowerment through mentorship proves more impactful, underscoring the limited role of formal education in this setting. Instead, the structured nature of the mentorship scheme fosters human capital formation and entrepreneurial engagement through experiential learning and strong social networks. These findings reinforce the emerging framework of the sociology of entrepreneurship, which emphasizes the critical role of social and relational dynamics in entrepreneurial activity. The study reveals that entrepreneurial motivation extends beyond economic incentives, encompassing social drivers that challenge the dominant Western-centric paradigm, traditionally rooted in individualism, profit maximization, and cultural uniformity. In contrast, this research presents an alternative narrative, highlighting innovative and socially embedded entrepreneurial models originating from Africa. Often marginalized in global discourse, these models possess the potential to reshape prevailing understandings of entrepreneurship and contribute meaningfully to a more inclusive and diversified global entrepreneurial landscape. Recommendations Based on the findings, the study recommends the following: Inclusion of older persons in human capital development programes within indigenous Igbo business mentorship. Redesigning the programme to accommodate female and married participants. Encouraging and further promoting parental, peer, and community-based entrepreneurship influences on participation. Supporting and encouraging diverse motivations for participation. Integrating formal education to enhance business operations. These recommendations aim to improve the effectiveness and inclusivity of the indigenous Igbo business mentorship. Declarations Acknowledgments I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my brother, Dr. Ademola Tosin Ojo, for his generous financial support throughout the course of this discourse. His contribution was instrumental to the successful completion of this work. Author’s Contribution This paper was drawn from my PhD thesis and I don’t have any coauthor. Funding No external funding was received for this study. Data availability The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. The author declares as follows Competing of interest No competing interests. Ethical approval This publication was drawn from the author's unpublished PhD thesis. Ethical approval for the study protocol was obtained from the Covenant Health Research Ethics Committee (CHREC), Ota, Southwest Nigeria, in accordance with established ethical guidelines and standards. The assigned protocol number is NHREC/CU-HREC/11/04/2023. Approval was granted for the period spanning 21 st April 2023 to 20 th April 2024, during which data collection was conducted. Consent to participate All participants, including mentees under the age of 18, provided informed consent prior to their involvement in the study. Consent for minors was obtained from their mentors who served as their biological parents in the course of mentorship. This is Africa, where our culture stipulated so and it is quite different from the culture of the Global North. Ethical standards and research protocols were rigorously observed throughout the study to ensure compliance with institutional and international guidelines. Consent for publication Not applicable. References Adebisi, T. A and Akinsooto, T. A. (2016). Women Apprenticeship: A Panacea to Unemployment among Women in Nigeria. British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 12(1): 1-7 Ainley M. (2006). 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Ojo","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAzUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLCCBB4GBsYG5gNAgjQtbAkkaIEAHgPitPCLHT724IGMjRxze883iZ87bOQY2A8f3YBPi+TstHSDBJ40Y8aes9ske8+kGTPwpKXdwKfF4HaOmUQCz+HExhm52yR42w4nNkjwmBGrJeeZ5F9StbBJE2UL0C9pEhC/HDO2lm1LM2Yj5Bd+6eRjkj97bOQM25sf3nzbZiPHz374GF4tYMDYw8Bg2MDAIgHisBFUDgY/GBjkGRiYPxCnehSMglEwCkYaAABlPUh8YJFOuQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Redeemer’s University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dare","middleName":"","lastName":"Ojo","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-13 20:53:06","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7368038/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7368038/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":97968649,"identity":"ffda2653-a903-4a70-bf56-439b0151c501","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-11 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10:17:04","extension":"html","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":171321,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7368038/v1/426a7f765eaf092c9c237e45.html"},{"id":97968647,"identity":"648f1fef-e8fa-4af2-9999-ada6994ecf8e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-11 10:17:04","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":58749,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe Map of Lagos Metropolis\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7368038/v1/2f60e0621667fe6315fc2c35.jpg"},{"id":98622220,"identity":"2a5aea7e-b083-4bc6-aef3-b4c6eadc3d9c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-19 16:49:11","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1057685,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7368038/v1/7039f88c-e2ea-4246-82d1-251bd0efa712.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Exploring Socio-demographic Predictors of Human Capital Development in Indigenous Igbo Business Mentorship","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCapacity building has been widely recognized by scholars as a powerful catalyst for both social and economic development, as well as a strategic tool for reducing barriers to human and societal advancement (Omonijo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Omonijo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Among its various dimensions, entrepreneurship is frequently highlighted as the most critical aspect, given its pivotal role in driving national economic growth (Mutesi et al., 2025; Ajide \u0026amp; Soyemi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Amoah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, the relationship between entrepreneurship and economic development is not universally straightforward. Alvarez \u0026amp; Barney (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) caution that entrepreneurial initiatives, particularly those rooted in self-employment, do not always translate into sustainable or scalable enterprises. Despite this complexity, the broader consensus remains that human and societal progress is closely tied to a nation's capacity to empower its citizens to engage in profitable business ventures. This is especially true in developing economies, where structural barriers often hinder economic participation and income generation leading to high level of poverty (Ezinna, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEntrepreneurship within the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries demonstrates notable disparities across societal groups, with women and youth consistently underrepresented (OECD, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Although entrepreneurship is frequently celebrated as the imaginative creation and realization of new opportunities, it must also be understood as a dynamic and contextually embedded process (Tillmar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Welter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). As Tillmar (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) emphasizes, the success of entrepreneurial ventures hinges not only on individual initiative but also on the capacity to cultivate and mobilize networks that connect both human and non-human resources.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis understanding reveals the inherently communal and interconnected nature of social phenomena, resonating with the African philosophy of ubuntu. Ubuntu posits that human development and flourishing are inextricably linked to collective efforts and communal well-being (Metz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Ramose, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). Its emphasis is hinged on synergy and relational interdependence that offers a paradigmatic shift which challenges the dominant Western entrepreneurial narrative, on the ground of often prioritizing individualism and competition (Tutu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, by foregrounding community-oriented values, ubuntu, provides a culturally grounded lens through which entrepreneurship can be reimagined as a socially embedded and inclusive practice.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eClassical sociologists, Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber, offered foundational insights into how social structures shape economic life and human capital. Comte\u0026rsquo;s focus on social cohesion supports collective capacity building (Comte, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1851\u003c/span\u003e); Durkheim\u0026rsquo;s concept of solidarity fosters mutual support and social order (Durkheim, 1893); Marx highlighted how education and class dynamics influence well-being and labour equity (Marx, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1867\u003c/span\u003e); and Weber emphasized how institutions and values shape empowerment, especially in contexts of poverty and unemployment (Weber, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1922\u003c/span\u003e). Their legacies remain vital for inclusive capacity across both formal and informal economies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHuman capital development is a vital component of capacity building, yet the distinction lies in their orientation. While capacity building is organizationally driven, focusing on institutional systems and structures, human capital development centers on the individual, enhancing personal skills, knowledge, and potential. In other words, human capital development is formally driven, while capacity building is formally organised. Despite this difference, however, it could be noted that both aim at human empowerment by equipping individuals with the skills needed for proficiency in work-related environments, enabling income generation and the fulfillment of personal and societal needs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrior to colonialism, informal human capital development was prevalent in developing countries, where ancestors leveraged traditional skills and knowledge to thrive (Rodeny, 1972). However, colonial imperialism disrupted this trajectory and imposed Western values and systems that have failed to replicate the successes of the Global North. Since then, the Global South has been struggling with capacity building in career development for life empowerment, including indigenous entrepreneurship. Painfully enough, the disruption has led to the neglect of indigenous entrepreneurship Akeredolu-Ale (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e) which is capable of providing solutions to resolve the problem of unemployment, poverty and production of good and services for local consumption and exportation in African countries.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Igbo people's indigenous business mentorship model offers a compelling example of culturally contextualized human capital development, where traditional apprenticeship and community-driven initiatives foster entrepreneurial success (Omonijo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). By leveraging their sociocultural practices, the Igbo people have developed a thriving entrepreneurial ecosystem that prioritizes practical skills, community support, and mutual prosperity (Obi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This approach not only preserves the Igbo cultural heritage but also provides a viable alternative to Western-style formal education, highlighting the importance of locally driven solutions to economic challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTherefore, the intersection of sociodemographic predictors and human capital development within indigenous Igbo business mentorship represents a profoundly intricate and under-theorized domain, despite its latent potential to illuminate pathways for sustainable entrepreneurship and inclusive economic transformation. While mainstream entrepreneurship literature has largely centered on formal market mechanisms and Western business models, it has often failed to engage with the culturally embedded systems of enterprise that flourish within indigenous contexts. The Igbo apprenticeship system, known as Igba Boy, is a paradigmatic example of such a system, where mentorship, communal reciprocity, and informal capital accumulation converge to produce resilient entrepreneurial actors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough Fonseca et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) explored broad correlations between sociodemographic variables and entrepreneurial outcomes, and Omonijo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) examined behavioural enablers among the Igbo, these studies stop short of unpacking the nuanced interplay between identity markers, such as age, gender, kinship networks, and access to informal capital, and the cultivation of human capital within culturally specific mentorship frameworks. In Igbo society, entrepreneurship is not merely an economic activity but a rite of passage, deeply entwined with social mobility, intergenerational obligation, and communal legitimacy. The apprenticeship model functions as both a pedagogical and socio-economic institution, where knowledge transfer is mediated through lived experience, moral instruction, and tacit cultural codes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA rigorous investigation into how sociodemographic factors shape human capital development in this context demands an interdisciplinary lens, drawing from anthropology, development economics, and indigenous knowledge systems. Such an inquiry could reveal how structural inequalities are mitigated or reproduced within mentorship networks, how cultural values mediate entrepreneurial risk-taking, and how informal institutions compensate for the absence of formal financial infrastructure. Ultimately, this line of research could reframe human understanding of entrepreneurship not as a universal construct, but as a culturally contingent process shaped by the social architecture of indigenous communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy investigating how these factors engender human capital development, the research seeks to provide valuable insights for practitioners and scholars, contributing to the existing body of knowledge and informing effective mentorship and entrepreneurial success within the unique cultural context of Igbo entrepreneurship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study is organized into the following sections: introduction, existing literature and theory, methodology, findings, conclusion, and recommendations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eExisting literature\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe foundational works of sociology's pioneers, such as Simmel (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1950\u003c/span\u003e), Bourdieu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e), Durkheim (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1895\u003c/span\u003e), and Marx (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1867\u003c/span\u003e), have profoundly shaped human understanding of social life, extending their influence to entrepreneurship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsequently, its sociodemographic predictors have been critically examined as evident in age Brownson, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), early career start-up Watermann, et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), gender (Muntean \u0026amp; Ozkazanc-Pan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Enfield, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), marital status (Danes et al., 2016; Jaiwasal \u0026amp; Patel, 2012; Uike, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Grable, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), interests (Renninger \u0026amp; Hidi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Ainley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), a supportive social environment and perceived opportunities (Hidayat et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), high rate of unemployment and underemployment (Shojobi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ekong \u0026amp; Ekong, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), desire for a stable income stream (Anyadike et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), continuation of family business (Olawore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), social pressure or influence (Kanu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Bhukya \u0026amp; Paul, 2023) and education (Block \u0026amp; Stumpf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Kuratko \u0026amp; Hodgetts, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e), poverty, Omonijo et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe foregoing demonstrates socio-demographic predictors of entrepreneurship but the probability of same predicting human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship is yet to be ascertained in academic literature. Even among the extant literature on various aspects of Igbo entrepreneurship, such as Agozino \u0026amp; Anyanike (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), Omonijo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), Omonijo et al. (2025), Omonijo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), Anyadike et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), Obi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), Iwara et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), Anago (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), and Nnonyelu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), none investigated the specific roles of socio-demographic predictors in human capital development within the context of indigenous business mentorship and how they predict human capital development, despite their potential significance in shaping entrepreneurial outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese knowledge gaps suggest a pressing need for further research to uncover the complex interplay between socio-demographic factors and human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship to ultimately inform strategies to enhance entrepreneurial success and sustainability within the Igbo community and Africa. Given this, the present study intends to address the following key research questions:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat sociodemographic factors engender human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship among the Igbos?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow does the sociodemographic factors engender human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Igbo are known for their inclination towards entrepreneurship for wealth accumulation (Kanu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Okeke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). While not all entrepreneurs undergo human capital development, the majority do for the financial benefits it brings to business strata, unlike other forms like \"umu ahia\" (Obi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, this paper focuses on those who engaged human capital for business ownership in addressing these gaps in knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSocial Capital Theory of Human Capital Development in Indigenous Igbo Business Mentorship\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe development of human capital in entrepreneurship has been extensively explored through various theoretical lenses (Omonijo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). However, the specific application of social capital theory to human capital development within the context of indigenous Igbo business mentorship remains a relatively underexamined area of research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial capital theory, as posited by scholars such as Shane (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) and further nuanced by Thomas \u0026amp; Gupta (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), underscores the significance of social relationships and collective action in fostering entrepreneurial growth. By recognizing humans as inherently social beings who thrive through cooperation and mutual support, this theory highlights the critical role of social connections and collaborative endeavours in shaping entrepreneurial outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe social capital theory and resource-based theory of entrepreneurship are closely intertwined, as both emphasize the crucial role of resources in business establishment and operations. However, a key distinction lies in their focus: while the resource-based theory highlights tangible resources such as time and financial capital, social capital theory underscores the importance of intangible social and human capital resources. These are pivotal role of social networks in facilitating entrepreneurial opportunities, including access to valuable business transactions and relationships\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to Shane (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) and Preston (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e), merely recognizing opportunities is insufficient for entrepreneurs; they must also cultivate social networks to actualize these opportunities. Therefore, the role of social network illustrated in the concept of social capital arises from individuals' ability to consider others in their actions and cooperate with them in human capital development endeavours. This study seeks to validate this core tenet of social capital theory by examining its relevance to human capital formation within indigenous Igbo business mentorship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis connection could go a long way to explain human behaviour and motivation, and also highlight the dichotomy between competition and cooperation, as well as instrumental and intrinsic actions in entrepreneurship development. For several decades, Western perspective on competition over cooperation has dominated literature, neglecting collaboration, teamwork, and partnership prevalent in the Global South through sociodemographic factors in human capital development. This raises questions about the role of intrinsic motivations, such as personal growth and community development prevalent in the Global South which needs to be investigated in academic literature.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe investigation will explore the integration of social capital theory and human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship via sociodemographic factors in combining sociology with economics to validate or negate the conventional economic notion of 'homo economicus' (Arrow, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). Since the notion of homo economicus views individuals as self-interested utility maximizers, overlooking other social factors in human capital development as it concerns recycling of mentees into human capital development, settlement through access to startup capital, and extensive networks of clients, customers, and credit facilities is expected to be looked into to illustrate the significance of social connections and cooperation in entrepreneurial endeavours in the Global South.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile critics of social capital theory rightly highlight its limitations, particularly in addressing adverse dynamics within social networks such as exploitation, misconduct, and breaches of trust, the theory\u0026rsquo;s holistic framework remains pertinent. Accordingly, this study seeks to explore its broader implications for human capital development within the context of indigenous Igbo business mentorship, to contribute to scholarly discourse and enhance academic relevance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStudy Design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study employed an exploratory research design to investigate the socio-demographic predictors of human capital development in Igbo business mentorship. According to Saka et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), exploratory design is suitable for researching undefined problems. The design involves collecting primary or secondary data in an unstructured format and interpreting it using informal procedures (Bernd, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). By adopting an exploratory approach, the study intends to gain a nuanced understanding of the complex dynamics in this context to address the scarcity of research on this topic. This design intends to facilitate the collection of rich, contextual data and identification of patterns and themes that can inform future research. Its flexibility allowed the researcher to adapt to emerging insights and themes, ensuring that the findings were grounded in the experiences and perspectives of the respondents. By centering the voices and experiences of Igbo business leaders, this study provides a platform for their stories and insights to be heard and valued.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy Area\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Lagos Metropolis, Lagos State, Southwest Nigeria. The city is one of the fastest-growing urban centers in the developing world, with an annual growth rate of 3.2% (Shiru, 2020, as cited in Akiyode \u0026amp; Bob, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Research took place in three major markets within the city: Ladipo Auto Spare Parts, Idumota, and Alaba International. The area is predominantly populated by entrepreneurs from diverse ethnic backgrounds across Nigeria, with a significant proportion of Igbo origin.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFig. i: The Map of Lagos Metropolis\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCulled from Omonijo, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePopulation of study and sample size\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe population of this study comprises entrepreneurs who have benefited from human capital development through indigenous Igbo business mentorship programs and mentees currently undergoing training at prominent markets such as Ladipo Auto Spare Parts, Ladipo, Idumota, and Alaba International Markets. The complex and heterogeneous nature of these markets, characterized by entrepreneurs from diverse backgrounds and industries, poses significant challenges in identifying and accessing the target population. Furthermore, the lack of reliable statistics on entrepreneurs of Igbo extraction, coupled with the likelihood that not all have undergone formal human capital development, necessitates a purposive sampling approach. This technique enables the researcher to selectively identify and recruit 75 participants who meet specific criteria, ensuring a more focused and relevant sample.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethod of data collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data corpus for this study was derived from a qualitative data collection technique, specifically in-depth interviews, to elicit information from entrepreneurs who acquired human capital development in entrepreneurship through indigenous Igbo business mentorship within the locality. The in-depth interviews involved 75 entrepreneurs selected through a combination of purposive and snowball sampling techniques. The sample comprised 45 Nna Ukwu, 15 market leaders, and 15 mentees, distributed across three markets (15 Nna Ukwu, 5 market leaders, and 5 mentees per market). Nna Ukwu were defined as mentors who had never occupied a position of authority in the markets, while market leaders were defined as market leaders and they were selected among Nna Ukwu who had served or are currently serving in one position of authority within the market space. Mentees are currently undergoing human capital development which intend to usher them to the realm of entrepreneurs at the completion of mentorship. Entrepreneurs and mentees who self-identified as adopters of indigenous Igbo business mechanisms participated in the interviews. After each round, they introduced the researcher to additional entrepreneurs and market leaders, expanding the scope of the study. Each interview lasted an average of 31 minutes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn-depth interviews and key informant interviews were utilized as data collection tools, with specifically designed guides for each. One-on-one questioning allowed for insights into participants' experiences and perspectives. According to Kvale (1996), as cited in Omonijo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), interviews yield rich and detailed information about individuals' thoughts, feelings, and experiences. The interview process had two segments: demographic information and a single open-ended question to elicit participants' experiences. The researcher's marital affiliation with an Igbo family and 8-year residency in Igboland for educational purposes facilitated cultural understanding and complemented the interview data. The combination of in-depth and key informant interviews provided a comprehensive representation of the socio-demographic predictors investigated.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e To preserve the authenticity and contextual richness of the study\u0026rsquo;s discussions, recordings were transcribed shortly after data collection, capturing not only the verbal responses but also the accompanying nonverbal cues that provided valuable insights into the participants' thoughts and emotions. This meticulous approach ensured that the nuances of expression, tone, and cultural context embedded in the conversations were accurately retained, thereby enhancing the validity and depth of the qualitative data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRigor and trustworthiness of the study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAside adhering strictly to ethical principles to ensure participants' well-being and rights as stipulated by Babbie (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), the rigor was achieved through a number of other procedures, such as member checking. This was done during data collection by intermittently summarizing the respondents\u0026rsquo; submission and confirming from the respondents if it captures their opinions. This became essential to ensure that the intent and original contents of the respondent\u0026rsquo;s views were captured and preserved. Rigor was also achieved through reflexivity and prolonged contact with the respondents in order to aid understanding. Lastly, on trustworthiness, responses were also reported in vignettes to reveal contents of responses provided.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEthical considerations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo uphold ethical standards, researchers ensured that participation was voluntary, and participants were informed that the data collected would be used solely for research purposes. Confidentiality and anonymity were guaranteed to protect participants' identities. The study underwent rigorous review by senior experts in the field, who certified its compliance with necessary ethical considerations. Additionally, approval was obtained from the Covenant Health Research Ethics Committee (CHREC) to ensure adherence to established ethical guidelines and standards. The HREC protocol assigned number is NHREC/CU-HREC/11/04/2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data underwent rigorous thematic analysis, a qualitative method that meticulously identifies, codes, and categorizes patterns and themes within textual data to uncover underlying meanings and relationships. Atlas.ti, a sophisticated computer-assisted tool, played a pivotal role in facilitating the organization, storage, and analysis of the responses, thereby enhancing the efficiency and accuracy of the data analysis process. Through an iterative and inductive process, themes and subthemes emerged organically from the data, revealing nuanced insights into the experiences and perspectives of the respondents. This approach, informed by Crawford et al. (2008) as cited in Omonijo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), allowed for the identification of recurring patterns and motifs that underscored the complexities of the phenomenon under investigation. To maintain the authenticity of the respondents' voices, quotes were either presented verbatim or reframed as statements, with a notation system ('F' with subscript numbers) used to denote entrepreneurs and mentees, ensuring transparency and accountability in the representation of the data.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe socio-demographic profiles of respondents, highlighted entrepreneurs' ages, educational levels, and marital status. The results show that Nna Ukwu and key informants are predominantly middle-aged (36\u0026ndash;45 years old) with substantial business experience, yet most have limited formal education, relying instead on practical knowledge. Notably, both Nna Ukwu and key informants are predominantly married, whereas all mentees are single, suggesting that marital status and family stability may not be prerequisites for effective mentorship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMentees, all under 18, prioritized entrepreneurship over academic advancement, with a focus on acquiring skills early in life. The importance of hands-on experience and early skill development in entrepreneurship come to play with this analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe next section presents thematic analysis drawing on insights gathered from mentors, mentees, and key informants through In-Depth Interviews (IDI) and Key Informant Interviews (KII). The analysis highlights key factors that emerged from the responses, shedding light on the complex dynamics of human capital development in this context.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis unearthed seven fundamental themes. These themes are explored in greater detail in the following sections, providing a richer understanding of socio-demographic predictors of human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship. \u003cb\u003eTable i\u003c/b\u003e presents themes, subthemes, responses and percentage while \u003cb\u003eTable ii\u003c/b\u003e shows how the themes and codes were developed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRQ1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat socio-demographic factors predict human capital development in indigenous Igbo entrepreneurship?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs shown in \u003cb\u003eTable i\u003c/b\u003e, 7 themes predicted human capital development in Igbo business mentorship. Other subthemes identified appeared under each theme with the percentage of respondence. Consequently, the analysis of themes and subthemes reveals that all participants were male, single, and enrolled at an early age. Participants had varying levels of education, with 40% having no formal or low-level education, 50% some level, and 10% higher education. Key interests in human capital development included self-employment, wealth creation, pursuing business as a career, and having a regular income. Influences on participation came from parental (45%), peer group (30%), and family/community entrepreneurs (25%). In the context of unemployment, 75% had a noted response with 25% indicating No, meaning that unemployment was not a major problem when they enrolled in human capital development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable i: Themes, Subthemes, Responses and Percentage\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS/N\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThemes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubthemes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResponses /Percentage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEarly age enrolment\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOlder age enrolment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo formal education,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow level of education,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigher level of education\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInterest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSelf-employment drive,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWealth creation,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePursuance of business as a career,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo have a regular income\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo train others mentees\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e100\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInfluence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeer group\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFamily/community entrepreneur\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"BoldUnderline\" class=\"BoldUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e100\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnemployment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN/A\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCulled from Omonijo, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRQ2.\u003c/b\u003e How does socio-demographic factors predict human capital development in indigenous Igbo entrepreneurship?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith respect to research question 2, the seven themes generated were analyzed in \u003cb\u003eTable ii\u003c/b\u003e, while the subsequent section illustrated how each of them predict human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable ii. Interplay Between Themes and Codes.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS/N\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimple quotes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoding\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTheme\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch question\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIt provides an opportunity to learn business fundamentals at a tender age, free from responsibilities and distractions\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEarly age enrolment,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOlder age enrollment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow does sociodemographic factors predictor human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe nature of services to be rendered require physical energy and rough conditions which are not suitable for the female.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale, female\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAt the period of enrollment, mentees are usually very small and not mature for marriage. This gives them an advantage to remain focus in the course of human capital development.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSingle, married\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe period for basic education attainment overlaps with the period of human capital development. Because of this overlap, human capital development is considered in place of education since it doesn't require cost implications for business establishment.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe interest in participation varies from one person to another but it serves as motivation for actualizing business formation and ownership.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDifferent categories of people can influence participants, especially if those participants are idle and looking for something to do for life empowerment.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn Nigeria, employment challenges after school are common. Human capital development offers a viable alternative, providing training to start own businesses\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow level education\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePursuance of Self-employment, wealth creation, pursuit of business as a career, regular income and human capital development\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParental, peer groups, family/community-based entrepreneurs\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eJoblessness, successful uneducated entrepreneurs\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLack of employment opportunities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInterest\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInfluence\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnemployment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCulled from Omonijo, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAge\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe theme of age predicts human capital development among the youth population by the specific early age enrollment requirement. The significance of early start-ups is evident in the responses from participants, including mentees who are currently under mentorship, who also shared compelling stories of initiating human capital development at a young age. According to the mentors, \u003cem\u003eit provides an opportunity to learn business fundamentals at a tender age, free from responsibilities and distractions F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e while the subset of key informants stated that it enables mentees to graduate from mentorship and establish businesses early in life. They also emphasized the fact that when a business is established, it needs time to grow. This further supports early age engagement to enable mentees to navigate all the stages involved in business before getting old. The subset of the mentees posit that it allows for the opportunity to nurture the business from an early stage, before taking on additional life responsibilities such as marriage. One mentor aptly summarized this sentiment: \u003cem\u003e'I, like many of my peers, began my journey in indigenous Igbo business mentorship at the tender age of 12 and it helped us to remain focus through the period of training\u003c/em\u003e' \u003cem\u003e(F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe views of respondents collectively suggest that early-age enrollment is the most beneficial option for mentees, offering opportunities that may not be as readily available or advantageous for older individuals seeking human capital development. While older persons can participate in the programme, their involvement is limited by factors like marriage and the nature of mentorship services, which often cater to younger populations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eGender\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender emerged a significant theme, with all participants being male, suggesting one gender participation. Divergent reasons were presented on this. These include the barrier of male-dominated mentors\u0026rsquo; syndrome which is strongly connected to the residency requirement which mandates mentees to reside with mentors and their families for an extended period. One of the mentors stated that, \u003cem\u003ethe scheme is more suitable for male and not female due to the nature of assignments which require physical energy which are not suitable for the female (F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e. The residency requirement according to the subset of the key informants poses difficulties for female participation in a male dominated mentorship programme due to potential marital tensions and accusations of impropriety. Aside that, another key informant presented a view similar to the view of the mentor earlier mentioned above that, \u003cem\u003ecultural norms in Igbo land tend to steer females towards education rather than business mentorship F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e, resulting in a disparity in participation. Another subset of the mentors noted that, \u003cem\u003ein Igbo culture, education is often viewed as the primary inheritance a father can give to his daughter, as she is expected to marry into another family and relinquish her ties to her natal family(F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e).\u003c/em\u003e Apart from that, one of the mentees had this to says: \u003cem\u003eThe demanding nature of business, which requires perseverance, tiredness and sleeping in shop at night, may be a barrier for many females (F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cem\u003e).\u003c/em\u003e The nature of business in Ladipo and Alaba international markets, which involves heavy spare parts or equipment, presents challenges for female participants. This supports the respondent's view on carrying heavy loads that is not suitable for women.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMarital Status\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA notable trend emerged within the theme of marital status, as all participants reported being single during their enrollment in human capital development and remained single until the end of the training. Similarly, the mentees who are currently undergoing training are also all single. Divergent views were also presented on this theme. A subset of mentors attributed the trend to the participants' youthfulness at the stage of enrollment when they are not yet mature enough for marriage. One of them stated that, \u003cem\u003eat the period of enrollment, mentees are usually very small and not expected to get married F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e. In another development, a subset of the key informants stated that \u003cem\u003ethose who are mature for marriage opt to postpone marriage until after establishing their businesses, recognizing the extensive social, economic, emotional, and financial commitments associated with marriage and child-rearing F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e. This means that mentees will not be able to fulfil these obligations in the course of human capital development. Moreover, one of the key informants underscored the impossibility of transferring the financial implications of marriage and family responsibilities to the mentor, who is primarily focused on nurturing the mentee's entrepreneurial skills and development. One of them stated that \u003cem\u003eat the period of enrollment, mentees are usually very small and not mature for marriage. This gives them an advantage to remain focus in the course of human capital development\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003eF3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e. A subset of mentees attributed their single status to the residency requirement of the business mentorship, which prohibits them from bringing their families to reside with their mentors. One of them stated that \u003cem\u003eour primary focus during the mentorship is on business training, so as to be able to prioritize professional development over personal life F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e4.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEducation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs regards the theme on education, a diverse range of educational backgrounds among participants merged from the narratives. Some participants had no formal education, while others had completed primary and secondary school education but only one holds higher degree certificate but he acquire the degree after he completed human capital development and established his business. This variation demonstrates the inclusive nature of Igbo human capital development in entrepreneurship, which accommodates individuals from different educational backgrounds. It suggests that participation in mentorship is not restricted by educational attainment, but rather by a willingness to learn and engage in entrepreneurial activities. One of the mentors stated that \u003cem\u003ethe period for basic education attainment overlaps with the period of human capital development. Because of this overlap, human capital development is considered in place of education since it doesn't require cost implications for business establishment F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmong those who did not have formal education, it was gathered from the subset of mentors that entrepreneurial aspirations informed their enrolment while the subset of the key informant averred that lack of education sponsorship informed participation among primary and secondary school holders. In contrast to the mentioned case, some other mentors in the study had completed primary school education but did not proceed to secondary school due to a lack of interest in formal education. One of them said \u003cem\u003eI stopped education at the secondary school level because of lack of interest in education F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e. This categoryy of respondents believed they had already achieved success in their business endeavours and need not purse education anymore. One of them stated: \u003cem\u003eAttending school holds no significance for me anymore. Education is now reserved for my children F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e.The view of the subset of mentees is quite different, according to them, education is not prioritized due to the high rate of unemployment in Nigeria. Though some of them completed secondary school education but the fear of unemployment prevented them from proceeding to the higher institution. One of them stated that \u003cem\u003ein Nigeria, education is increasingly perceived as less significant due to the soaring rates of unemployment. Consequently, I question the necessity of formal education when I can acquire business skills and resources to establish my own ventures that offer independence and financial stabilityF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is important to note that the period for basic education intersect the period of learning the rudimentary of business, business formation and nurture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eInterest\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe theme, interest served as a significant entry point into business mentorship but via four distinct ways. A subset of the key informant stated that \u003cem\u003ethe interest in participation varies from one person to another but it serves as motivation for actualizing business formation and ownership F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e. The first group consisted of respondents who demonstrated a strong inclination toward \u003cb\u003eself-employment\u003c/b\u003e. Rather than pursuing conventional white-collar careers, these individuals were motivated by a desire for self-reliance and personal independence. To achieve this, they chose to participate in indigenous Igbo business mentorship programs, viewing them as a practical pathway to entrepreneurial success. According to one of them: m\u003cem\u003ey participation in human capital development in business mentorship lies in my determination to establish my own occupation and become self-sufficient, without relying on others for financial support. By undergoing this training and securing the necessary funds, I aim to pave the way for a stable livelihood for myself and my family members F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eContrary to the aforementioned perspective, another subset associated their interest to \u003cb\u003ewealth creation\u003c/b\u003e. For these individuals, the primary goal was not merely self-employment but rather the accumulation of wealth and financial prosperity. According to one of them: t\u003cem\u003ehe aspiration for wealth was the driving force behind my participation in human capital development F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e. In Igbo culture, there is a strong belief that wealth is achievable through diligence and dedication to business endeavours. The perspective of the third category of respondents revolves around the realm of \u003cb\u003etraining prospective entrepreneurs to reduce high rate of unemployment\u003c/b\u003e. These individuals expressed a keen interest in establishing their businesses, not just for personal gain, but also to create a platform for training prospective entrepreneurs. According to one of them\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMy goal is to acquire the necessary training and resources to establish my own business, not only to improve my circumstances but also to serve as a model for others in recycling mentees into human capital development\u003c/em\u003e while another one stated that \u003cem\u003eby setting up my own business, I aim to create opportunities for employment and economic empowerment within my community F\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e4\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e. Ultimately, I envision a ripple effect where I can train and empower others to become entrepreneurs, thereby contributing to the reduction of unemployment and poverty across Nigeria. The fourth category of subset expressed \u003cb\u003ea distinct interest in earning a regular income through business endeavours\u003c/b\u003e. Unlike those primarily motivated by the desire for self-employment, or the establishment of platforms for human capital development, this subset emphasized the importance of generating consistent income streams from their entrepreneurial ventures. Their motivation stemmed from a pragmatic approach to financial stability and economic security, recognizing entrepreneurship as a viable means of achieving regular income. For these participants, the prospect of earning a reliable income through business ownership outweighed other considerations, highlighting a practical orientation towards entrepreneurship as a means of livelihood. The fifth subset of participants explored human capital development \u003cb\u003eas a foundation for initiating intergenerational family businesses\u003c/b\u003e. These individuals are driven by a desire to build enduring business empires that span multiple generations. One participant passionately stated: \u003cem\u003eI don\u0026rsquo;t want my father\u0026rsquo;s name to die in business\u003c/em\u003e. This reflects a deep commitment to preserving family legacy and ensuring that the entrepreneurial spirit continues across generations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eInfluence\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe theme of influence as a critical predictor extends beyond parental guidance to peer group pressure and family/community-based entrepreneurs. This broader spectrum of influence shows the complex interplay of social dynamics and cultural factors in shaping individual career choices. Moreover, it highlights the multifaceted nature of influence within the socio-cultural context of Igbo entrepreneurship, where community values and peer interactions play significant roles alongside family guidance. The views presented by the subset of respondents whose parents influenced their participation in human capital development in business mentorship are summed up: \u003cem\u003eOur parents played a pivotal role in influencing in our participation in human capital developmenti. They not only encouraged us but also actively negotiated with our \"Nna Ukwu,\" to ensure favourable terms and conditions for engagement. And tthroughout the training process, our parents remained engaged, receiving updates on our training and offering valuable advice and guidanceF\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e. Although one of the mentors said that different categories of people can influence participants, especially if those participants are idle and looking for something to do for life empowerment but the level of parental involvement highlights the importance of family support in career decisions and demonstrates the significance of intergenerational knowledge transfer within Igbo communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAside that, the view of another subset associated their participation to the influence of peer groups. Such included friends who advised them to engage in human capital instead of being idle in the village. And lastly, another subset illustrated the role of family/community-based entrepreneurs, particularly youth without familial ties to business, to pursue entrepreneurial opportunities rather than remaining idle.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eUnemployment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough, unemployment was discussed in the theme, but not as a major theme as it appears in this section. In the present context the significance of unemployment as a predictor was more pronounced among the mentees compared to the Nna Ukwu and market leaders. This discrepancy may be attributed to the prevailing job market conditions at the time of enrolment of these different categories of respondents. Unlike the mentors and market leaders who enrolled in human capital development when job opportunities were more abundant, the current high level of unemployment in Nigeria served as a driving factor for mentees seeking alternative avenues for economic empowerment. According to one of the mentees:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe challenges of securing employment after completing school in Nigeria have become increasingly prevalent. Consequently, participating in human capital development offers a viable alternative, providing individuals with training and support to establish their own businesses.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis avenue not only ensures a source of income to meet personal and family needs but also mitigates the risk of financial instability and potential hardship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDiscussion of Findings\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the data collected and analyzed, this study findings affirm existing literature on the sociodemographic predictors of entrepreneurship. Each identified factor, except education, proves relevant to human capital development within the context of indigenous Igbo business mentorship. This alignment may be attributed to the structured pathway through which the mentorship scheme facilitates human capital development and entrepreneurial engagement. Specifically, the study identifies age as a pivotal predictor of human capital development within indigenous Igbo business mentorship. This relationship is particularly evident in the significance of early-age entrepreneurial engagement, as conceptualized through Career Construction Theory (Watermann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The findings underscore the strategic advantage of early start-ups, revealing three key benefits associated with beginning entrepreneurial journeys at a young age.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst, early engagement provides mentees with the opportunity to acquire foundational business knowledge during a formative period, largely unencumbered by adult responsibilities and social distractions. This cognitive and experiential freedom fosters deeper learning and skill internalization. Second, it enables participants to complete mentorship programmes and transition into business ownership earlier in life, thereby extending the duration of entrepreneurial practice and potential for long-term growth. Third, starting early allows individuals to nurture and stabilize their ventures before encountering life-stage commitments such as marriage, which may introduce competing demands on time, energy, and financial resources.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese insights not only reinforce the value of youth entrepreneurship but also highlight the intersection between life-course timing and human capital formation. By engaging in mentorship prior to major life transitions, participants have demonstrated a forward-looking approach to economic empowerment. The study thus contributes to a nuanced understanding of how age-related factors shape entrepreneurial trajectories within culturally embedded mentorship systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study identifies gender as a significant predictor of human capital development within business mentorship among indigenous Igbo entrepreneurs, and thereby highlights a predominance of single individuals in business skill acquisition. This finding aligns with Fuller et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), who concluded that gender-based exclusion remains a persistent feature of apprenticeship programmes. However, it contrasts with the conclusions of Adebisi \u0026amp; Akinsooto (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), Brownson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) and Dawa, et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), whose research suggests that apprenticeship participation tends to favour females over males. This divergence contributes fresh insights to the existing body of entrepreneurship literature.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study\u0026rsquo;s findings on marital status reveal that single individuals exhibit a greater propensity for business skill acquisition compared to their married counterparts. This trend appears to be shaped by the structural requirement within mentorship programmes that participants remain unmarried throughout the training period, a condition that inherently favours single individuals. This aligns with existing scholarship (Jaiwasal \u0026amp; Patel, 2012; Uike, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), which associates entrepreneurial engagement with unmarried status, suggesting that the absence of marital obligations enables individuals to allocate more cognitive, emotional, and temporal resources to entrepreneurial development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBeyond logistical convenience, the unmarried status may also reflect a broader socio-cultural dynamic in which youth and autonomy are valorized within entrepreneurial ecosystems. By entering apprenticeship programmes at a younger age and prior to marriage, participants demonstrate not only strategic timing but also a proactive orientation toward human capital accumulation. This behaviour underscores the intersection of life-course theory and entrepreneurship, where early-stage decisions, such as delaying marriage, can significantly influence long-term economic trajectories.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoreover, the findings invite a re-examination of mentorship structures that inadvertently privilege certain demographic profiles. If marital status becomes a gatekeeping criterion, it raises questions about inclusivity and the potential marginalization of married individuals, particularly women, whose entrepreneurial aspirations may be constrained by cultural expectations. Thus, the study contributes to a more layered understanding of how personal life circumstances intersect with institutional frameworks to shape access to entrepreneurial opportunities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings on education as a factor reveal a surprising trend: the majority of respondents possessed low levels of formal education, contradicting the conventional wisdom that education is essential for entrepreneurial success (Block \u0026amp; Stumpf, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Kuratko \u0026amp; Hodgetts, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). Although education is widely recognized as a key indicator of human development, this study found no significant correlation between educational attainment and entrepreneurial achievement. Instead, respondents tended to prioritize business ventures over formal schooling, challenging prevailing literature that suggests a positive relationship between education and entrepreneurship (Brownson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Storey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis divergence underscores the existence of alternative pathways to entrepreneurship, particularly through practical skill development in contexts where formal education may be inaccessible or deprioritized. In environments where structural conditions result in high educational attainment without corresponding success outcomes, and where many successful entrepreneurs lack formal education (Obi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), education may appear less relevant. Such realities may influence younger generations to value tangible business success over academic credentials that do not guarantee economic mobility.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings resonate with Schumpeter\u0026rsquo;s seminal work, The Theory of Economic Development (1934), which introduced the concept of the entrepreneur as an agent of \u003cem\u003ecreative destruction\u003c/em\u003e. Schumpeter argued that economic development is driven by the dismantling of outdated systems and the emergence of innovative structures through entrepreneurial activity. In this context, the traditional model of education that fails to produce employment or economic advancement is being replaced by entrepreneurial-driven human capital development, an embodiment of Schumpeter\u0026rsquo;s vision of transformative economic progress.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study revealed a strong interest in human capital development through indigenous Igbo business mentorship, fueled by a range of motivations. These included the pursuit of self-employment, aspirations for wealth creation, and the training of future entrepreneurs as a strategy to combat high unemployment rates. Participants also expressed a distinct desire to secure consistent income through business ventures, as well as to lay the groundwork for intergenerational family enterprises. These motivations reflect and reinforce existing literature across multiple domains. They correspond with efforts to address high unemployment (Cuadros et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), the preservation of family enterprises (Aldrich \u0026amp; Cliff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Al-Qadasi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and psychological frameworks surrounding wealth creation (Oteh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, they align with African cultural principles of reciprocity and communalism, such as the concept of ubuntu (Omonijo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). The findings also echo Schumpeter\u0026rsquo;s (1934) portrayal of entrepreneurs as social leaders, resonating with the perspectives of Diekmann (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) and Sugant (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), while offering a nuanced complement, and at times contrast, to classical profit-maximization theories (Friedman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1976\u003c/span\u003e; Smith, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1776\u003c/span\u003e; Jensen \u0026amp; Meckling, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1976\u003c/span\u003e; Drucker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1954\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, the study underscores the delicate balance between social impact and financial gain, emphasizing the role of consistent income in ensuring financial stability (Lecunna, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Willis et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), and highlighting the influence of sociological factors in shaping entrepreneurial career paths (Zisser et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study found that parents, family and community entrepreneurs, as well as peer groups, exert influence on human capital development in indigenous Igbo business mentorship. This aligns with existing literature on the influence of these categories of people on entrepreneurship participation (Obunike, 2016; Kocak, et al., 2021; Schellenberg, et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Parental influence is very crucial in promoting children career development. In this study, there exists a strong connectivity between parental influence and children career which is in tune with Odikpo \u0026amp; Ejide, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In developing countries, the tradition of orientating children into art/craft occupations of parents has persisted in-spite of the influence of Westernisation and formal education. In such careers, factors such as hereditary and gender are actively engaged to promote human capital development. The case of indigenous Igbo business mentoring is being confirmed with respondents\u0026rsquo; submission and it supports the findings of Obunike, (2016) on parental orientation of children to the choice of their careers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study's findings on unemployment as a factor in participation in human capital development through business mentorship align with Ali et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), which suggests that unemployment motivates individuals to seek alternative livelihoods. Despite government efforts, unemployment persists, particularly in developing countries like Ghana and Nigeria. In Nigeria, human capital development in indigenous business mentorship emerges as a viable option, driven by necessity or 'push' factors (Reynolds, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Webb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Amor\u0026oacute;s, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsequently, the study underscores the pivotal role of the informal sector, particularly human capital development through indigenous Igbo business mentorship, in addressing unemployment. In contrast to formal government programmes, indigenous entrepreneurial initiatives present alternative pathways for employment creation and economic empowerment. These informal networks facilitate access to mentorship, skill acquisition, and business opportunities, enabling aspiring entrepreneurs to generate income and establish sustainable livelihoods. This finding reinforces a central tenet of social capital theory which says that social networks Ruef, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) emerge from individuals\u0026rsquo; capacity to engage others in cooperative action, especially in endeavours related to human capital development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study concludes that socio-demographic factors, namely age, gender, marital status, interest, influence, and unemployment, serve as key predictors of human capital development within indigenous Igbo business mentorship. The sole exception is formal education, which was found to be irrelevant in the context of entrepreneurial mentorship. This outcome is attributed to the high rate of unemployment among school graduates and the remarkable success of uneducated entrepreneurs within the Igbo community. These findings suggest that education without employment is losing relevance, while lifelong empowerment through mentorship proves more impactful, underscoring the limited role of formal education in this setting. Instead, the structured nature of the mentorship scheme fosters human capital formation and entrepreneurial engagement through experiential learning and strong social networks. These findings reinforce the emerging framework of the sociology of entrepreneurship, which emphasizes the critical role of social and relational dynamics in entrepreneurial activity. The study reveals that entrepreneurial motivation extends beyond economic incentives, encompassing social drivers that challenge the dominant Western-centric paradigm, traditionally rooted in individualism, profit maximization, and cultural uniformity. In contrast, this research presents an alternative narrative, highlighting innovative and socially embedded entrepreneurial models originating from Africa. Often marginalized in global discourse, these models possess the potential to reshape prevailing understandings of entrepreneurship and contribute meaningfully to a more inclusive and diversified global entrepreneurial landscape.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eRecommendations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the findings, the study recommends the following:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col style=\"list-style-type:lower-alpha;\"\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eInclusion of older persons in human capital development programes within indigenous Igbo business mentorship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eRedesigning the programme to accommodate female and married participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eEncouraging and further promoting parental, peer, and community-based entrepreneurship influences on participation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eSupporting and encouraging diverse motivations for participation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntegrating formal education to enhance business operations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese recommendations aim to improve the effectiveness and inclusivity of the indigenous Igbo business mentorship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI wish to express my sincere gratitude to my brother, Dr. Ademola Tosin Ojo, for his generous financial support throughout the course of this discourse. His contribution was instrumental to the successful completion of this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor\u0026rsquo;s Contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis paper was drawn from my PhD thesis and I don\u0026rsquo;t have any coauthor.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo external funding was received for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author declares as follows\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis publication was drawn from the author\u0026apos;s unpublished PhD thesis. Ethical approval for the study protocol was obtained from the Covenant Health Research Ethics Committee (CHREC), Ota, Southwest Nigeria, in accordance with established ethical guidelines and standards. The assigned protocol number is NHREC/CU-HREC/11/04/2023. Approval was granted for the period spanning 21\u003csup\u003est\u003c/sup\u003e April 2023 to 20\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e April 2024, during which data collection was conducted.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants, including mentees under the age of 18, provided informed consent prior to their involvement in the study. Consent for minors was obtained from their mentors who served as their biological parents in the course of mentorship. This is Africa, where our culture stipulated so and it is quite different from the culture of the Global North. \u0026nbsp;Ethical standards and research protocols were rigorously observed throughout the study to ensure compliance with institutional and international guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003cp\u003eAdebisi, T. A and Akinsooto, T. A. (2016). Women Apprenticeship: A Panacea to Unemployment among Women in Nigeria. British Journal of Education, Society \u0026amp; Behavioural Science, 12(1): 1-7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAinley M. (2006). Connecting with learning: Motivation, affect and cognition in interest processes. Educational Psychological Review, 18: 391\u0026ndash;405. doi: 10.1007/s10648-006- 9033-0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAjide, F. M., \u0026amp; Soyemi, K. a. 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S \u0026amp; Swindall, T. (2019). Economic growth through entrepreneurship: Determinants of self‐employed income across regional economies. Pap Reg Sci.; 99:73\u0026ndash;95.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eZisser, M.R., Johnson, S.L., Freeman, M.A. \u0026amp; Staudenmaier, P.J. (2019). The relationship between entrepreneurial intent, gender and personality, Gender in Management, 34(8), 665-684. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-08-2018-0105\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-global-society","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Global Society](https://www.springer.com/journal/44282)","snPcode":"44282","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44282/3","title":"Discover Global Society","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Socio-demographic, predictors, human capital development, indigenous Igbo business mentorship","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7368038/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7368038/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explores the sociodemographic predictors of human capital development within the framework of indigenous Igbo business mentorship, addressing a phenomenon that has received limited scholarly attention in the past and in recent times. Employing a qualitative methodology and utilizing purposive and snowball sampling techniques, the research collected rich, contextual data from 75 entrepreneurs who developed their human capital through mentorship and subsequently established businesses in three major Lagos markets: Ladipo Auto Spare Parts, Idumota, and Alaba International in Lagos metropolis, Nigeria. The findings reveal a complex interplay between sociodemographic factors and human capital development, offering a nuanced understanding of the critical role indigenous mentorship plays in shaping entrepreneurial trajectories. The study reinforces social capital theory by highlighting the power of social networks in entrepreneurial development, and underscores the importance of early-age entrepreneurial engagement, as conceptualized through career construction theory. It also draws on the theory of economic development, portraying the entrepreneur as an agent of creative destruction, dismantling outdated educational systems and fostering innovative structures through entrepreneurial activity. Ultimately, the study challenges the dominant Western narrative of entrepreneurial individualism, emphasizing the value of social network and communal support systems in driving entrepreneurial success. 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