Combating ectoparasites in Togolese laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus): Exploring diversity, prevalence and environmental determinant

Combating ectoparasites in Togolese laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus): Exploring diversity, prevalence and environmental determinant | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Combating ectoparasites in Togolese laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus): Exploring diversity, prevalence and environmental determinant Guénnolé VINAKPON, Komi AGBOKA, Safiou Bienvenu ADEHAN, Serge Edgid Paulin MENSAH, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5521099/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Jun, 2025 Read the published version in Tropical Animal Health and Production → Version 1 posted 2 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Ectoparasites are pests of animals and poultry in particular. The presence of ectoparasites in birds affects their productivity and facilitates the transmission of pathogenic agents. This study aimed to explore the diversity of ectoparasites in laying hens, evaluate their prevalence, and analyse the environmental factors promoting the proliferation of ectoparasites. The study was conducted in three prefectures of the Maritime Region of Togo. It covered ninety (90) modern laying hen farms. A total of 576 laying hens were randomly sampled in the three prefectures. Ectoparasites were collected by freezing, direct ectoparasite sampling, leg scratching, and the weight of infested and non-infested birds. Ten (10) species of ectoparasites were identified, with an average infestation rate of 73.26%. The prevalence of acarid (59.54%) and louse (37.21%) parasitism was significantly higher (P<0.0001) than the prevalence of flea (03.25%) parasitism. The variation in the prevalence rate of each ectoparasite species was significantly (P<0.0001) related to the locality. Dermanyssus gallinae and Menacanthus stamineus were the most prevalent species, with 100% and 70.23% prevalence rates, respectively. The duration of brood renewal was the most important factor (P<0.0001) favors the proliferation of ectoparasites. Laying hens are more infested by Dermanyssus gallinae and Menacanthus stamineus, and the duration of brood renewal is the most important factor in the proliferation of ectoparasites. Most ectoparasites proliferate when the temperature in poultry houses is above 28°C and the humidity is above 47%. To effectively combat the adverse effects of these ectoparasites, research should focus on the vector-borne diseases they transmit to poultry. poultry ectoparasite environmental determinants prevalence maritime Region of Togo Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Introduction Consumption of poultry products has increased by 5.8% over the past decades in developing countries, with consumption rates exceeding population growth (FAO, 2004). Poultry products have become one of the main sources of human protein worldwide (Radfar et al., 2012). However, modern poultry production is considered a high-input, meat and egg production system. This type of farming faces several challenges that hamper its profitability. Most rural farmers raise poultry outdoors and are often confronted with a number ofproblems such as diseases, parasitic infestations, low levels of animal health and poor farming practices (Sabuni et al., 2010). Avian ectoparasites, including arthropods, play a vital role in the poultry industry through their influence on health, animal welfare and egg quality (Horn et al., 2017). These ectoparasites are temporary or permanent skin hosts for nourishment (skin, blood, lymph and skin appendages), warmth and protection. Several groups of ectoparasites can attack birds and are classified into two main groups (Horn et al., 2017). According to this author, the first group of ectoparasites represents parasites that feed solely on the integumentary surface and epithelial attachments, such as feathers or dead skin cells. Rezende et al. (2013) report that the second group of ectoparasites can have a greater impact, through spoliation (blood or lymph), irritation and greater economic losses, and infestation by these avian ectoparasites in livestock, such as in laying hens on a poultry farm, can spread rapidly (Horn et al., 2017). As ectoparasites, mites cause significant economic losses for the poultry industry, particularly in laying hen farms (Abdelfattah et al., 2018). Feather mites are generally transmitted by direct physical contact between birds of the same species (Mironov and Dabert, 1999; Dabert, 2004), and these feather mites constitute an important group of ectoparasites, present in all orders of birds worldwide (Gaud and Atyeo, 1996; Mironov and Proctor, 2008). Feather mites of the Megninia Berlese genus are present in various genera and species of poultry. For example, Megninia ginglymura (Mégnin) (Analgidae) is responsible for a drop in egg production of up to 20%, or even the death of poultry (Sparagano et al., 2009). According to Hernandez et al. (2007), infestation of laying hens by Megninia ginglymura in different body regions showed that the highest densities were observed on the back and tail, while the lowest densities were observed on the wings and chest. But this mite lives in association with the remaining feathers on the laying hen's body and attacks the feathers on the back, thorax and uropygium, leaving these areas cut and rarefied. In addition, the mite's saliva can cause lesions, allergic reactions, heavy scabbing, stress, crusting and secondary bacterial infections (Tucci et al., 2005). Chicken body lice ( Menacanthus stramineus ) and the poultry mite ( Ornithonyssus sylviarum) are the two most important chicken ectoparasites encountered in North America (Mullens et al., 2010; Sparagano et al., 2014). In addition, Dermanyssus gallinae has been a widespread mite worldwide and is a major problem in commercial poultry production, mainly in laying hens (Sokol et al.,2019). Sparagano et al. (2009) reported D. gallinae invasions in different farming systems: battery cages, poultry houses, free-range, backyard and organic farming. Losses caused by the invasion of Dermanyssus gallinae and the costs of eradication are high (Sokol et al.,2019). Research by Van Emous (2005) estimated the cost of Dermanyssus gallinae to the European egg industry at €130 million per year. These parasites directly affect the health of birds, causing irritation, discomfort, tissue lesions, haemorrhaging, toxicosis, allergies and dermatitis which, depending on the level of infestation, reduce meat and egg production and affect the quality of meat (Ruff, 1999). In addition, poultry are definitive hosts, paratenic or for ectoparasites such as mites, lice, ticks, fleas and flies (Edosomwan and Amadasun, 2008). These ectoparasites are also vectors for transmission of other poultry diseases such as pasteurellosis, fowlpox, Newcastle disease, chlamydiosis and Salmonella (Nnadi and George, 2010). Parasites persist from generation to generation, and any animal or plant species can be infested by a parasite at any stage of its life cycle, regardless of its lifestyle and geographical distribution (Filippi, 2013). The most frequent transmission of parasites can occur via various vectors in the entomofauna of poultry production units, including louse flies, black flies, biting midges and mosquitoes. Previous studies in the Iraqi province of AlDiwaniyah, northern Benin and Bangladesh have focused on ectoparasites of local chickens, guinea fowl and turkeys (Alshaibani et al., 2018; Salifou et al., 2008; and Shantal et al., 2006). However, only a few studies have focused on the prevalence of mites and their impact on laying hen production facilities (Abdelfattah et al., 2018). In Togo, the most recent studies have focused on feeding, nutrition and probiotics in poultry (Tona et al., 2022; Attivi et al., 2022). However, very few studies have documented ectoparasites in laying hens. The present study aims to improve knowledge of the diversity of ectoparasites in laying hens, their prevalence and the factors favoring their proliferation, to update available data on poultry health in modern poultry farming and to explore control tools Materials and methods Study Area The study was conducted in Togo, a West African country located between 6° and 11° North latitude and 0° and 12° East longitude. Togo is divided into five regions, including the Maritime region. The Maritime region is situated in the southern part of Togo, along the Atlantic Ocean (Sodjinou et al., 2022). This region is bounded to the north by the Plateaux region, to the west by the Republic of Ghana, to the east by the Republic of Benin, and to the south by the Atlantic Ocean. It extends between 6°00' and 6°50' North latitude and 0°25' and 2°00' East longitude (Figure 1). The region covers an area of 6,395 km², which is 11.30% of the national territory (Sodjinou et al., 2022). This region is home to the largest poultry farms, with a subequatorial climate characterised by a long rainy season from March to July (maximum of 1,200 mm in June) and a short rainy season from September to November (maximum of 1,000 mm in October). These two rainy seasons are interrupted by a long dry season and a short dry season, resulting in a bimodal rainfall pattern with two unequally high maxima or minima. The minimum rainfall for the two seasons is 184.4 mm and 6.9 mm, respectively. The average annual temperature is approximately 27.5°C, with a maximum of around 35.1°C during the dry season. Methods Qualitative Data Collection The survey was conducted over a period of six (6) months, from December 2022 to May 2023. It covers the localities of Golf, Vo, and Ave. Ninety (90) modern layer poultry farms were identified. A questionnaire on the practices of biosecurity rules in the control of ectoparasites, the age of the buildings, and the duration of litter renewal was administered to the layer poultry farmers through face-to-face interviews. The Epicollect5 platform was used to collect the data. The sample size of the poultry farmers interviewed was determined using the formula of (Anderson et al., 2005). Where n = sample size, N = size of the parent population P = Proportion (50%), e: Margin of error (5%), 95% confidence interval and Zα/2 = 1.96. Ectoparasites in Laying Hens A total of 576 Isa Brown laying hens were examined in three prefectures. This number was derived from ninety (90) Isa Brown layer farms equipped with an aviary. Each house contained an average of 500 laying hens. In each farm, the chosen house contained 26-week-old to 46-week-old birds selected at random, from which an average of 6 hens were chosen and examined. Each bird was carefully examined for the presence of insects or mites. The recovery of ectoparasites was facilitated using a handheld magnifier while separating the feathers and gently brushing the wings with a fine, soft brush (Salifou et al., 2008). A white cloth was used to collect the fallen ectoparasites. The head, eyelids, eyes, neck, chest, dorsal line, hips, and legs of the hens were also examined. A clinical observation was made on the general condition of the infested birds using the method described by Salifou et al. (2008). The hens were also examined at night to avoid omitting any nocturnal ectoparasites. All recovered ectoparasites were carefully transferred into pre-labelled tubes containing 70% alcohol for laboratory identification using an entomological identification key. Similarly, the bare areas of the body and legs of the hens, particularly the wounded parts, were scraped and soaked in 70% ethanol for the identification of mange mites. The ectoparasites attached to the skin of the hens were removed with forceps, and the mite and leg areas were deeply scratched with a scalpel and soaked in 1% acetic glycerine. For every collection of ectoparasites, the temperature and humidity inside the laying hen house were measured using the climate dada logger: FEKU thermometer-hygrometer (reference HT6C, France). Photo1 1 and 2 show the techniques used to test the laying hens for leg mites and feather ectoparasites. Preservation and Identification Techniques for Ectoparasites The ectoparasites were first boiled in a 10% potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution for 15 minutes, dehydrated in a graded series of alcohol, in xylene, and then mounted in Canada balsam. The permanent slide preparations were observed under a high-power binocular stereomicroscope at 40x magnification. The ectoparasite species were identified based on the morphological characteristics described by (Soulsby, 1982; Baker, 1999 and Walker, 1994). Data processing Individual Prevalence (pi) and Collective Prevalence (Pg) of Ectoparasites in Laying Hens The following formulae were used to compute the individual prevalence (Pi) and collective prevalence (Pg) of infested laying hens. This allowed for the determination of the individual-level and flock-level prevalence of the ectoparasite infestations in the studied laying hen populations. The individual prevalence (Pi) provided insights into the proportion of individual hens affected, while the collective prevalence (Pg) indicated the extent of ectoparasite occurrence across the sampled farms The prevalence data were first used to calculate the means and standard deviations for each species of ectoparasite. Pairwise Wilcoxon rank-sum tests were then used to determine the significance of the variance for each ectoparasite species present in each locality. Subsequently, the Student's t-test at a 5% threshold was used to compare the average weights of infested and non-infested hens, and to determine the difference in prevalence rates between ectoparasite species in the litter. Finally, the chi-square test with a significance defined at the 5% level was used to compare the prevalence rates by locality. The data were analysed using the R software version 4.3.2. Results Biosecurity Practices in Laying Hen Farming for Ectoparasite Control Our analysis showed that 94.75% of farmers do not treat the wood shavings before use, compared to 5.25% (Fig. 2a). The majority of farmers do not consider the treatment of wood shavings before use. Untreated wood shavings can accelerate the proliferation and multiplication of insects and mites. Additionally, 73.65% of farmers do not perform a sanitary break in the building after cleaning, compared to 26.35% (Fig. 2b). We conclude that the majority of laying hen farmers neglect the biosecurity practice of performing a sanitary break in the rearing buildings. A sanitary break is important for the health of poultry, as this practice cleans the poultry house and destroys any ectoparasites present. Furthermore, 63.28% of farmers do not use acaricides or insecticides, compared to 36.72% (Fig. 2c). Laying hen farmers are reluctant to use chemical products, which may contribute to the proliferation of mites. Moreover, our analysis shows that 67.44% of laying hen farmers are not satisfied with the efficacy of these products, compared to 32.56% (Fig. 2d). The negative effects of acaricides and insecticides on ectoparasites reported by laying hen farmers may be related to several factors. Few laying hen farmers implement biosecurity practices for ectoparasite prevention through the use of acaricides or insecticides, as the majority are reluctant and do not believe in the efficacy of these products. Prevalence of Ectoparasite The total number of individuals examined across the three localities was 576, with 422 individuals identified as infested (Table 1). The comparison of prevalence rates using the pairwise Wilcoxon test between pairs of localities (Ave-Golf, Ave-Vo, Golf-Vo) highlights a significant difference (P<0.0001) between the prevalence rates for each pair of localities. The locality of Vo exhibits the highest prevalence (89.65%) of infestation among the localities studied. The localities of Ave and Golf have a prevalence of 72.72% and 45.92% respectively. It appears that the infestation of laying hens varies from one locality to another. the prevalence of ectoparasites would depend on the environmental factors or biosecurity measures applied in each locality. Table1: Individual prevalence of ectoparasites by locality Locality Exanimated number Number infested Prevalence (%) Locality Exanimated number Number infested Prevalence (%) Vo 232 208 89,65 Ave 209 152 72,72 Golf 135 62 45,92 Total 576 422 73,26 Individual Prevalence of Different Ectoparasite Species in the Study Localities The examination of the hens identified (ten 10 ectoparasite species, divided into three categories (mites, lice, and fleas)) (Fig.3.a). The analysis reveals that the laying hens were most infested by Dermanyssus gallinae (27.73%) and Menacanthus stamineus (24.89%). Furthermore, the laying hens are more infested by mites (59.54%) and lice (37.21%) than by fleas, with a significant difference (p<0.0001). With this result, the laying hens are susceptible to Dermanyssus gallinae and Menacanthus stamineus , belonging to the mites and lice categories, respectively (Fig.3.b). Individual prevalence of categories in the study localities Collective Prevalence of Mite Species and Insect Species Dermanyssus gallinae is the most widespread in the Vo, Ave and Golf localities, with a prevalence of 100%. The difference in the mean prevalence was highly significant from one mite to another (p<0.0001), and the variation in the prevalence rates for each mite species was related to the locality (p<0.0001) Fig.4a. On the other hand, Menacanthus stamineus species is the most widespread in the three localities, with a prevalence of 70.23%. The difference in the mean prevalence is significant (p = 0.00876) from one insect to another. The variation in the prevalence rate of each insect species is related to the locality (p < 0.0001) (Fig.4b). The mites and insect prevalence were significantly different between the three zones. The variation in the number of mite and insect species could be due the influence several environmental factors species could be due the influence several environmental factors. Environmental determinants of the Proliferation of Ectoparasites in Laying Hen Coops Effect of Litter Renewal time and Poultry House Age on the Proliferation of Ectoparasites The analysis of litter renewable time reveals that the longer the renewal age, the more the laying hens are infested by different categories of ectoparasites(fig.5). The difference in prevalence rates between the types of ectoparasites was significantly related to the duration of litter renewal (p = 0.02975). Similarly, the difference in the average number of laying hens infested by each type of ectoparasite was significantly related to the duration of litter renewal (p = 0.0319). The long duration of litter maintenance beyond three months in the buildings promotes the introduction, multiplication, and excessive invasion of ectoparasites in the laying hens in the coops. On the other hand, Fig5 b presenting the evolution of infestation in laying hens in relation to the age of the poultry houses shows a non-significant difference in mean values between laying hens infested with ectoparasites (p = 0.0762), as well as the difference in prevalence rates between ectoparasite species (p = 0.1354). So the age of poultry houses under four (4) years does not significantly influence the infestation of poultry houses or the infestation of laying hens. Influence of Humidity in Poultry Houses on the Proliferation of Ectoparasites in Laying Hens At a humidity level of 47%, species such as Argas persicus, Menacanthus stamineus and Ornithonyssus sylvarum are more numerous compared to other species (fig.6). When the humidity in the poultry house reaches 50%, Dermanyssus gallinae and Menacanthus stamineus are the most dominant. The species Dermanyssus gallinae is the most abundant when the poultry house humidity reaches 56%; however, at 63% humidity, Menacanthus stamineus becomes the most dominant Additionally, at 65% humidity, Dermanyssus gallinae is the most dominant, while Menacanthus stamineus is the most abundant at a humidity of 67% (Fig.6). Argas persicus and Ornithonyssus sylvarum are more sensitive and infest the hens more significantly when the humidity in the poultry houses is at 47%. In contrast, Menacanthus stamineus demonstrates sensitivity and higher infestation rates at humidity levels of 47%, 50%, 63%, and 67%. The species Dermanyssus gallinae is particularly sensitive and infests the hens more significantly when the humidity in the poultry houses is at 50%, 56%, and 65%. Furthermore, at a humidity of 65%, we note the presence of very few parasitic species such as Acarum siro, Cnemidocopes mutans, Dermanyssus gallinae, Laelop nuttallis et Ornithonyssus sylvarum. Influence of temperature in Poultry Houses on the Proliferation of Ectoparasites in Laying Hens At a temperature of 28.4°C and 29.4°C, Dermanyssus gallinae and Menacanthus stamineus are the most significant infestants of laying hens (fig.7). The species Menopon gallinae and Menacanthus stamineus are the primary infestants when the poultry houses are at a temperature of 30.1°C; however, at 31.2°C, Dermanyssus gallinae becomes the most abundant. At a temperature of 33°C, species such as Argas persicus, Menacanthus stamineus , and Ornithonyssus sylvarum are the most significant infestants of laying hens. Overall, Dermanyssus gallinae is sensitive and infests hens when the temperature in the poultry houses is at 28.4°C, 29.4°C, and 31.2°C. In contrast, Menacanthus stamineus is sensitive and infests hens when the temperature is approximately 28.4°C, 29.4°C, 30.1°C, and 33°C. The species Menopon gallinae is the most sensitive and infests the hens significantly when the temperature in the poultry houses is at 30.1°C, while Argas persicus and Ornithonyssus sylvarum are more sensitive and proliferate when the temperature approaches 33°C. Effect of parasite load on the body weight of laying hens and clinico-pathological signs observed - Effect of parasite load on the weight of infested hens The results showed that the average weight of an infected laying hen varied from one locality to another (Vo, Ave and Golfe). In addition, a significant difference was observed between the average weight of infected and non-infected hens in the three localities (Table 2). Table 2: Average weights of infected and non-infected laying hens Locality Average weight of infested hens Average weight of non-infested hens p - value Vo 1371.95± 30,51 1829, 75 ± 15,75 P <0.0001 Ave 1479.21± 22,18 1875,26 ± 25,62 P <0.0001 Golf 1610.41±24,66 1768.08 ± 40,25 p = 0.0066 Clinico-pathological signs observed Anatomopathological lesions observed on infested hens vary according to the predilection zones (neck, back, abdomen) of each category of ectoparasite (fig. 8). The main lesions identified are cyanotic nodules, redness, scratches and feather loss. In conclusion, ectoparasites have a traumatic impact on the bodies of infested birds. Discussion Biosecurity involves implementing barrier measures to prevent the introduction and spread of pathogens in livestock farming, including the use of chemical or natural products by farmers. The implementation of biosecurity practices in the control of ectoparasites in a laying hen breeding system is a barrier to the introduction and proliferation of ectoparasites. The low proportion of farmers using biosecurity measures in the fight against ectoparasites could be justified by their ignorance, their limited financial means, access to veterinary products, and the damage or side effects caused by these products on birds and humans. Thus Marangi et al. (2012) revealed in their study the presence of permethrin and carbaryl in the organs and tissues of poultry (detection limit of 0.005 ppm). On the other hand, the administration of the acaricide fluralaner (Exzolt®, 0.5 mg/kg; weeks 0 and 1) in the drinking water contributed to the reduction of the number of mites, a significant recovery of the average weekly egg weight, and improvements in behavioural variables, physiological biomarkers, and health parameters observed following the elimination of the red mites. The ineffectiveness of acaricides/insecticides against ectoparasites of laying hens could be explained by the lack of control of the dose effect of these products, the quality of the products used, or the resistance of these ectoparasites to repeated use of these products. Marangi et al. (2012) and Abdelfattah et al. (2018) reported that repeated use of acaricides at sometimes high concentrations to control red mite infestation can lead to resistance, and acaricides can accumulate in the organs and tissues of hens, as well as in eggs. The entomo-parasitological identification in this study revealed a diversity of ectoparasites in laying hens. This diversity of the inventoried ectoparasites shows that poultry farms in Togo are heavily infested. This plurality of ectoparasites observed in hens means that the rearing buildings constitute biotopes for these ectoparasites when the conditions are favourable for them. Our results corroborate those previously described by Abdelfattah et al. (2018) in laying hens in Egypt and Salifou et al. (2008) in turkeys in Northern Benin. An average prevalence rate of 73.2% was obtained across all the studied localities. This relatively high rate can be explained by the parasitic state of the birds associated with the unsanitary conditions within the rearing facilities. This creates a conducive environment for the propagation and progression of the life cycle of a diverse parasitic fauna. The fluctuation in infestation rates observed in the different study localities may be linked to various factors such as season and other intrinsic animal factors (age, sex). The prevalence rate obtained is lower than that reported in previous studies, in which Salifou et al. (2008) revealed a prevalence rate of 79.8% in turkeys in northern Benin. In contrast, the current prevalence rate (73.2%) is higher than that obtained in the previous work of (Omaka 2021). This author reported an average prevalence rate of 33.26% in free-range chickens in Nigeria. The difference in prevalence rates would be related to the type of poultry, the living environment of the birds, and their degree of unsanitary conditions. The proliferation of ectoparasites in laying hens depends on the age of the rearing building and the duration of litter renewal. Indeed, environmental conditions such as the age of the poultry house and the duration of litter renewal beyond three months create a microclimate conducive to the oviposition, hatching, and development of ectoparasites. They also promote their proliferation in the rearing facilities. Our findings rhythms with the study of Paliy et al. (2018), who showed in their work that old wooden poultry houses and old equipment provide more shelter for mites. Furthermore, poor ventilation of poultry houses increases the number of chicken mites. According to Roy and Buronfosse (2011), cages and trucks are vectors for the spread of mites in countries. Sigognault et al. (2017) reported that compliance with operating rules and timely cleaning of the premises ensure that the number of parasites remains low. The diversity of ectoparasites inventoried has negative effects on the weight gain of the birds. This study has shown that the parasitic load due to ectoparasites has a significant effect on the body weight of infested birds compared to non-infested birds. Several anatomopathological lesions were observed in the infested laying hens in the present study. These lesions attest to the presence and invasion of ectoparasites in the poultry houses and the birds. These ectoparasites inoculate toxins and traumatise the organism of the infested birds. This leads to anatomical modification of the birds' organism and its dysfunction. Our results are similar to those obtained by Abdelfattah et al. (2018), who reported that laying hens infested with mites suffered from apathy, itching, anaemia, reduced body weight, skin lesions, and feather loss. Some authors have observed behavioural changes associated with mite infestations in laying hens, including increased self-grooming and head scratching during the day and night (Kilpinen et al., 2005). Several other authors have indicated that poultry heavily infested with lice exhibit petechial haemorrhages on the skin, numerous skin flakes, deformation and breakage of the legs, feather loss, the appearance of featherless areas, and whitish spots on the feathers (Shanta et al., 2006; Salifou et al., 2008; AL-Shaibani et al., 2018). According to Hobbenaghi et al. (2012), all mites can cause pruritus or allergic reactions due to the salivary proteins deposited during their blood meal on the animals' organism. Several species of ectoparasites of backyard poultry have been identified in laying hens. These include Menacanthus stamineus, Menopon gallinae, Goniocotes gallinae , and Echidnophaga gallinacea . This could be explained by a dynamic in the tropism of ectoparasites established following the mixing between modern laying hen farms and traditional farms. Similar observations were made by Farid et al. (2016) and Wang et al. (2010), who respectively identified Dermanyssus gallinae in backyard chickens and Menacanthus stamineus in caged laying hens. The prevalence of ectoparasites in the localities of Vo (89.65%), Ave (72.72%) and Golf (45.92%) is significantly different from one locality to another. This difference would be explained by the climatic conditions of each locality, the density of poultry in the rearing buildings, and the level of implementation of biosecurity measures on the farms. In addition, this variation in prevalence rate can also be related to the sampled population and the treatments of the birds against ectoparasites before the collection. Our results are similar with Omaka (2021), who found that 52.0% of chickens were infected by ectoparasites in Mgbakwu, 38.1% in Chidoka, and 9.7% in Aroma. The study has documented a diversity of mites with differing individual prevalence rates. These include Dermanyssus gallinae (27.73%), Ornithonyssus sylvarum (07.10%), Laelops nuttallis (06.16%), Cnemidocopes mutans (02.60%) and Acarus siro (04.75%). These mites had been previously identified by (Abdelfattah et al., 2018). The occurrence of mites in farms can be explained by inadequate hygiene in the birds' living environment, the biological function of the species, the reproduction system of the species, the life cycle or environmental conditions conditions (Collgros et al., 2013 and Paliy et al., 2018). As for the fluctuation in prevalence rates, it may be due to various factors such as farm size, endemic situation and poor hygiene practices (Yak-hchali et al., 2013). Sparagano et al. (2009) indicated that an increase in mite prevalence rates could have an epidemiological impact on human and animal diseases, as the risk of Dermanyssus gallinae transmitting more pathogens would also increase. According Rahbari et al. (2009), Dermanyssus gallinae is the most common mite in caged layer breeder flocks. The prevalence rate of Dermanyssus gallinae (27.73%) in the present study on floor-reared laying hens is lower than those reported by Sparagano et al. (2009) in cage, free-range and organic farming systems, which ranged between 60 and 65% and around 54% in the barn production system. However, Guy et al. (2004) reported a higher population of Dermanyssus gallinae in free-range units compared to battery cage systems. Heavily infested birds exhibit anaemia, irritation, feather loss, reduced feed intake, rapid weight loss, egg production decline of 10 to 20% and 10% mortality (William, 2003; Abdelfattah et al., 2018; Paliy et al., 2018). Heavily infested birds become more susceptible to other parasites and diseases, and mortality rates increase (Kaoud & El Dahshan, 2010; William, 2003). Attacks of chicken mites on poultry farm operators have also been reported, with skin rashes, itching and increased body temperature (Paliy et al., 2018). Dermanyssus gallinae is likely to become more widespread and more difficult to control (Sparagano et al., 2014). This mite poses a danger to poultry farms, and its severe infestations of hens lead to certain economic losses for poultry farmers, with an impact on public health. The relatively low prevalence rate of Argas persicus can be explained by its nocturnal activity. Its presence in poultry units could cause nuisance to chickens through reduced production, impacting the farmer's yield and revenue. Laying hen farmers would therefore be victims of mite infestations, and a zoonotic transmission pathway could arise from the constant contact of these farmers with poultry. Furthermore, ticks are responsible for rickettsial, viral, parasitic and spirochaetal bacterial diseases in poultry (Haider Shah et al., 2004 and Farid et al., 2016). Argas persicus can cause blood loss leading to anaemia and death (Farid et al., 2016). Argas persicus can also infest humans, particularly children (Sadiq et al., 2003). Lice are the most dominant in the present study, with Menacanthus stamineus being the case for insects. Their relatively high prevalence could be explained by their reproductive system or adaptation to the local climate. According to Amir (2006), it is implicated as a vector in the transmission of encephalomyelitis viruses and can cause death in chicks (DeVaney, 1976). Direct contact appears to be the main mechanism for the exchange of lice between individuals and the host (Clayton et al., 2010). In light of the findings above, a diversity in the ectoparasite population of laying hens was observed in the Maritime region of Togo, with a predominance of mites ( Dermanyssus gallinae ) and lice ( Menacanthus stamineus ). The variation in prevalence rate was significantly related to the location. The duration of litter renewal is an important factor promoting the proliferation of ectoparasites in laying hen farms. Temperature and humidity at certain ranges favor the multiplication and development of ectoparasites. It is crucial to take into account the temperature and humidity condition in the poultry houses. The implementation of biosecurity measures combined with endogenous control (aqueous plant extracts) in production buildings could help reduce the infestation rate of laying hens by ectoparasites. Declarations Author contribution: Data Collection and Analysis, G.V, K. A and S.E. P.M; Original Project Preparation, G. V, K. A, S. B. A, S. E. P. M, A.M, K. G. M and E.T; Written Review G. V; Supervision K. A; Revision, and Editing, K. A, S.E. P.M and S.B. A; The first draft of the manuscript was written by G.V. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript and read and approved the final manuscript Funding : This work was funded by the World Bank Group's Regional Centre of Excellence in Poultry Science (CERSA) [IDA 65120] and [IDA 5360]. Acknowledgements We express our gratitude to the World Bank Group for funding the project through the Regional Centre of Excellence in Poultry Science (CERSA) and to the staff of the University of Lomé, Togo, for their tremendous support. Data availability The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, [Guénnolé VINAKPON], upon request. Ethical approval: The research procedure adopted in this study was approved by the scientific committee of the Regional Center of Excellence for Poultry Science of the University of Lome (CERSA / UL). Consent for participation: All individual participants gave their oral and written informed consent for this work Consent for publication: All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version Conflict of interest statement : We, the all authors, declare no conflict of interest of the present study. References Abdelfattah HE, Hamed RH et Reham AE. (2018) Prévalence des acariens et leur impact sur la poule pondeuse (Gallus gallus domesticus) dans des installations agricoles en Égypte, avec une analyse des résidus de deltaméthrine dans les œufs et les tissus. 47(2) : 161-171. DOI : 10.1080/03079457.2017.1388500 Al-Shaibani KTM, Al- Abbodi HRJ et Mahmood RH. (2018) Effet de deux espèces de tiques et de poux sur certains paramètres sanguins et biochimiques et leur rôle dans la transmission de Toxoplasma Gondii à la Turquie Meleagris Gallopavo pendant les saisons printanières et estivales dans la province d'AlDiwaniyah - Irak. Journal de la technologie pharmaceutique mondiale. 10 (06) : 273-280. https://urlz.fr/q4Zh Alzahrani AM and Edrees NO. (2020) Effect of the Fowl Tick Argas persicus (Oken, 1818) (Acari : Argasidae) Infestation on the Health of Baladi Chicken in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Anim. Health Prod. 8(1): 13-18. DOI | http://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.jahp/2020/8.1.13.18 Amir A. (2006). Détermination du Microbisme en Élevage Avicole. Thèse, Dép. des Sciences Vétérinaires, Université Mentouri de Constantine. https://urlz.fr/q4Zt Anderson DR, Sweendey DJ, Williams TA. (2005) Statistiques des entreprises et de l'économie (9e édition). Le maçon; OH: Éditions du South-Western College. ISBN 0-324-2008252 https://urlz.fr/q4ib Attivi K, Mlaga KG, Agboka K, Tona K, Kouame YAE, Lin ZH et Tona K. (2022) Effet du remplacement de la farine de poisson par la mouche noire Soldier (Hermetia illucens) repas de larves sur les indices biochimiques sériques, l'hormone thyroïdienne et les performances zootechniques des poules pondeuses. J. Appl. Poule. Rés. 31 : 10027. DOI : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japr.2022.100275 Baker AS. (1999). Acariens et tiques des animaux domestiques un guide d'identification et une source d'informations, Londres : British Natural History Museum, 15: 266-266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3164.2004.00408.x Clayton DH, Koop JA, Harbison CW, Moyer BR et Bush SE. (2010) Comment les oiseaux combattent les ectoparasites. Ouvrez Orn. J. 3 : 41-71. https://urlz.fr/q53V Collgros H, Églises-Sancho M, Aldunce MJ, Exposito-Serrano V, Fischer C, Lamas N et Umbert-Millet P. (2013) Dermanyssus gallinae (acarien du poulet) : une espèce sous-diagnostiquée infestation environnementale. Dermatologie clinique et expérimentale, 38(4), 374-377 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2230.2012.04434.x De Vaney JA. (1975) Effects of the chicken body louse, Menacanthus stramineus, on caged layers. Poultry Science, 55 (1) : 430-435. DOI https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0550430 De Vaney JK. (1976) Effets du pou du poulet, Menacanthus stramineus , sur pondeuses en cage. Scie à la volaille, 55 : 430-435. DOI : https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0550430 Edosomwan UE et Amadasun E. (2008) Ectoparasite de certaines espèces d'oiseaux au zoo d'Ogba à Bénin ville. S Ouest Niger Biosci Res comm. 20(5) : 231-235. https://urlz.fr/q50d FAO. (2004) Production en aviculture familiale, Manuel de production et de santé animales de la FAO, 2004.http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/y5169f/y5169f01.htm. [Consulté le 21octobre 2023] Farid R, Mohammad M, Abdolali C, Shahin S et G. Maryam. (2016) Prévalence des ectoparasites chez les poulets élevés en liberté, les pigeons domestiques (Columba livia domestica) et les dindes dans la province de Kermanshah, ouest de l'Iran, J Parasit Dis, 40(2) : 448-453. https://urlz.fr/q50C Filippi J. (2013) Etude parasitologique d’Anguilla Anguilla dans deux lagunes de Corse et étude ultra-structurale du tégument de trois digènes parasites de cette anguille. Tse en sciences agricoles, Université Pascal Paoli.156. https://urlz.fr/q50V Guy JH, Khajavi MM et Sparagano O. (2004) Acarien rouge (Dermanyssus gallinae) dans les unités de ponte du nord de l’Angleterre. British Poultry Science, 45: S15 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00071660410001698001 Haider Shah A, Nisar Khan M, Iqbal Z et Sohail Sajid M. (2004) Infestation de tiques chez la volaille. Int J Agr Biol, 6: 1162-1165. DOI: 10.5555/20053026680 Hobbenaghi, R, Tavassoli M, Alimehr M, Shokrpoor S and Ghorbanzadeghan M. (2012) Histopathological study of the mite biting (Dermanyssus gallinae) in poultry skin. Veterinary Research Forum. 3 (3) 205 - 208 Kaoud, H.A et EL- Dahshan AR. (2010). Effet de l'infestation par l'acarien rouge D. gallinae sur les performances et le profil immunitaire des reproducteurs de poulets de chair vaccinés. Journal de la science américaine, 6 : 72-78. https://urlz.fr/q519 Kilpinen O, Roepstorff A, Permin A, Norgaard-Nielsm G, Lawson LG et Simonsen HB. (2005) Influence des infections par Dermanyssus gallinae et Ascaridia galli sur le comportement et la santé des poules pondeuses (Gallus gallus domesticus). Science britannique de la volaille, 46, 26-34. DOI : https://doi.org/10.1080/00071660400023839 Marangi M, Morelli V, Pati S, Camarda A, Cafiero MA et Giangaspero A. (2012) Résidus d'acaricides chez des poules pondeuses naturellement infestées par l'acarien rouge Dermanyssus gallines. PloS One, 7(2) : e31795. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0031795 Nnadi PA et George SO. (2010) Une enquête transversale sur les parasites des poulets dans des villages sélectionnés dans les zones subhumides du sud de Castern Nigeria. J Parasitol Res. 1-6 . DOI : https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/141824 Omaka O. (2021) Prévalence de l'infestation d'ectoparasites du poulet dans trois élevages avicoles d' Awka , 3(2) : 1-13 . https://urlz.fr/q4yV Paliy AP, Mashkey AM, Sumakova NV et Paliy AP. (2018) Répartition des ectoparasites de volailles dans les fermes industrielles, les fermes et les parcelles privées avec différentes technologies d'élevage. Diversité des biosystèmes, 26(2):153-159. DOI : 10.15421/011824 Radfar MH, Khedri J, Adinehbeigi K, Nabavi R, Rahmani K. (2012) Prévalence du parasite et facteurs de risque associés chez le pigeon domestique (Columba livia domestica) et les poulets de basse-cour élevés en liberté dans la région du Sistan en Iran. J Parasit Dis 36(2) : 220- 225 https://urlz.fr/q51h Rahbari S, Nabian S et Ronaghi H. (2009) Hématophages acariens dans les élevages de volailles d'Iran. Journal iranien des maladies transmises par les arthropodes, 3 : 18-21. https://urlz.fr/q51o Roy L et Buironfosse T. (2011) Utilisation des données de séquence mitochondriale et nucléaire pour démanteler la structure de la population d'espèces nuisibles complexes : une étude de cas avec Dermanyssus gallines. Plosone, 6 : e22305. DOI : hpps // doi . 10.1371/journal.pone.0022305 Ruff MD. (1999) Important parasite in poultry production systems (Parasites important dans les systèmes de production de volailles) Vet Parasitol 84:337. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4017(99)00076-X Sabuni ZA, Mbuthia PG, Maingi N, Nyaga PN, Njagi LW, Bebora LC et Michieka J. (2010) Prévalence de l'infestation d'ectoparasites chez les poulets villageois indigènes en liberté dans différentes zones agro -écologiques au Kenya. 43 : 133-135. http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd22/11/because22212. Sadiq NA, Adejinmi JO, Adedokum OA, Fashanu SO, Alimi AA, and Sofunmade YT. (2003) Ectoparasite and haemoparasite of native chickens (Gallus domesticus) in Ibadan and its environs. Tropical Vet, 21:187-191.https://www.kurdipedia.org/wiki/Q51O Salifou S, Natta YA, Odjo AM et Pangui LJ. (2008) Ectoparasite arthropodes du turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) in northwest Benin. Revue d'élevage et de médecine vétérinaire des pays tropicaux, 61 (3-4), 185-189. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19182/remvt.9987 Shanta IS, Begum N, Anisuzzaman A, Bari ASM et Karim MJ. (2006) Prevalence et clinico-pathological effects of ectoparasites in backyard poultry. Bangladesh Journal of Veterinary Medicine ,4(1): 19-26. DOI:10.3329/bjvm.v4i1.1520 Sigognault Flochlay A,Thomas E et Sparagano O. (2017) Acarien rouge de la volaille ( Dermanyssus gallinae ) infestation : Une maladie parasitologique à large impact qui reste encore un défi important pour l'industrie de la ponte en Europe. Parasites et vecteurs, 10 : 357. DOI 10.1186/s13071-017-2292-4 Sodjinou DB, Agbodan KML, Akpavi S et Houndonougbo MF. (2022) Inventory of Ethno-Botanical Knowledge and Indigenous Perception of Plants used in Poultry Farms in the Maritime Region of Togo. (IJMPNP), 8(3) : 9-16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20431/2454-7999.0803002 Soulsby E. (1982) Helminthes, arthropodes et protozoaires des animaux domestiques. Balliere, Tyndall et Cassel, Londres, 809p. https://urlz.fr/q52S Sparagano O, George DR, Harrington DWJ et Giangaspero A. (2014) Importance et contrôle du tétranyque rouge de la volaille, Dermanyssus gallines. Revue annuelle d’entomologie, 59 : 447-466. EST CE QUE JE : https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162101 Sparagano O, Pavlitevi A, Murano T, Camarda A et Sahibi H. (2009) Prévalence et chiffres clés pour la volaille rouge mit Dermanyssus gallinae dans les élevages de volailles. Exp Appl Acarol, 48: 3-10. DOI: 10.1007/s10493-008-9233-z Tona K, Nenonene AY, Fiougou S, Oke E, Fafiolu AO et Pitala W. (2022) Effet des régimes à base de sélénium sur les performances zootechniques, les paramètres hématologiques et le poids relatif des organes internes chez les poulets de chair. J. Monde Poult. Rés. 12(3): 192-198. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.36380/jwpr.2022.22 Van Emous R. (2005) En guerre contre l'acarien rouge ! Internationale de la volaille, 44: 26-33 https://urlz.fr/q53J Walker A. (1994) Les arthropodes des animaux humains et domestiques. Un guide pour l’identification préliminaire. Chapman et Hall Londres, 109p. https://urlz.fr/q53B Wang FF, Wang M, Xu FR, Liang DM et Pan BL. (2010) Enquête sur la prévalence et le contrôle des ectoparasites chez les volailles en cage en Chine. Dossier vétérinaire, 167, 934-937.https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.c6212 Williams RE. (2003) Bétail et volaille: control of Poultry pests. Departement d’entomologie, Purdue University Cooperative Extensive Service Fiche d’information., n°E-3 https://urlz.fr/q53m Yakhchali M, Rasouli S et Alborzi E. (2013) Prévalence et répartition des poux rouges de la volaille dans les élevages de poules pondeuses de la province de Markazi en Iran. Iranien J Vet Rest, 14(1) :72-74. https://doi.org/10.22099/ijvr.2013.1394. Photo 1 and 2 Photo 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Supplementary Files Photo1and2.png Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 26 Jun, 2025 Read the published version in Tropical Animal Health and Production → Version 1 posted Editor assigned by journal 08 Apr, 2025 First submitted to journal 31 Mar, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5521099","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":444247641,"identity":"170dcbae-cdf3-479d-b734-27777d564490","order_by":0,"name":"Guénnolé VINAKPON","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA6UlEQVRIie2PvQrCMBRGEwJxudI1BamvEAkUQR+mXTpF8AFEFKGTPy/gQ2RybgnWRXB1DziogyA4idqOOrQdHXKm78I93PshZLH8JXiCEO8DbZskn1irrhJ5DoqCQoG6p7RwJ5IXqVpxVnp2gSEJVbK/n4+jLqCG3qoyhSVp3ANOQ5UuNj2Z5Y9BFB1Lz6TTWACHUOnmRkiaKwz8UqWtcaGwUGVwEvJVQ+EZnhngXLhzIGYQ11A6exzjNQ88h1GfDJYMaFUX77Azt+vzDZQRc5ePsec0dFZeHyHKvgKtWC8gt99gsVgsli8+GmNGYXuyucwAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Université de Lomé: Universite de Lome","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Guénnolé","middleName":"","lastName":"VINAKPON","suffix":""},{"id":444247642,"identity":"63a5ecbe-a487-4e77-910e-9f7dd0255fe1","order_by":1,"name":"Komi AGBOKA","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Lome: Universite de Lome","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Komi","middleName":"","lastName":"AGBOKA","suffix":""},{"id":444247643,"identity":"612e876e-421d-4698-a0fc-2fb69e1d584c","order_by":2,"name":"Safiou Bienvenu ADEHAN","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Lome: Universite de Lome","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Safiou","middleName":"Bienvenu","lastName":"ADEHAN","suffix":""},{"id":444247644,"identity":"f1673835-0816-432e-8ca3-3b9bc06d6c23","order_by":3,"name":"Serge Edgid Paulin MENSAH","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Abomey-Calavi: Universite d'Abomey-Calavi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Serge","middleName":"Edgid Paulin","lastName":"MENSAH","suffix":""},{"id":444247645,"identity":"69db0eed-9c4c-4118-84f1-fa9e049ab475","order_by":4,"name":"Kodjo Gnatepe MLAGA","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Lome: Universite de Lome","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kodjo","middleName":"Gnatepe","lastName":"MLAGA","suffix":""},{"id":444247646,"identity":"dc8afbb0-4f1e-4043-887d-f375300c906d","order_by":5,"name":"Ahamidou MOUSTAPHA ISSOUFOU","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Lome: Universite de Lome","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ahamidou","middleName":"MOUSTAPHA","lastName":"ISSOUFOU","suffix":""},{"id":444247647,"identity":"94f6acf6-0097-40e0-8380-3c0c4cfab62d","order_by":6,"name":"Essodina TALAKI","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université de Lomé: Universite de Lome","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Essodina","middleName":"","lastName":"TALAKI","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-11-25 14:27:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5521099/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5521099/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-025-04518-0","type":"published","date":"2025-06-26T15:56:56+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":80917788,"identity":"ef2e58e3-8bf4-4a61-801d-776bcf1a2f20","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-18 18:48:06","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":549584,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of the study area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5521099/v1/d91a93dd76b373eea2c77b19.png"},{"id":80917711,"identity":"2932b7c3-aaed-4d6b-b49e-8b66e3355f92","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-18 18:40:06","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":135646,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eApplication of biosecurity measures for the control of ectoparasites by poultry farmers in the localities of Vo, Avé and Golf\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5521099/v1/5fc4cae555ffbac2adcbb5bd.png"},{"id":80917712,"identity":"4de8861e-714c-4a84-b4a5-054eb18d82d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-18 18:40:06","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":649374,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5521099/v1/877dac0f439fd7498a1fc0a0.png"},{"id":80917721,"identity":"45bfc8aa-3d46-452a-bddc-8e2511c84450","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-18 18:40:06","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":272949,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMites and insect prevalence\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5521099/v1/10564f5d0082ce96f6b4b6b1.png"},{"id":80917791,"identity":"1d511cd6-51f2-4a4e-b424-4c9006c53fc0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-18 18:48:06","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":553398,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEctoparasite proliferation as a function of litter renewal time and the age of the poultry houses\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5521099/v1/f75abd9e6122824620686e01.png"},{"id":80918052,"identity":"1b606f45-2e90-494f-9e8d-e660833acd69","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-18 18:56:06","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":232847,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInfluence of humidity in in Poultry Houses on the proliferation of ectoparasites\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5521099/v1/19da29563addd867d6f64143.png"},{"id":80918051,"identity":"37b8f834-a4d7-4d25-a632-b5303d29639b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-18 18:56:06","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":117690,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInfluence of temperature in Poultry Houses on the proliferation of ectoparasite\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5521099/v1/bd7fb105ebee41fac98cbe92.png"},{"id":80918053,"identity":"605a033b-0ae4-4229-9ba3-fdf1f9713a11","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-18 18:56:06","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1406642,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(1) Loss and tearing of barbules (2) Presence of cyanotic nodules (3) Redness of the skin (4) Loss of feathers and dermatitis of the neck (5) Loss of feathers and presence of scratches\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5521099/v1/8078549378b1f6df8afa4244.png"},{"id":85686369,"identity":"8167310d-c9a5-436c-b99d-f7b3176ff582","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-30 16:05:43","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":6354047,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5521099/v1/9afdaa92-91a9-48b9-b87b-e686b64e0bc8.pdf"},{"id":80917713,"identity":"83bc8e88-42e1-45e8-a30a-37b1d96b1ab6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-18 18:40:06","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":794870,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Photo1and2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5521099/v1/751ce9a04026013aa7d29151.png"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Combating ectoparasites in Togolese laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus): Exploring diversity, prevalence and environmental determinant","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eConsumption of poultry products has increased by 5.8% over the past decades in developing countries, with consumption rates exceeding population growth (FAO, 2004). Poultry products have become one of the main sources of human protein worldwide (Radfar et al., 2012). However, modern poultry production is considered a high-input, meat and egg production system. This type of farming faces several challenges that hamper its profitability. Most rural farmers raise poultry outdoors and are often confronted with a number ofproblems such as diseases, parasitic infestations, low levels of animal health and poor farming practices (Sabuni et al., 2010). Avian ectoparasites, including arthropods, play a vital role in the poultry industry through their influence on health, animal welfare and egg quality (Horn et al., 2017). These ectoparasites are temporary or permanent skin hosts for nourishment (skin, blood, lymph and skin appendages), warmth and protection. Several groups of ectoparasites can attack birds and are classified into two main groups (Horn et al., 2017). According to this author, the first group of ectoparasites represents parasites that feed solely on the integumentary surface and epithelial attachments, such as feathers or dead skin cells. Rezende et al. (2013) report that the second group of ectoparasites can have a greater impact, through spoliation (blood or lymph), irritation and greater economic losses, and infestation by these avian ectoparasites in livestock, such as in laying hens on a poultry farm, can spread rapidly (Horn et al., 2017). As ectoparasites, mites cause significant economic losses for the poultry industry, particularly in laying hen farms (Abdelfattah et al., 2018). Feather mites are generally transmitted by direct physical contact between birds of the same species (Mironov and Dabert, 1999; Dabert, 2004), and these feather mites constitute an important group of ectoparasites, present in all orders of birds worldwide (Gaud and Atyeo, 1996; Mironov and Proctor, 2008). Feather mites of the Megninia Berlese genus are present in various genera and species of poultry. For example, \u003cem\u003eMegninia ginglymura\u003c/em\u003e (M\u0026eacute;gnin) (Analgidae) is responsible for a drop in egg production of up to 20%, or even the death of poultry (Sparagano et al., 2009). According to Hernandez et al. (2007), infestation of laying hens by \u003cem\u003eMegninia ginglymura\u003c/em\u003e in different body regions showed that the highest densities were observed on the back and tail, while the lowest densities were observed on the wings and chest. \u0026nbsp;But this mite lives in association with the remaining feathers on the laying hen\u0026apos;s body and attacks the feathers on the back, thorax and uropygium, leaving these areas cut and rarefied. In addition, the mite\u0026apos;s saliva can cause lesions, allergic reactions, heavy scabbing, stress, crusting and secondary bacterial infections (Tucci et al., 2005). Chicken body lice (\u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stramineus\u003c/em\u003e) and the poultry mite (\u003cem\u003eOrnithonyssus sylviarum)\u003c/em\u003e are the two most important chicken ectoparasites encountered in North America (Mullens et al., 2010; Sparagano et al., 2014). In addition, \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e has been a widespread mite worldwide and is a major problem in commercial poultry production, mainly in laying hens (Sokol et al.,2019). Sparagano et al. (2009) reported D. gallinae invasions in different farming systems: battery cages, poultry houses, free-range, backyard and organic farming. Losses caused by the invasion of \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e and the costs of eradication are high (Sokol et al.,2019). Research by Van Emous (2005) estimated the cost of Dermanyssus gallinae to the European egg industry at \u0026euro;130 million per year. These parasites directly affect the health of birds, causing irritation, discomfort, tissue lesions, haemorrhaging, toxicosis, allergies and dermatitis which, depending on the level of infestation, reduce meat and egg production and affect the quality of meat (Ruff, 1999). \u0026nbsp;In addition, poultry are definitive hosts, paratenic or for ectoparasites such as mites, lice, ticks, fleas and flies (Edosomwan and Amadasun, 2008). These ectoparasites are also vectors for transmission of other poultry diseases such as pasteurellosis, fowlpox, Newcastle disease, chlamydiosis and Salmonella (Nnadi and George, 2010). Parasites persist from generation to generation, and any animal or plant species can be infested by a parasite at any stage of its life cycle, regardless of its lifestyle and geographical distribution (Filippi, 2013). The most frequent transmission of parasites can occur via various vectors in the entomofauna of poultry production units, including louse flies, black flies, biting midges and mosquitoes. Previous studies in the Iraqi province of AlDiwaniyah, northern Benin and Bangladesh have focused on ectoparasites of local chickens, guinea fowl and turkeys (Alshaibani et al., 2018; Salifou et al., 2008; and Shantal et al., 2006).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, only a few studies have focused on the prevalence of mites and their impact on laying hen production facilities (Abdelfattah et al., 2018). In Togo, the most recent studies have focused on feeding, nutrition and probiotics in poultry (Tona et al., 2022; Attivi et al., 2022). However, very few studies have documented ectoparasites in laying hens. The present study aims to improve knowledge of the diversity of ectoparasites in laying hens, their prevalence and the factors favoring their proliferation, to update available data on poultry health in modern poultry farming and to explore control tools\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eStudy Area\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Togo, a West African country located between 6\u0026deg; and 11\u0026deg; North latitude and 0\u0026deg; and 12\u0026deg; East longitude. Togo is divided into five regions, including the Maritime region. The Maritime region is situated in the southern part of Togo, along the Atlantic Ocean (Sodjinou et al., 2022). This region is bounded to the north by the Plateaux region, to the west by the Republic of Ghana, to the east by the Republic of Benin, and to the south by the Atlantic Ocean. It extends between 6\u0026deg;00\u0026apos; and 6\u0026deg;50\u0026apos; North latitude and 0\u0026deg;25\u0026apos; and 2\u0026deg;00\u0026apos; East longitude (Figure 1). The region covers an area of 6,395 km\u0026sup2;, which is 11.30% of the national territory (Sodjinou et al., 2022). This region is home to the largest poultry farms, with a subequatorial climate characterised by a long rainy season from March to July (maximum of 1,200 mm in June) and a short rainy season from September to November (maximum of 1,000 mm in October). These two rainy seasons are interrupted by a long dry season and a short dry season, resulting in a bimodal rainfall pattern with two unequally high maxima or minima. The minimum rainfall for the two seasons is 184.4 mm and 6.9 mm, respectively. The average annual temperature is approximately 27.5\u0026deg;C, with a maximum of around 35.1\u0026deg;C during the dry season.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eMethods\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eQualitative Data Collection\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe survey was conducted over a period of six (6) months, from December 2022 to May 2023. It covers the localities of Golf, Vo, and Ave. Ninety (90) modern layer poultry farms were identified. A questionnaire on the practices of biosecurity rules in the control of ectoparasites, the age of the buildings, and the duration of litter renewal was administered to the layer poultry farmers through face-to-face interviews.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;The Epicollect5 platform was used to collect the data. The sample size of the poultry farmers interviewed was determined using the formula of (Anderson et al., 2005).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhere n = sample size,\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eN = size of the parent population\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eP = Proportion (50%),\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ee: Margin of error (5%),\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e95% confidence interval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eand Z\u0026alpha;/2 = 1.96.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eEctoparasites in Laying Hens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 576 Isa Brown laying hens were examined in three prefectures. This number was derived from ninety (90) Isa Brown layer farms equipped with an aviary. Each house contained an average of 500 laying hens. In each farm, the chosen house contained 26-week-old to 46-week-old birds selected at random, from which an average of 6 hens were chosen and examined. Each bird was carefully examined for the presence of insects or mites. The recovery of ectoparasites was facilitated using a handheld magnifier while separating the feathers and gently brushing the wings with a fine, soft brush (Salifou et al., 2008). A white cloth was used to collect the fallen ectoparasites. The head, eyelids, eyes, neck, chest, dorsal line, hips, and legs of the hens were also examined. A clinical observation was made on the general condition of the infested birds using the method described by Salifou et al. (2008). The hens were also examined at night to avoid omitting any nocturnal ectoparasites. All recovered ectoparasites were carefully transferred into pre-labelled tubes containing 70% alcohol for laboratory identification using an entomological identification key. Similarly, the bare areas of the body and legs of the hens, particularly the wounded parts, were scraped and soaked in 70% ethanol for the identification of mange mites. The ectoparasites attached to the skin of the hens were removed with forceps, and the mite and leg areas were deeply scratched with a scalpel and soaked in 1% acetic glycerine. For every collection of ectoparasites, the temperature and humidity inside the laying hen house were measured using the climate dada logger: FEKU thermometer-hygrometer (reference HT6C, France).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhoto1 1 and 2 show the techniques used to test the laying hens for leg mites and feather ectoparasites.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePreservation and Identification Techniques for Ectoparasites\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe ectoparasites were first boiled in a 10% potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution for 15 minutes, dehydrated in a graded series of alcohol, in xylene, and then mounted in Canada balsam. The permanent slide preparations were observed under a high-power binocular stereomicroscope at 40x magnification. The ectoparasite species were identified based on the morphological characteristics described by (Soulsby, 1982; Baker, 1999 and Walker, 1994).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eData processing\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eIndividual Prevalence (pi) and Collective Prevalence (Pg) of Ectoparasites in Laying Hens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe following formulae were used to compute the individual prevalence (Pi) and collective prevalence (Pg) of infested laying hens. This allowed for the determination of the individual-level and flock-level prevalence of the ectoparasite infestations in the studied laying hen populations. The individual prevalence (Pi) provided insights into the proportion of individual hens affected, while the collective prevalence (Pg) indicated the extent of ectoparasite occurrence across the sampled farms\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnIAAACJCAYAAACo5NVmAAAAAXNSR0IArs4c6QAAAARnQU1BAACxjwv8YQUAAAAJcEhZcwAADsMAAA7DAcdvqGQAADsjSURBVHhe7Z39y2ZVvf+v+f5uNtNvno5IGhQZRY4ZmsIIPpAiip6mc5SD4EEZDaEDqY1GSGqNRUFUliiIWFM+0PxwTEtI0AzzIQyVEXIiRPxpmnz4A+Z7vda93/d85jNrP1z3fd1zX/ue9wv2tfZee+21Puuznj7X2nuvvenglIkxxhhjjBkd/69xjTHGGGPMyLAhZ4wxxhgzUmzIGWOMMcaMFBtyxhhjjDEjxYacMcYYY8xIsSFnjDHGGDNSbMgZY4wxxowUG3LGGGOMMSPFhpwxxhhjzEixIWeMMcYYM1JsyBljjDHGjBQbciPlr3/962TLli2TTZs2Ffef//xnc2aJ66+/vpxjY/9oEeW6++67G9/F5Ve/+tXklFNOWdbVH//4x+bM0rmx5AX5svyz0qWLRQEZ++SLdX9skCfkHkPbMf3Mo12uBLWTCy+8sPExGxkbciPlM5/5zOSll14q+//6178m3/zmN8u++OlPfzrZunXrZPv27WX/aIFcDz30UHO02NDZ/ed//ufksccem+zfv3+yefPm5swSX/nKV0aTl9XSp4tFgTLZvXt3c1RHdd+YYxH+TPNn5oILLjiqfb9ZP2zIjZiPfexjxcVYu+eee4741/eRj3xk8rnPfa45Onp86EMfavYWmwceeKB0dhif6OrAgQOTL37xi83ZJcaSl5tuumly8ODBI+QfyhBdrJR5z0h89KMfbfbaIQ9jBJ1TjpTnRoQZomNptrHWLjXrulL6dPjzn/988p3vfGfy5JNPLo8RZmNjQ24DcNdddxX3jjvuKK4Zxu9+97tmz6yVLn772982e+ZYh8c/3OYmkyeeeKLZm50hOmQW7rrrrmuOzLGADbkNwPHHHz/ZtWtXaeDcIhP53xi3pfJzE7VnjrIf//70rBhT9nQm+Ot5qtNPP71M59dgIFc43NrATvwxTMxDft7p1ltvXZalDeTjOoUjzvwPFpkBncX4u4h5QYf5ucScbtZLvBZ/XI4JH/MMnFd5KQzHNWplyPWSg7zncohydekiy8F+zHfOMxv5+vvf/17K6qqrrirhzj777OXzkrFPXyLWD8L++Mc/bs70ozSUNvuSP+aL+IXSYmN2o4byF+XKZZip6Spuucwgyq5yAvblH9Md2payXshLH311AXIY8kPcyHHGGWeUMDfffPPy+dgucznHsgLJS97Rf5f8XEfZRT3FMFnXHCusZBpSxrX8cgyElb/qPG1Df7x1jk3kOoJMpAGz6jCXvxgSxoyMg2bUUITPPvvswf379x88+eSTD27evLnsw9S4K1tk69atBy+44ILmaAnCKB6xe/fu4kdY+Sscfj/72c+KH+fw2759ezkG+ZGWwu3bt68c48++2LlzZ5E5pxFl2bFjR/HDffzxx0ucHNcg76TDpnQUnrQi+GVdZJQXZFRekEHyRGK6yIFOYnkAZcSGLPgTVuUm8OeY69lXXG15BpVX1Btx44dMXeUF+GVdcD1ykM8oawzHPn6cg1x+Si/KJYboCz1xPToHwnJNW5wCuQiD7JJN9SCWG7Ljl8Ev60i88sor5bx0GmWKsmeyriRPbKOcy37KSyaHm7UtkVasW+SrDcL21YUcRnHHMFlmwTVRdlyO0WuEY6VLeqB8xnizHOwTRvUIuB4/ZOQ8aRI/8QwpY1zS4XqlI12KWruUvDVIg430FB9pKE3g2poOh5T/kDBmfLSPDGYUxEaoTkONHDc3eDrA2LFCrTGzjx9xCjoT/PL1dDzRT9fSaURkAEkmdaTqLAV+dGCiJl8b0kHssEEdrDp/4DjnJdOWFzrDeK3SjYOhro354xoGoojyp2traUpXbeiarCP8GKQiyID8EcJlXWhwjWRZ2af8I+RPcrTJNURfynPWva7NcUbIC2HiAAgajIWMqSiH0o11pY8hdZTzqvsitx3I4Wp1GnkpG+VPMg9tSzFvWe81htSFWpgM4bMO2spZZUP+RVu5Uue60lYec9r4Zf23ofyqjBVnVztVGF0DiicztA/huE2HXeU/tI6Y8eFbqxsIpvSnnVKZdue2wDyID5brAfJzzz23uKLtwXJu+Ua+9KUvFfcPf/hDcZ966qnifupTnyquIA+///3vm6NDDHn4fs+ePcXVLQihlz7eeeed4s5KzsvnP//5Zm8JpcvLAkLyPv3008UV3M6o8cEHHxSX66YDfLkFQ5lyW5Tb5NP2Ws7PykknndTsHYI3nfvglkvO55lnnlnc559/vrjTQay8Pc0tIMJza+jNN9/sLash+lL9OOuss4orhrzsIHLd/I//+I/i6lbXFVdcUdyHH364uPDoo49OpkbJwjwoft555xX3//7v/4oL3Da85ZZblvM3a1uq5e29995r9o5kSF2ohRlCWzkrL2+99VZxI7lcaVND6nSN3J8NZd7tdJY+JDOk/GetI2Y82JDbYEz/qRWX5ywWHQ0c8fkpNp7VWmmn/O677xa3zbhcK5RuzAcb6NwsvPjii6UsMZIuuuiiw56VOVpQBvG5OTbKClR2d9555+Txxx8v+yxf8vGPf7z6HGRmiL6Uxlq+OUw92d689S2++93v9j4srueneOaJ55n489QHAyZxx2eeKN+rr766HLeBjBiWhAeMZfZlhMJatKXIkLpAmJUYRWtRznpGjvLByJOsszCkjOfZTlfThwwp/7WuI2b9sCG3weDfHJ0+jVMzX4vGhz/84WZviX379pV/sXlbDXTkR5uTTz65mg+WAVgJLF3A7Nbu3buLji6//PLmzNGDulTLU1weg5lWBrRnn3226IABbciM8Lz1NQvHHXdcszeZ/Pd//3cZyDBANasUZ0UyzOYxE3PiiScWWVmqRX+guuBtQgyCz372s2UAve2228p1eji+i4svvnhZRmYMuaY2q7YWbUkMqQt/+ctfmr3Zef/995u91UHbZ0Yeg+oXv/hFaUPUzVmYpYzn2U5X2yaGlP9a1hGzPtiQ24B8+9vfLgu6YszVyP76pzZvcryaqdm2bVtxmaGAF154objz4LLLLiuubiOIf/zjH8X95Cc/Wdx5Q7p0kPO4pc1bZXFGlUGbQZT4jybMVHXdcmGwi7eJuQ10++23l/18C/v1119v9pYYoi/dusvLNeS4usgG/SOPPFLaRjTUMEQZQB988MFiXLF1wTI/hJ91iQfKlGs1cDL4RyOoC2REbm6vfu973zsi7bVoS5G+ugDIoEXKu8jGnmSPt47h7bffLu6pp55a3C7QJYYX3H///aVu0Q+udGZ+SBmvtp3mmbtZ+pA2HXaV/1rXEbN+2JAbMWrw+Z8snRfPz9Q47bTTiqvbNBhXL7/8ctmP8agTlQtKL3cidKK1ziEuUsy13/rWt0rnqFtCDKZ0vnSGCsfASwcZlwqQETakgyNuBjwGY3WU3GJBFv5Rq2PXAN83cyedZKOUPLMJnmMiXQY8yYmrZ2dEvg4Ud9Q/8qqMiOfXv/71ckdco6u8pD+R896mC2aqGFgoH52jnLS8COg8EAZjCD3IYJb7m9/8ppwnT2xD9IVhSH1BFypL0icuGDKDwxdPJDv1AEODxVIzyIGOkUnPJbXBjDLxRJk0+90lU9sfq0hbmQFGArrDeM4zhqtpS211PDKkLtx4440lTEwPeeMxMmIQcg364xyyU7cpZ5U9cZMW/nq2NsJ1yMFGONLVnwg9z8rMJZDWL3/5y7If89il66Fl3NdOa+1ShunDzXOZyM+1Q/uQNh32lf/QOmJGyPSfoRkhemuNIsSNbzqJ6SB4xNtNvO017WjKdZznDSa9GaV42DjWpriVHtt0UCl+005n2Y/4gPimHUZ5Cws3XjPtcEsYgTz4K+4ss95cY2vLZ4YwWa78phZ+8XwN4ol51ttzMW72RU6XvMc3DWvX6U01NuUP/XE+ps1x1p3gGoVj4xji9co/upaf8t2lC+SPZYgcih95iC9eT1jkj5BHZGGLZdunLyBMrK9cr/rKpjLJcA15znWrLTx56YovQtgumaSfTNR93NCB3sKslZkgXvyzfsWsbQmIM6bZlf+uuiC4XvWBeEk/vmFKeJ1HVp3LsuPyNmi8FqT3vnojXROP0lF46TXmmzCRIWXMMXLEeDhWO1V5xWsEecOPuKPshOnL21AdSu7IkDBmfGziZ1qgGw7+cTA9zoPE/KNZLfyb582hr371q73/2I0x44L+gr4iz5bOC2ZOeKSAPiTOpsmfPsrfxeyHGUBmNjfosGXMili3W6taRTtvdGiazo4w/ct5TTl3wdTx1772tSMeJCYOHjYmnrapZNLmfJaBZyUw4ojX09DGjB+MAt1i4k8f21rB7dzaSxQcn3zyyeVhemPGAJMaGq/ZBGOt/GhbGT0WoFvzNbiFTBjiwGXMrsH4TBqEY0xnzO+KtwZtnzjirXHG9mibZHuEvOOnfmNhYEZuPdBUN9PXgqlqpnzZMoSr+WeYJma6WNPNgulp/Jn25hz7+dYFkE6eZo9wLXLUrjXGjAfaOrex2LiFtZbQL9Hf0W+ob8KVf9vtUnM4urWb+3dzdNFt53jblzLBjzLS7WWgbjPeco6tDeLivG7v61GAfOuXuBmDNU7Lboi2RB9ci5zxdjdpIafaIi5+xB3rG/5cmxewXk/W3ZDLhaRnB6TMWaCAuTY/UwB01lHxpJsLnutyodWgopFOrKzGmHGhZ5HoB45GW6bPkSGiDRlW0tcdizD4Sm8MuGb90BgY6y6GF+NnbEuE07OOGtvboExpDxHaSx6T9YxfZBa7gXZIWnmc5/psO6jO5Xi5FhkWZUJn3Qw5FFNTkAokWspDQeltDZzOOhqN2ZCjYLh2aMFQiNEwNMYYY44FZMhoTNULGF3jNmEZ22twHefy+KtrooFFutngkz3RNyZ3TfbUUPo1A3GRJnTW7Rm5P/3pT8WNLw5wj5vXuacVYvlZEj0bx9Z3X5p73eeff35zNBusPQRD14YiHV41N8YYY44lWMaJZ8XuvffeMm6zCDLPmOZnQIeiz7zlz4dpqZbXXnutuDyvxsLY+uSi0DJHWkqrje9///vFvqgtaVNDS9OccMIJxY2Q/6lRuWw7rCfrZsixJs8FYb0dHnLUA5IPPPBAcYEFM6dWdtnvWsxVBVz7riSwLlDbOkk85Minc2K6fVCRppb4zA9YGmOMMWOHr40wBvIVjWuvvbYYNiulbWzOn23T96gzQxd+nmWyh7Gd8Dt2tH93eVEmdNbNkOMVcjbNtl111VXlbRFez8/Le2Cgbd26tbOwVMBaDT5z6aWXltk+jDYKiH8S+sYhhiIFQrp6swaZMCz7DLW9e/c2e8NQfodsbW/sGGOMMesJBhwwKzX0CyXrSd9kT+aGG24os3d8IaSNRZnQWRdDTq/z7t69mxvmZeP1e9ZRqk3Nsoo1Rt5q4N8CljUFw4e9t2/fvvwaMRb1XXfdVYw8Pvz92GOPTfbv31+uY2X4eaL8Dtm6GkfN8PPmzZs3b97mtXXBRAfj6VjuTPVN9kSYRMHuuO+++wbN9s06oTNv1sWQ0/1w1lXqA+OKinLOOec0PivnzjvvLAYSRiP7wKzcrl27ytQpn3Thdi/GJIXHJ2eYxVtEstHnzZs3b968zXNrg3XbmFxh0oNZrvxt63mjz671wSNUq4W7cjxqlRfvXmTWxZBDQUzHtt13jugbnn0fOz/uuOOKq5cohsDifnDNNdcUN5Pvz9fokytT+9fTtvnWqjHGmEWCcfPFF18stxwxdJiV27NnT3N2Zeilhjx+61gvQWi81XdvhV6EzC9BzAp3CzFS2+4OLirrYsgxZTlkNg5effXV4vYplfMYh7UPINdgKvgb3/jG5Ec/+tHgByUjfDieCjzrtbV/PW3bGJ47MMYYc2yAwcS4GW858pgSjydx92yl8Lwd43c20DTO6rl50uSuGRM88Xbu66+/XtwrrriiuDX6JnuIj7dveQQrvrjBDF3fpMqsEzrz5qgbcrydylTs0HvqvE5MQRIeS7mrsqB8jMQh8OwbxmTXa8jvv/9+qVw1SIcKbIwxxmx0mK265JJLiqETJ1bOOuus4vJoUhcYZYANkMFAu+WWW8oLkLpThgGFgchkS+S2224rNgRjOHYBcmFc8tJi112+vskeLSOix66A+LtWs1jphM7cOXgU0aJ92vKifjVYuI+wU2X1LuK3r1nsj4X6utDig3nxQvkjJwseIl9tgcFFWgjQHIkWcezbuhavXEtYuFoy1BaaXHQke1xQewxQL+hHJH9X+ZM3hTNrg8aDvv563sT+YYztbz2grUyNoKIzvrYgGAP1tRLOZ31yHW1J12rjmtrYStkobNeYj7/aMuG5bgj0vVyX0QLHUca4tX0ogGtq+TjabLheCqVSUBRMG1SsNuXrMyMUHoWe41GBD6045uhD+dJRqOwwyClPQdlThutJlmlMoFdkH1MbUAfOwCP5c9vOUIfGZqyOCRlU6/GHij5grO3PrJyhkz1DWKQJnQ1Zk+m06YTn3UEQX9s/CbM4YKTFxsVxHJD51zhkNriGGu9qQZ6xGgnqDNdjAF4JK5358R+2jQtjhI30Y5Mhkz19cO0i9Q8b9i8JnTcNte927FCYqWPw91T8uMDYYBCfR4PDgKEDmMcAMGYjAYMI+ccAHa5mP2fpuMdmrJrZoB37D/mxy2omexZxQsdzy2ZDoxm0PgOcgZvGjYFCeDr6+CdAt2LyFmd5MBQIpzgw+DifZ/9kXHb9ySAMMsRwGH7EzZZlw6/2L5PryRdEo0adEPEoHRmWNb8I8REPOiOPhKNjqxlK5J9zhEFGxUdYXVuTJeq1hmZVCctGXLlT1kxc3ob8GSN95FWZch3HtY6fMORLsuOqfGYpR4hlpDQ5ruk20iUDKE38FReyUTb4RSjXKAPlzR/ZWHY6v5J6FMsl+kvnbMhAOqRNOOLBL5PrAfsZwuQ6yH7WvTm2oF7Qb8xSDxZ1QseGnNnQaCDoGggZ0OjgCUs4DVT4xes0ANUaPuEYLNjUyGn0hCfeiPzbZGLAIh7FSWfDgEm8+DGo4QfEzQCITMQZOxjyhZ+MIuLCT4YJ/sgCMqqinwbIDOkTB9cgj9LRoC44T1jJFOPjnGRBz7ikTXyEqQ3agnCEkZyEjTrJqGxngfDExya9k2Y2FGLa7MfymaUcBce6BpBDOmujSwZAzxgvnJPeCKPwEcKiL/Kpcyq3edYj1Ve1JcKTV+TCn7g5RgbVr2j0AcfIqnRwCRfbgOoKYYlbusGPfWM2AjbkzIaGQYetCzp2tgiDQR4UNFDkwQ80qMVzikMDoGCA6pNJEI7BKhqP+GmQFhqwGPREm7zISpxxYGSfsJwT8osQF36kHwdC+QkNsjFtpRupydKF0keHkZqsICMgl0Ef1AfkivqspUuec1lynA2+oeVIGlEX6DjHnxkqA8iffMS6LTif24J0O896pPqajSmO8UcGpSe/mI7aVtSnjEOVGdcjX9YD+sp5NGbM2JAzGxYNAHFQyajzzwN9zZBjQKgNAEonD/KKOw+AxJHD1miLF784qAFhGLQiNT+oDdYMboQlTVEzEDQAZyMAPxkleeAlrAbzrOeaLF1QlsSTdVozFkDyRoOsj1q9Ib0sv8qX/HENLnUEPcb0ZilHdIFOcv7aGCqDqBlfoq0tcE2tjFZTj9BFLc6aDORJeRTEp/pGPglPulHHbXWFdHNZGDNmbMiZDUvbwBTpMwziYJgHCkH8hCW9SG2wqhkEbUj+GG9tUAPSyTMPNb+akQJD/TjOecpxSh/aGHTRRZZZ19WMijZqxgPIgMiQLmnMgvQey155ivVEcWtDBnSQ69Is5Uia5INtiF6GyiC6ZpUVVzTCAH1zLrLaelSLEwiXZVBbFGpD2lTPc5vCPxuQunZI+zNmLKzLJ7qMORq89tprxe36HBxfDoG8IvgjjzxSVuzWCuZ8UYTVxGufinvrrbeK+2//9m/FBVYEZ2Xy888/v/FZYui3g0Hy8/ka8cQTTxRXn6wBZJsOUJNt27Y1Pkuf0sEvf3tw7969xdVq7MDK6PDpT3+6uKBvF8ZwwBdNcp70wWyFlT6mgzGjb/kuI98ujDKDZDnzzDOLO4SXXnppcsoppzRHS6BrVoSPn9URyDs1bpqjYTz33HNlBfhY1s8880ypD7GeoPepoVDyyPbkk0+WVeFzXRpajkCaf/vb30pebr755smtt97anKkzVAZAT7/5zW/K/htvvFHcCHGR77hKverROeec0/gssZp6pPpaa0u0R/ITZaAtxjJ85513ijs1jEue33zzzdLWcvmTBmUW0dcH1vuTSsbMExtyZsOi7/Z1fbalBoMPBsO1117b+BwaPPTx5hr6lh/84Ac/qBp+Q78dDMifBzUGumyYaFCWbAzYd9xxR9nPRpK+MxiNiueff764cXCrhSNe9HLSSSc1PkvwyRzk7PrcHeRP7CmN1Q6q+rTOf/3XfxVXIC+D+bnnntv4DKP2LWj8yGMfpJkNiiHliBF04YUXln3CYfju3LlzctdddxW/WajJAHzSiLLCuMFYrbFly5Zm7/B6lMtoNfUo19cIBnn+o0CdG1KGfNopf/4p5gcd33vvvWV/SPszZizYkDMbEjptBgVgQGrj6quvLi7/6AEjju8JMvDedNNNxS/Cx5mJj48o65uAJ554YnGZmeIcBotmII4//vgSp2ZWNOOgcNGwySD/6aef3hwtwewDcJ0Ga74JLJd4r7zyyslll11W/AA5lT+MCgbyaFSgqzwDJQgnOf/85z8XP30zUTIcOHCgfERbyHiUgRVljUZ1TZY+duzYUWY1NftD3pi5wujJs1uS99RTTy3uUGqGg2Z3SFd5IQxhNeuEizF26aWXlmMxpByZ4SKc4sJ/yGziUBkofwxwdET94xuWqoO4QNmQT/JI+tQjtQ/+pMyrHmmG8oQTTjgsTuUhzugRXnCedoShSDoPPvhgkZ2N9kgdjAYj8qFDznMt9YQ/Z/gr7zF+Y0bLQWM2IFRtbdPBsPGtw3M504Fh+XkbnsnJzwlxTDxtYfR8Eef0LNR0wCx+nFNYPWtFuPx8VETPUOVnefQMEbLoGa4om/ynA3JJg3zFZ60kT4RwWUfkgWtjfoiHZ6yUVzaeTSKtDHJHndaeSarJ0gd5JU2lj47bnneSrmrytSG9x+fZQHlGTzE+paFzuUyHliPhyJd0htum20yXDOQDf8IIzueyBXSrOiu5SJ+wbPOqR21xsk+8Oc+1doRsxIm/4tE5QRjOxWulD67NZWXMWNnEz7RiG2PMhoKZKWa+NPtljDEbEd9aNcZsOLh1xq3K7du3Nz7GGLMxsSFnjNlw8GD/5s2bJ9dcc03jY4wxGxMbcsaYDQMzcZs2bSpLnjz99NMzv7FsjDFjw8/IGWOMMcaMFM/IGWOMMcaMFBtyxhhjjDEjxYacMcYYY8xIsSFnjDHGGDNSbMgZY4wxxowUG3LGGGOMMSPFhpwxxhhjzEixIWeMMcYYM1JsyBljjDHGjBQbcsYYY4wxI8WGnDHGGGPMSLEhZ4wxxhgzUmzIGWOMMcaMFBtyxhhjjDEjxYacMcYYY8xIsSFnjDHGGDNSbMgZY4wxxowUG3LGGGOMMSPFhpwxxhhjzEixIWeMMcYYM1JsyBljjDHGjBQbcsYYY4wxI8WGnDHGGGPMSLEhZ4wxxhgzUmzIGWOMMcaMFBtyxhhjjDEjxYacMcYYY8xIsSFnjDHGGDNSbMitEf/85z8nmzZtOmLbsmXL5Prrry/nzfz57W9/Ozn99NOX9f3zn/+8OXNscOGFF05OOeWU5mjtufvuu4ue//73vzc+a4vKlXyaSdH7vHUyND6VPdsf//jHxnf15Do8ax7bwiIj/r/61a8aH9MF45R0Oc/yNfPHhtwa8ZGPfGTy+OOPl/1du3ZNDh48WLbvfOc7k3vuuWdyww03lHNmftBBX3TRRZMf/vCHRddbt26d/Pu//3tz9tjgd7/7Xcn30eIPf/jDZPPmzZOPfexjjc/asn///uKee+65xT3WQe+vvPJK2Z+XTobq+Kabbprs3Lmz7H/xi18s7jzIdXjWPLbJ/6c//am4n/zkJ4truvnpT3862b59e9mfZ/ma+WND7ihw5plnNnuTyXXXXVc6qV//+teNj5kHzHDyD3LHjh3Lnc6LL744+dKXvlT2jxUwYI/mjMOTTz45OXDgQHM0HyjHtpmXt99+u7ixTR3rfPDBB8Wdl07ee++94g6J71//+tfyYD8vanV4ljy2yY/hSdyf+cxnGh/Tx7vvvju54IILmiOzqNiQW0Nee+214tb+zTCLYebH/fffXwaViy++uPExY4RbOMxYt8287N27t7QdzxAc4vXXXy/uvHTywgsvFHfIzNXvf//7ybZt25qjtWOWPM4iv+kGXQ6ZBTXriw25NYTbTvnfDAPVSy+9NPnKV75Sjv/617+W50F4DoHnu4BnT3iWDr/47BGzTpxTeFxdI/gnq/NsPC+W/912xdMlD1tOD8gT+VGaXJ+fqchhlP8uyDuzM9JFlDPCuZtvvrnsc2uVY2QeAmlEuUiP5+r6rkeH8Tpk5Bh/NmaU8L/11ltLeOSWXuUXyXml3GLZQw6Dq2cAlR5bjT79d+WnBvpR2FjW5A0/5Afqk2Rrm2UTXHP22WeXfcpT8Uc9PPPMM5Pzzz+/+ClerqvJuZI6N6T9EC/+nEdP6IJykR7Is853taGaH/TpMOf16aefrt5OJxxpKD+19kMY0kMGxb9nz54SH4+HdEEZ7Nu3b/KFL3yh1EPFEfWluEk7y01Y9CaUR7ZMVx775KdcFC/6EMjJdWzkhbiQh3DIG+tdBB2qfAlH3jmO7aAN0tS1bOxHvZBmbOO5zJTXtrrR5gekI3/iAeImjegniIc/x6eeemrjc4gsJ/JEfalux3JXu8DPzJmDZs1Avbt27Sr7+/fvP7h79+6DmzdvPnjyySeX42kneHBq6JX9acdzcPv27eX4lVdeOfj444+XcIKwHHOefa7RsXj22WdLmqQDxEN6kgG64uEYOSQPfjt37izx1tID0lI+CSMZcAXnkONnP/tZOcbNYTKSfceOHSVeNvSDH/sZziHfLCgNriXvwH7UYRvoQboC5OQ6wJ+40R3xE5fyrnCcF5Q14QhPfJwjTCy3LCvhOI5hSJctM0T/XflpA3kJE68hr+QHf9JRnoaUOSBrjDNDGZOO6mtMK7KSOsc5wnS1n1zf2ZAJP+Tpa0PEl/1iu8o6ZF86VNo5r8RJmAhyKF7Vl5gOSEY26UV6yvHVQB6lzT6o/RB3zkvUveq4rhOSJ1PL4yzySwZcIF3kIw6F5xhd1dqf4DrOqQwIj2z49UH8hFWeVdeF6pvkYkOf+NX0iQzIzTnFFf2kC+kGPZEG5yWH8kHchOW80PXEFSF9rlc6WV8cs49uJBPhVBfN/LEht0bQeKjEcaMjVeXP0MhoHLGzi9AIcgfHMQ1d5I4BSE+dFwyJByRPvBa/OBCoE8vXRhmkhxiPOqLYaWTQFVtEcdV0hBx0RrNAfnIa0mFfh0MYdVxAmWa9qsOM4XIeuI4whBX4EUadLEjWWHcoi6gL1a+I0uvT/5D8ZNB3LYzij3VFfrWyi1CXcpkIDQykKT0ofxocYWieM33tR/U91zPyWZMZOQkf80zYLBt+UVcgeWttK5aTdBLjA+LLZcNxjI+8cW3USU2fbaAH8hfDSocxz5zP6chIyO2sVofb8jiL/JIhth9QWyNdySK/qGeQHNm/Vn4ZlWds08gar0OGXI+Un6jPWt1QuFjmtWsBvfX1S1Br3+hmSH8lVOeIK8th5ocNuTWiraOqoYaQBwihhktDICwujYMGFTsxdVa1BgVD42mTB7/Y+NWRduWRhqzOijSQkfTa8gqSM3fGyCv5I+pg2/Jdoy0N8lQblDOEIW99ee/rmNWponPiQi6uY8MP2mSNSAc5zFD9D8lPhmtq5VirFxrg++iqG9IDriA/Oa2hec4orrZ61FbfSS/H3dWG8qCPH3FH2tLCL7bBWv6lJ+pYWztvk68WXxuUf86Lyjm2UdIg7UjNjzS5FhkiNZlmlZ9wuS1CrW3lNiqIA3+1S4FfLr8MdaSWvmhr4zVZutpXDCe/LG9Nllo6tfZN2pQbcZI+chMfW04HFD7WWTN/bMitEXScXQ03EjveGupAtNF50kByZwUKS5honMHQeCQPrmhr6DTgNog3pkd49JI7q0ytowJ1TDlf6rzb9FejrVOudV41kIEOqquTIv5sFOQ8kB7HbMRFmXBNlKtN1khtAJtF/0PyE1HctbjUsUfIF1sXyNAWJ2hQiKAb8iVWWueEdF1rP8SV89Wmh6421OcHpI/cEYWNdSrnH5QHbcSV2zny1tKtxVeDusj1Od9qu7GuqgwiNT/JFOWEmkyzyo8f5zI1edVGM2qfEdXZLEdEdYS02pAcOe+1Pq+tfQ3xA+Lr65fa6jV6xJ+trb+KcI6wOV9mvtiQWyOo5LmjaqOt4xBtDbINOhUaHDLEBjQ0HskTG6c6mgjHXZ1T2yDVB3LW9IHstU5aA9cskEY2CiRv7rzaQD9KO+tBceFGch5q12aGlBtytOVnqP678pPRQJqNHcjXEy9+1KsuuuIEdFAzCOIAvdI6F2lrP8Sb01dbaRuAYxuqDWq1cIBf1hc6zdcjZ5ZpSH1RulHXyDC030JHWRZAnpg25wkXDQeVUc5frQ5DLY+zyF+TQdR0xTH+mTaZ8c96iAypk6RHmAyykP8I4XL7JN+xHUAtnGTBjeR02tpiLc42KA/lazXt0fTjt1bXAL3t87nPfa7x6Ya3W6cNqTkaBm8Cxbfw2NdbU6yd9uc//7nI8Oijjxa/NnI8IHniW2svv/xydT2h448/vtkbDm955bfn+iBvvO177bXXNj6HYL24mmx9bNmypdlb0sMdd9xR9ruWLdAbYYB+WDRz2rFN7rrrruIntPhoXC5Befj617/e+NQhjfwGWd8bhOjg85//fHPUTdT/0PxkXn311eLmNblUB88666ziwt69e4vbtwbYW2+9VdzaOl+UD7qLbYq35KYD6KB1wfrq3ND2E+sMurv33nurCyLX2hBvXuawtXCSI+qL/LMsy9RIWb4eP/I/pJ+ptXM47rjjmr3J5Ac/+MHgfuu5554rbswLb2Qiz+233974TCZvvPFGcT/1qU8VN7azXB9qdbgvj0PkzzJEWHyYt6Aj1LMhS25QTuS5Vv41PvShDzV7w1B/Efu8WvvSeBPbQS0cDO2X2tp3jVp/Bd/85jcnt91222RqIC7XF7M22JBbAx5++OHiamHKPuhM9Dp5DToVGpoaJy6D76WXXlqOgfM//vGPS8cHGoBiZzkkHqjJ8+abbxaXwVMDAsYTA5nSVHx6DR2DiE7uwQcfLGHYeC39vvvum5xxxhklTI2rr766uFrGgHgvueSSMuCxqGeEOMnTaaed1vgMg46XAYJOCHmvvPLK5XQZHBj4lX4EowT9SIdcy1pa2ZD8y1/+Utych+m/5rIotOA6FoeWzgh/+eWXT7785S+XY6DcSBNZgbC8+h/lQwfkiXMqnyH6H5qfDIY9HTRxIovk10DxiU98origRXyhTa8RlQn5UJ5rxuA777xTXL7egZHGYLLSOjek/ZBfdEMY9MUSKQyyGHdZD7U2RBrZaACMOK5XuWnNtF/+8pfFJU7aFen/5Cc/KX4gnbA8BPJoMB3Szk888cTiPvXUU8uya9DnXIyvBnoAlQ9lShzU77gI9/vvv7/skg7t7LLLLit+EOtDrQ635XEW+bWe5wknnHBYetLPpz/96eKCyg+yDqhXjzzySEmPc0888UQpz74/UKqT1C+BDJSJGNrn1dqXdMQyMBmMR+JUvEP7Jdo3aUu30suQ/grwP+mkk4rBSDxco7hwzZxpZubMnNCUv7badH5EU919t/OYzlac08Z0xNQ456cNZjkM+7W0++Jpk0fXcY2m23E5Vnzc0sjxEYYpe85PO7Oin3wbqQbpEZ7ruL7tOt3i6dNfhrikL+VpatiVNCVnDfJHPiUbLsdcG5G/0lAeMvH2Axu3R3JchMFfYYhzSPlAn/6H5icjvRN3vG1C+vhFhugVoqw5j1yHf5Q9liH517mV1DmuV1xKP7cf4pWeKA/irOmh1obQAX45/8pXLDfVG1zOkabSi7TlH1QfFHdul6A6FWVviy9DOPInPePW+hviUP1WHtEF4XN9kMxRF115HCp/W/2T7nNdVxxZ5+RX8RA/5DjbQD7pimuIO6dLnJxTnog3pg/ohnMR6SHSpmOOh/RL5FXnY91BHpUnW86H2oP0A1xPusSlcjLzZSEMOQqayhE7vpVCZ0JFrXVcZuPR1hmvJ8iCTK6DZiW0Da5mfcD4YEzJyGiR0bnouF/auBx2a5VbAazSnLd4i2PeMNX6ta99rXxYXtPpcbVppp9rU7H4EYap8gjTw1/96ldLnF23BszGgFsd03+Xg55ROVr4E0FmpXDLajrgVlfTN+vDVVddVX1G70c/+lG53T3kObJFYCP0S9wK3tJ8TYKNY8AOkB9bhnDYEl3PyUa7Azd+BSSCLURchEOWIbeLlb5uaRMemRUPG/ZXlI/z2ETKYyeNQVdg2hQvZseEpkXZ5g3/Ovn3GaeP+ddAWvrXwD+h2r8hXdsGcRJP361NM140/b9o0/W1Wx3GDEF12rMmiwPjDLciNeuPqzY+pnLaKP2S7sLE27dAGUXbASireCu4rbw0u6q7gtgNHOeZcdkn6BKIj+NoM2UIi2xx5pbwUVbi1e3uKCP7+Oe8ZqqGXBaeSLqUsBIQnDjzIIwCEVyQJuEiUmafPOoUCW82FtQROth53I6fN2qQfY3PmIz6Wv68ut9aDBiAKQ/KRRvHY7mlKjZKvyTbIdoplAV+0Z4gHAYTrgy1NpuBsSRPGKEv7Iw40YRRhl+kyz7ShFOMA5Arl4PslWx/DZmUOsxCktGUBZKg86y4KKQ2o0YmonUrmSIoPCu9DRQw9oprjDHGmCWwEWQnYOhgdHX9qW+zbUBGYDaUsEXwj8Yh9kS2PRR3tjNkcObJqjZkbNYMtr5JqcOekautMcO9XNYvmhpd1WcBuF/MfVzdL+a5NO4Zt91fFtwrrr2K3wf3i3mVuW+dK0EahDfGGGPM+GG5Fpb44ZnSG264oTxfpmfsZ+X5558vbl5nUM+pavkabJ3aOoV65pAlWyLf//73i90Ul+PpQs9cXnHFFY3PIcjb1Iic3H///Y3P4RxmyLE45dTKbY6WHv7jYTx44IEHihshY9u2bSsG3NQqnvztb38rmcHwy4s9RqQQ1pnJsMBs14ODejFi6MPtKH1qxfY+jGiMMcaYxee8884rLhM17777blnIfKW0rfeaF3D+4IMPmr3DaVusfehkVbSzWJ+xLb6uSanDDDksXDa9RcHbOli6rEgeZ+kECwGyGCJKJHE2FqOEWnghhdSMPQqIhSH19gaLKO7YsaPs8xYHBuA111xTjEG9ZcsbJhx3oUUT21Ceh2x9s43GGGOMWRuwNbZu3VomaX7xi180votD12RVBHvioosuKm8UMznVZixC16TUsiEnQ2j37t08kFa2AwcOFCOtdksVa5NIb7zxxsZniZV8bipCZpABI5JMwre//e0i/De+8Y3yeRcKESPyf/7nf4qc27dvL8erQXkesuWvC0SiwefNmzdv3rx5m33rgke4MJSgb5JmPeiarIrIpnjooYeKTcUdzpVMSi0bcrpPPPR7jXv27Cluvv+LZbmSZ98i3A/GiCSDZA7Dje+2IZvWVcGI1CdF/vd//7ccD1pvZY1RwXjz5s2bN2/eVra1gU3ALUi+h8xzY/qU3Vox9HviH/7wh5u92cGOwpjDOM1r4w5h2ZCrfdC5C+5Lx+fpAAUjSPx2XQ196FgvV/SBhcpzdzwbVwNDr4++RRBr/wjaNt9aNcYYY44u2AK8TMm3kxn3mdjB7lgNeqkh2yM61ksQsiG46xjRBFJt0ehZ0KRY/N7vUJYNOSzcobNxNbj1edttt5X9PqOJW7UYjf/4xz8an274OPXOnTtXtII2HwnmTZA+Y6/2j6Bt67q1aowxxpj5go3Brcf4uNfFF19cJo9WY8ydccYZxR7JBppsBz3vjw3B5BV3HeNzaq+//npx49umfZNVTAhlmXVL9bTTTituGzX7qhhyvFiAMmoP0bXBNKJe/2Xj1ue1115bzg0xuLCkMR77ILMojtunbUhuKS9CGjxDZ4wxxpjxwRjPm50YVtgOAiMMaqtqRGRsPfHEE8WNYKDdcsstxZ7RbU3sDt4QZUmQCJNV2ErYO8iE8cWz+0w0xbuZQyarmFnUbB42FM/8cw0vc9bonJTSYnbahi60yyJ600iXr2FRPlwt0tfHvmaxvK5F/IiTNGoL5E0zvLwCMi4LAmb6FtEzZlZUb9mG1vVFQotcstUWx1xU6G/oXyR7Xz+lcPMsI/WVsc9iYXOl1afPLt0jJ32dmR8an9jmAWU0z/jMMLTgL3pn3I/jeewTanaC2pXCsHFc6xdon8SvMG0L+eKvOKMdkmn76AEQB7IrPVzCd9kqhGn7uMHMNZKEUCrKjXCMQF2fkcggFBnNcYk2Aw3oCKVMCiV/dYI4u5RszErRSuBjrVu0O+QfC+g7tmXkb+vQhPqjeZYRcRFn7ms0mAyhTff49RmnZjaoA4wRtUF7pTAezTM+s3HRn/6uyaqh9E1Kzdyb09m0WbNdCbWBFUrjyJ3jaiAu4uzr7M14UKNY7SwSHftqB3fNzKxWlvWCNjcmo4H+pu2fbRuqL/PsV9pAvqGDO7q3IXD0oA7M05ifR/9hjh2wQagzbZNVQxgyKTWzIUdHRKQaxEiEWbjVNBjionNrm8qcBWRhkBrrIGuOhDo2y6xHG9TPeRhgqu9jhY5llpnz9YSyQtez/injHyz91NFglpl/dO8/mEcHjPh5tHehPwfzGKfMscNqJquGTkrNPBoxqMqYo1KzkZArt1kLqFeqZ3GjDkYYuKmH8bz+BeHGa7XlWR46ahmMbMSBwZMHacKQVhc0POJQOBokf1bwizMy0UjFjciI0dS8GjV+am/IRltk6/ITcaaKvKkd16b/CRvbOmnjBzKU2PBTv0C4rNcaXeUlpK+4DZ3NIj70iWyKh/SURtRlNmpl8CuvKge2XBeIB/9a/8d1SgM9Kd4YNuZRECc6jGG7ylSoDAjDteSfvGWdxbyzDTEuh1yDvlSX2ZAltp9Y13UteVFeFa7mB311DhkjpM25XK8g1j/ii+kIrpccym9bfMZ0QV9AO2xruzWof7SXIX9ExjutYI4p6EDbBhsNXqrwGnhz50xDovOuwSBAHBr8QYNONnII1zXwIQ/X0Gi5ngZJeAYADS6SFXlIW4NERGGRh42wxIFLXriGePBDpuzH4JMHcQ2GhFO+lM84QCG7wuGPjIRBp1wnf/zYJx2O2Sf/XQwtL4g6mAUNvJJL8uNX02UEfXB9RGWZO2LJR1wRdKQ8cY5NRkEOiwxs0FfOtTIFhWeTrrhOMgjCoXuVUUynjSHXDGk/XBPrOv7oD4gr++l6wJ/0SVt54pi02PAjfIRj0syQFnpU/YvpCNVRya76U4vPmPXGhpxZeNSJqlON4Fc7R2edB6c4GGXooPPgzWBB3BqYQIPGkH9WGvyjHPLTICI0cEQYYLJMgKyEjXFoIIxy1XSQByhQPhWfBm4GXKEBVIMsyA8Z2R/CLOUFbTroQmVEfFEu+UWIOxsAtXoiuXM+CZcHd9Injhwvadfygl/UtVA5xzLFr6YnlWuUj/JE5lhPan7EX0tfDLlmaPsBrkPWaGAqbIxTfpG2OodOamWb80WcpB1lkjxCbTTWdcAv1wtjFgEbcmbh0axHHhCgNoBA7ti7jEF13PkcHXyOWwN6TZYM1+ewtcEJSCcP/DU/DWR5QMEvD2T45YGMOHM4yaSBWgMbaSE7+kHPbHHwbNNbF0PLS9R00IfKKBoekHVE3vCLA3bND9B3TW78clnUyh1qYZVe1mFXOVNeEcWRy1rlGstMYYk3+nfRd80s7QdqdYByyYYofoSNtKWV609Nr9Kp9Ef9kI5iuJp8beVkzCJgQ84sPAzktQFBHXMe7AD/aAB0GYNcz7k8SNUGXo5rstRgQMgDUR5wQIPEEINCAxmu0IxJn5/0VRtw8Vf+yR/HbAyuyIscWT+6biizlBdIB9lw6aNmQCjtaOygB/ww8kXND2p1oW1wJ2wu97awSo/zka5yzgaq6nb2R59ZDlCayBnj76LrmlnaT60cYKgfdSHOngnCxvpT06v8tKEb5It6UznldNvKyZhFYPkTXcYsKi+99NJk2uk2R4fYu3dvcU866aTiCr5UApdeemlxgRW4pwNA9VvCrKrNubhiNituTzvtyTnnnNP4LMGXQmqy1EDu888/vzlaWp2c1cPPPffcxmcJvlwCX/jCF4oLjz76aHH1nT/x2muvFVcrmoNWLf/EJz5RXNCnYWI4PjIN+VN8rGBOnpR/8j0dyLDQJgcOHJg8+eSTk+uuu+6IFcVffvnlI7633MUs5QXSy5lnnlncoVBGUe/w1FNPFfess84qLjzzzDOl3OOXaLRCfPSjfqCT/MUayZc/mUPYqRHTHC2h8sxhJUOul7Vy1qr0+mSQeO+994ob/ZGZcj399NMbn0OwMv7UUJ2ccsopk4suumhZ/110XTNL+1EdiOWgTxPFb3RrxfsYDviMUq6/tfpT0+tbb71V3KkxWer2iy++WD73FPX2zjvvFPfEE08srqBe1MrJmEXAhpxZeBgQZvkgMZ9VodM977zzGp+lwabrW8Jbtmxp9pYMrjvuuKPsx4EX/6Gy1AYiDWLZMHn11VeLK0OBge3ee+8t+3nQZiCLRhc8/fTTRwwytXDPPfdccWM4PkVDnm6//fbGpw4y3Xrrrc3REhilfd8FHEKtvEB6yTrogjLCgM7GIp/WQR/6MDUwkMc6wed53nzzzSOM0zfeeKO42ajO5RaJ9SmWZw6bZRC18pvFcMYQh5ge+bv77rvLPv4Y6KSRP0MUGXrNkPYDtT8Yzz//fHFj2Fo4qP0RQhYM51h/2vRag08l0T9Ejj/++Gbv0Gcih8ZnzNHGhpwZBXxnDuhU6XiBAZ4O/JFHHimDBxvn6OwfeuihI2aQGKQJg5HFd/sEhg3GDAMuHfqVV145ufrqq8s5vt/LYEa6MsROPfXUEkc2bCIaiOIs2dtvv93sLQ2QxAl8uw+QDRluvvnm5e8DK08aaMhbnmXJM3+C/HO9vk2obxuTBkiXO3bsOMzAwVhgNkdpEu7yyy+ffPnLXy7HIEM1zqL0MWt5zTL7KTTrqPpCHsg/M4v33Xdf8RPx+9LkEb0w4wS6DjQ7dsIJJxxWbhhWyJfLiDwiO/7oifLkO9T457CUHfUvpge1cqb+Qg4rowO5iJ96qdmpaHzKoFTayEa9z4ZRZMg1Q9sPYKCih1jWXIchXzOICSd9EQ5y/cHIeuyxxw6LE73yJyPqSn+g7r///uLGc/pzQxnDnj17iovsGOwYcbVyMmYhKDdYjVlgeF6Fqjrt7MszLdNBozmz9BLDdDBdfu6F52Tys0LAMy5cXwvDczuKY2rElDhJg/BsekYrhkOm/ExQhHimA1ZztEQtTiA9whIv+SNenkMiHP56JgmZCUNeBHHil58j4zjmB5Cda5UWbn4GD0if6wjDlnUOij/79zG0vJBBac8CcpEnrotp1ORUnYjlUdNbW7npuSn0GPPAdYSV/CrPWljV7ZherZyhFhZieaFbzum5uQjxxXJFlr56POQa9oe0HyBMLlPi5LpIrf4rT6Qv/VK2URdC5U+8sexV5pwj7qxjwI/zUfao+1nrvDFrzSZ+phXUGGMWBmZ+zj777Ml0UPUMSAfMLHPbON9+ZjZvaqgsz4RtBDQzx+1dY8whfGvVGLNw6MH+/NycOQS3/bgFm404jGBuLeaXR8YOt6vn8UymMRsNG3LGmIWCZ6Huueee8sB+fm7OHELPxmHQCd7gvOSSS8pzjhtpJpOZuH379h32EoIxZgkbcsaYhYEH9bdt21ZewLjzzjsbX1MDQ23Xrl2T733ve5NNmzaV7cYbb5zccsstG+72o94c5kUHZhyNMYfwM3LGGGOMMSPFM3LGGGOMMSPFhpwxxhhjzEixIWeMMcYYM1JsyBljjDHGjBQbcsYYY4wxI8WGnDHGGGPMSLEhZ4wxxhgzUmzIGWOMMcaMFBtyxhhjjDGjZDL5/3iEW9Mf9pE6AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe prevalence data were first used to calculate the means and standard deviations for each species of ectoparasite. Pairwise Wilcoxon rank-sum tests were then used to determine the significance of the variance for each ectoparasite species present in each locality. Subsequently, the Student\u0026apos;s t-test at a 5% threshold was used to compare the average weights of infested and non-infested hens, and to determine the difference in prevalence rates between ectoparasite species in the litter. Finally, the chi-square test with a significance defined at the 5% level was used to compare the prevalence rates by locality. The data were analysed using the R software version 4.3.2.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eBiosecurity Practices in Laying Hen Farming for Ectoparasite Control\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur analysis showed that 94.75% of farmers do not treat the wood shavings before use, compared to 5.25% (Fig. 2a). The majority of farmers do not consider the treatment of wood shavings before use. Untreated wood shavings can accelerate the proliferation and multiplication of insects and mites. Additionally, 73.65% of farmers do not perform a sanitary break in the building after cleaning, compared to 26.35% (Fig. 2b). We conclude that the majority of laying hen farmers neglect the biosecurity practice of performing a sanitary break in the rearing buildings. A sanitary break is important for the health of poultry, as this practice cleans the poultry house and destroys any ectoparasites present. Furthermore, 63.28% of farmers do not use acaricides or insecticides, compared to 36.72% (Fig. 2c). Laying hen farmers are reluctant to use chemical products, which may contribute to the proliferation of mites. Moreover, our analysis shows that 67.44% of laying hen farmers are not satisfied with the efficacy of these products, compared to 32.56% (Fig. 2d). The negative effects of acaricides and insecticides on ectoparasites reported by laying hen farmers may be related to several factors. Few laying hen farmers implement biosecurity practices for ectoparasite prevention through the use of acaricides or insecticides, as the majority are reluctant and do not believe in the efficacy of these products.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePrevalence of Ectoparasite\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe total number of individuals examined across the three localities was 576, with 422 individuals identified as infested (Table 1). The comparison of prevalence rates using the pairwise Wilcoxon test between pairs of localities (Ave-Golf, Ave-Vo, Golf-Vo) highlights a significant difference (P\u0026lt;0.0001) between the prevalence rates for each pair of localities. The locality of Vo exhibits the highest prevalence (89.65%) of infestation among the localities studied. The localities of Ave and Golf have a prevalence of 72.72% and 45.92% respectively. It appears that the infestation of laying hens varies from one locality to another. the prevalence of ectoparasites would depend on the environmental factors or biosecurity measures applied in each locality.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable1: Individual prevalence of ectoparasites by locality\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocality\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExanimated number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNumber\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003einfested\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevalence (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocality\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExanimated number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNumber\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003einfested\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevalence (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVo\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e232\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e208\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89,65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAve\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e209\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e152\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72,72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGolf\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45,92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 64px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e576\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 184px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e422\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 148px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73,26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndividual Prevalence of Different Ectoparasite Species in the Study Localities\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe examination of the hens identified (ten 10 ectoparasite species, divided into three categories (mites, lice, and fleas)) (Fig.3.a). The analysis reveals that the laying hens were most infested by \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e (27.73%) and \u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e (24.89%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Furthermore, the laying hens are more infested by mites (59.54%) and lice (37.21%) than by fleas, with a significant difference (p\u0026lt;0.0001). With this result, the laying hens are susceptible to \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e, belonging to the mites and lice categories, respectively (Fig.3.b).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndividual prevalence of categories in the study localities\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCollective Prevalence of Mite Species and Insect Species\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e is the most widespread in the Vo, Ave and Golf localities, with a prevalence of 100%. The difference in the mean prevalence was highly significant from one mite to another (p\u0026lt;0.0001), and the variation in the prevalence rates for each mite species was related to the locality (p\u0026lt;0.0001) Fig.4a. On the other hand, \u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e species is the most widespread in the three localities, with a prevalence of 70.23%. The difference in the mean prevalence is significant (p = 0.00876) from one insect to another. The variation in the prevalence rate of each insect species is related to the locality (p \u0026lt; 0.0001) (Fig.4b).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe mites and insect prevalence were significantly different between the three zones. The variation in the number of mite and insect species could be due the influence several environmental factors species could be due the influence several environmental factors. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEnvironmental determinants of the Proliferation of Ectoparasites in Laying Hen Coops\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffect of Litter Renewal time and Poultry House Age on the Proliferation of Ectoparasites\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of litter renewable time reveals that the longer the renewal age, the more the laying hens are infested by different categories of ectoparasites(fig.5). The difference in prevalence rates between the types of ectoparasites was significantly related to the duration of litter renewal (p = 0.02975). Similarly, the difference in the average number of laying hens infested by each type of ectoparasite was significantly related to the duration of litter renewal (p = 0.0319). The long duration of litter maintenance beyond three months in the buildings promotes the introduction, multiplication, and excessive invasion of ectoparasites in the laying hens in the coops. On the other hand, Fig5 b presenting the evolution of infestation in laying hens in relation to the age of the poultry houses shows a non-significant difference in mean values between laying hens infested with ectoparasites (p = 0.0762), as well as the difference in prevalence rates between ectoparasite species (p = 0.1354). So the age of poultry houses under four (4) years does not significantly influence the infestation of poultry houses or the infestation of laying hens.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInfluence of Humidity in Poultry Houses on the Proliferation of Ectoparasites in Laying Hens\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;At a humidity level of 47%, species such as \u003cem\u003eArgas persicus, Menacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eOrnithonyssus sylvarum\u003c/em\u003e are more numerous compared to other species (fig.6). When the humidity in the poultry house reaches 50%, \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egallinae\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e are the most dominant. The species \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e is the most abundant when the poultry house humidity reaches 56%; however, at 63% humidity, \u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e becomes the most dominant Additionally, at 65% humidity, \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e is the most dominant, while \u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eis the most abundant at a humidity of 67% (Fig.6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eArgas persicus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eOrnithonyssus sylvarum\u003c/em\u003e are more sensitive and infest the hens more significantly when the humidity in the poultry houses is at 47%. In contrast, \u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e demonstrates sensitivity and higher infestation rates at humidity levels of 47%, 50%, 63%, and 67%. The species \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e is particularly sensitive and infests the hens more significantly when the humidity in the poultry houses is at 50%, 56%, and 65%. Furthermore, at a humidity of 65%, we note the presence of very few parasitic species such as \u003cem\u003eAcarum siro, Cnemidocopes mutans, Dermanyssus gallinae, Laelop nuttallis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eet \u003cem\u003eOrnithonyssus sylvarum.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInfluence of temperature in Poultry Houses on the Proliferation of Ectoparasites in Laying Hens\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt a temperature of 28.4\u0026deg;C and 29.4\u0026deg;C,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e and\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e are the most significant infestants of laying hens (fig.7). The species\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eMenopon gallinae\u003c/em\u003e and\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e are the primary infestants when the poultry houses are at a temperature of 30.1\u0026deg;C; however, at 31.2\u0026deg;C,\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e becomes the most abundant. At a temperature of 33\u0026deg;C, species such as\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eArgas persicus, Menacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e, and\u0026nbsp;\u003cem\u003eOrnithonyssus sylvarum\u003c/em\u003e are the most significant infestants of laying hens.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e is sensitive and infests hens when the temperature in the poultry houses is at 28.4\u0026deg;C, 29.4\u0026deg;C, and 31.2\u0026deg;C. In contrast, \u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e is sensitive and infests hens when the temperature is approximately 28.4\u0026deg;C, 29.4\u0026deg;C, 30.1\u0026deg;C, and 33\u0026deg;C. The species \u003cem\u003eMenopon gallinae\u003c/em\u003e is the most sensitive and infests the hens significantly when the temperature in the poultry houses is at 30.1\u0026deg;C, while \u003cem\u003eArgas persicus\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Ornithonyssus sylvarum\u003c/em\u003e are more sensitive and proliferate when the temperature approaches 33\u0026deg;C.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffect of parasite load on the body weight of laying hens and clinico-pathological signs observed\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Effect of parasite load on the weight of infested hens\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results showed that the average weight of an infected laying hen varied from one locality to another (Vo, Ave and Golfe). In addition, a significant difference was observed between the average weight of infected and non-infected hens in the three localities (Table 2). \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2: Average weights of infected and non-infected laying hens\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"576\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eLocality\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAverage weight of\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;infested hens\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAverage weight of non-infested hens\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ep\u003cem\u003e-\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003evalue\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVo\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1371.95\u0026plusmn; 30,51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1829, 75 \u0026plusmn; 15,75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP \u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAve\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1479.21\u0026plusmn; 22,18 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;1875,26 \u0026plusmn; 25,62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP \u0026lt;0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGolf\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1610.41\u0026plusmn;24,66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 180px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; 1768.08 \u0026plusmn; 40,25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;p = 0.0066\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eClinico-pathological signs observed\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnatomopathological lesions observed on infested hens vary according to the predilection zones (neck, back, abdomen) of each category of ectoparasite (fig. 8). The main lesions identified are cyanotic nodules, redness, scratches and feather loss. In conclusion, ectoparasites have a traumatic impact on the bodies of infested birds.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eBiosecurity involves implementing barrier measures to prevent the introduction and spread of pathogens in livestock farming, including the use of chemical or natural products by farmers.\u0026nbsp;The implementation of biosecurity practices in the control of ectoparasites in a laying hen breeding system is a barrier to the introduction and proliferation of ectoparasites. The low proportion of farmers using biosecurity measures in the fight against ectoparasites could be justified by their ignorance, their limited financial means, access to veterinary products, and the damage or side effects caused by these products on birds and humans. Thus Marangi et al. (2012) revealed in their study the presence of permethrin and carbaryl in the organs and tissues of poultry (detection limit of 0.005 ppm). On the other hand, the administration of the acaricide fluralaner (Exzolt\u0026reg;, 0.5 mg/kg; weeks 0 and 1) in the drinking water contributed to the reduction of the number of mites, a significant recovery of the average weekly egg weight, and improvements in behavioural variables, physiological biomarkers, and health parameters observed following the elimination of the red mites. The ineffectiveness of acaricides/insecticides against ectoparasites of laying hens could be explained by the lack of control of the dose effect of these products, the quality of the products used, or the resistance of these ectoparasites to repeated use of these products. Marangi et al. (2012) and Abdelfattah et al. (2018) reported that repeated use of acaricides at sometimes high concentrations to control red mite infestation can lead to resistance, and acaricides can accumulate in the organs and tissues of hens, as well as in eggs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe entomo-parasitological identification in this study revealed a diversity of ectoparasites in laying hens. This diversity of the inventoried ectoparasites shows that poultry farms in Togo are heavily infested. This plurality of ectoparasites observed in hens means that the rearing buildings constitute biotopes for these ectoparasites when the conditions are favourable for them. Our results corroborate those previously described by Abdelfattah et al. (2018) in laying hens in Egypt and Salifou et al. (2008) in turkeys in Northern Benin.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn average prevalence rate of 73.2% was obtained across all the studied localities. This relatively high rate can be explained by the parasitic state of the birds associated with the unsanitary conditions within the rearing facilities. This creates a conducive environment for the propagation and progression of the life cycle of a diverse parasitic fauna. The fluctuation in infestation rates observed in the different study localities may be linked to various factors such as season and other intrinsic animal factors (age, sex). The prevalence rate obtained is lower than that reported in previous studies, in which Salifou et al. (2008) revealed a prevalence rate of 79.8% in turkeys in northern Benin. In contrast, the current prevalence rate (73.2%) is higher than that obtained in the previous work of (Omaka 2021). This author reported an average prevalence rate of 33.26% in free-range chickens in Nigeria. The difference in prevalence rates would be related to the type of poultry, the living environment of the birds, and their degree of unsanitary conditions. The proliferation of ectoparasites in laying hens depends on the age of the rearing building and the duration of litter renewal. Indeed, environmental conditions such as the age of the poultry house and the duration of litter renewal beyond three months create a microclimate conducive to the oviposition, hatching, and development of ectoparasites. They also promote their proliferation in the rearing facilities. Our findings rhythms with the study of Paliy et al. (2018), who showed in their work that old wooden poultry houses and old equipment provide more shelter for mites. Furthermore, poor ventilation of poultry houses increases the number of chicken mites. According to Roy and Buronfosse (2011), cages and trucks are vectors for the spread of mites in countries. Sigognault et al. (2017) reported that compliance with operating rules and timely cleaning of the premises ensure that the number of parasites remains low. The diversity of ectoparasites inventoried has negative effects on the weight gain of the birds. This study has shown that the parasitic load due to ectoparasites has a significant effect on the body weight of infested birds compared to non-infested birds. Several anatomopathological lesions were observed in the infested laying hens in the present study. These lesions attest to the presence and invasion of ectoparasites in the poultry houses and the birds. These ectoparasites inoculate toxins and traumatise the organism of the infested birds. This leads to anatomical modification of the birds\u0026apos; organism and its dysfunction. Our results are similar to those obtained by Abdelfattah et al. (2018), who reported that laying hens infested with mites suffered from apathy, itching, anaemia, reduced body weight, skin lesions, and feather loss. Some authors have observed behavioural changes associated with mite infestations in laying hens, including increased self-grooming and head scratching during the day and night (Kilpinen et al., 2005). Several other authors have indicated that poultry heavily infested with lice exhibit petechial haemorrhages on the skin, numerous skin flakes, deformation and breakage of the legs, feather loss, the appearance of featherless areas, and whitish spots on the feathers (Shanta et al., 2006; Salifou et al., 2008; AL-Shaibani et al., 2018). According to Hobbenaghi et al. (2012), all mites can cause pruritus or allergic reactions due to the salivary proteins deposited during their blood meal on the animals\u0026apos; organism. Several species of ectoparasites of backyard poultry have been identified in laying hens. These include \u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus, Menopon gallinae, Goniocotes\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003egallinae\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eEchidnophaga gallinacea\u003c/em\u003e. This could be explained by a dynamic in the tropism of ectoparasites established following the mixing between modern laying hen farms and traditional farms. Similar observations were made by Farid et al. (2016) and Wang et al. (2010), who respectively identified \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e in backyard chickens and \u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e in caged laying hens. The prevalence of ectoparasites in the localities of Vo (89.65%), Ave (72.72%) and Golf (45.92%) is significantly different from one locality to another. This difference would be explained by the climatic conditions of each locality, the density of poultry in the rearing buildings, and the level of implementation of biosecurity measures on the farms. In addition, this variation in prevalence rate can also be related to the sampled population and the treatments of the birds against ectoparasites before the collection. Our results are similar with Omaka (2021), who found that 52.0% of chickens were infected by ectoparasites in Mgbakwu, 38.1% in Chidoka, and 9.7% in Aroma.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study has documented a diversity of mites with differing individual prevalence rates. These include \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e (27.73%), \u003cem\u003eOrnithonyssus sylvarum\u003c/em\u003e (07.10%), \u003cem\u003eLaelops nuttallis\u003c/em\u003e (06.16%), \u003cem\u003eCnemidocopes mutans\u003c/em\u003e (02.60%) and \u003cem\u003eAcarus siro\u003c/em\u003e (04.75%). These mites had been previously identified by (Abdelfattah et al., 2018). The occurrence of mites in farms can be explained by inadequate hygiene in the birds\u0026apos; living environment, the biological function of the species, the reproduction system of the species, the life cycle or environmental conditions conditions (Collgros et al., 2013 and Paliy et al., 2018). As for the fluctuation in prevalence rates, it may be due to various factors such as farm size, endemic situation and poor hygiene practices (Yak-hchali et al., 2013). Sparagano et al. (2009) indicated that an increase in mite prevalence rates could have an epidemiological impact on human and animal diseases, as the risk of \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e transmitting more pathogens would also increase. According Rahbari et al. (2009), \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e is the most common mite in caged layer breeder flocks. The prevalence rate of \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e (27.73%) in the present study on floor-reared laying hens is lower than those reported by Sparagano et al. (2009) in cage, free-range and organic farming systems, which ranged between 60 and 65% and around 54% in the barn production system. However, Guy et al. (2004) reported a higher population of \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e in free-range units compared to battery cage systems. Heavily infested birds exhibit anaemia, irritation, feather loss, reduced feed intake, rapid weight loss, egg production decline of 10 to 20% and 10% mortality (William, 2003; Abdelfattah et al., 2018; Paliy et al., 2018). Heavily infested birds become more susceptible to other parasites and diseases, and mortality rates increase (Kaoud \u0026amp; El Dahshan, 2010; William, 2003). Attacks of chicken mites on poultry farm operators have also been reported, with skin rashes, itching and increased body temperature (Paliy et al., 2018). \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e is likely to become more widespread and more difficult to control (Sparagano et al., 2014). This mite poses a danger to poultry farms, and its severe infestations of hens lead to certain economic losses for poultry farmers, with an impact on public health. The relatively low prevalence rate of \u003cem\u003eArgas persicus\u003c/em\u003e can be explained by its nocturnal activity. Its presence in poultry units could cause nuisance to chickens through reduced production, impacting the farmer\u0026apos;s yield and revenue. Laying hen farmers would therefore be victims of mite infestations, and a zoonotic transmission pathway could arise from the constant contact of these farmers with poultry. Furthermore, ticks are responsible for rickettsial, viral, parasitic and spirochaetal bacterial diseases in poultry (Haider Shah et al., 2004 and Farid et al., 2016). \u003cem\u003eArgas persicus\u003c/em\u003e can cause blood loss leading to anaemia and death (Farid et al., 2016). \u003cem\u003eArgas persicus\u003c/em\u003e can also infest humans, particularly children (Sadiq et al., 2003). Lice are the most dominant in the present study, with \u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e being the case for insects. Their relatively high prevalence could be explained by their reproductive system or adaptation to the local climate. According to Amir (2006), it is implicated as a vector in the transmission of encephalomyelitis viruses and can cause death in chicks (DeVaney, 1976). Direct contact appears to be the main mechanism for the exchange of lice between individuals and the host (Clayton et al., 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;In light of the findings above, a diversity in the ectoparasite population of laying hens was observed in the Maritime region of Togo, with a predominance of mites (\u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e) and lice (\u003cem\u003eMenacanthus stamineus\u003c/em\u003e). The variation in prevalence rate was significantly related to the location. The duration of litter renewal is an important factor promoting the proliferation of ectoparasites in laying hen farms. Temperature and humidity at certain ranges favor the multiplication and development of ectoparasites. It is crucial to take into account the temperature and humidity condition in the poultry houses. The implementation of biosecurity measures combined with endogenous control (aqueous plant extracts) in production buildings could help reduce the infestation rate of laying hens by ectoparasites.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contribution:\u003c/strong\u003e Data Collection and Analysis, G.V, K. A and S.E. P.M; Original Project Preparation, G. V, K. A, S. B. A, S. E. P. M, A.M, K. G. M and E.T; Written Review G. V; Supervision K. A; Revision, and Editing, K. A, S.E. P.M and S.B. A; The first draft of the manuscript was written by G.V. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript and read and approved the final manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e: This work was funded by the World Bank Group\u0026apos;s Regional Centre of Excellence in Poultry Science (CERSA) [IDA 65120] and [IDA 5360].\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe express our gratitude to the World Bank Group for funding the project through the Regional Centre of Excellence in Poultry Science (CERSA) and to the staff of the University of Lom\u0026eacute;, Togo, for their tremendous support.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, [Gu\u0026eacute;nnol\u0026eacute; VINAKPON], upon request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval: The research procedure adopted in this study was approved by the scientific committee of the Regional Center of Excellence for Poultry Science of the University of Lome (CERSA / UL).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent for participation: All individual participants gave their oral and written informed consent for this work\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Consent for publication: \u0026nbsp;All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConflict of interest statement\u003cstrong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWe, the all authors, declare no conflict of interest of the present study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbdelfattah HE, Hamed RH et Reham AE. (2018) Pr\u0026eacute;valence des acariens et leur impact sur la poule pondeuse (Gallus \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003egallus domesticus) dans des installations agricoles en \u0026Eacute;gypte, avec une analyse des r\u0026eacute;sidus de deltam\u0026eacute;thrine dans les \u0026oelig;ufs et les tissus. 47(2) : 161-171. DOI : 10.1080/03079457.2017.1388500\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAl-Shaibani KTM, Al- Abbodi HRJ et Mahmood RH. (2018) Effet de deux esp\u0026egrave;ces de tiques et de poux sur certains param\u0026egrave;tres sanguins et biochimiques et leur r\u0026ocirc;le dans la transmission de Toxoplasma Gondii \u0026agrave; la Turquie Meleagris Gallopavo pendant les saisons printani\u0026egrave;res et estivales dans la province d\u0026apos;AlDiwaniyah - Irak. Journal de la technologie pharmaceutique mondiale. 10 (06) : 273-280. https://urlz.fr/q4Zh\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlzahrani AM and Edrees NO. (2020) Effect of the Fowl Tick Argas persicus (Oken, 1818) (Acari : Argasidae) Infestation on the Health of Baladi Chicken in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Anim. Health Prod. 8(1): 13-18. DOI | http://dx.doi.org/10.17582/journal.jahp/2020/8.1.13.18\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmir A. (2006). D\u0026eacute;termination du Microbisme en \u0026Eacute;levage Avicole. Th\u0026egrave;se, D\u0026eacute;p. des Sciences V\u0026eacute;t\u0026eacute;rinaires, Universit\u0026eacute; Mentouri de Constantine. https://urlz.fr/q4Zt\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAnderson DR, Sweendey DJ, Williams TA. (2005) Statistiques des entreprises et de l\u0026apos;\u0026eacute;conomie (9e \u0026eacute;dition). Le ma\u0026ccedil;on; OH: \u0026Eacute;ditions du South-Western College. ISBN 0-324-2008252 https://urlz.fr/q4ib\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAttivi K, Mlaga KG, Agboka K, Tona K, Kouame YAE, Lin ZH et Tona K. (2022) Effet du remplacement de la farine de poisson par la mouche noire Soldier (Hermetia illucens) repas de larves sur les indices biochimiques s\u0026eacute;riques, l\u0026apos;hormone thyro\u0026iuml;dienne et les performances zootechniques des poules pondeuses. J. Appl. Poule. R\u0026eacute;s. 31 : 10027. DOI : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japr.2022.100275\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBaker AS. (1999). Acariens et tiques des animaux domestiques un guide d\u0026apos;identification et une source d\u0026apos;informations, Londres : British Natural History Museum, 15: 266-266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3164.2004.00408.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eClayton DH, Koop JA, Harbison CW, Moyer BR et Bush SE. (2010) Comment les oiseaux combattent les ectoparasites. Ouvrez Orn. J. 3 : 41-71. https://urlz.fr/q53V\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCollgros H, \u0026Eacute;glises-Sancho M, Aldunce MJ, Exposito-Serrano V, Fischer C, Lamas N et Umbert-Millet P. (2013) \u003cem\u003eDermanyssus gallinae\u003c/em\u003e (acarien du poulet) : une esp\u0026egrave;ce sous-diagnostiqu\u0026eacute;e infestation environnementale. Dermatologie clinique et exp\u0026eacute;rimentale, 38(4), 374-377 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2230.2012.04434.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDe Vaney JA. (1975) Effects of the chicken body louse, Menacanthus stramineus, on caged layers. Poultry Science, 55 (1) : 430-435. DOI https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0550430\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDe Vaney JK. (1976) Effets du pou du poulet, Menacanthus stramineus , sur pondeuses en cage. Scie \u0026agrave; la volaille, 55 : 430-435. DOI : https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0550430\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEdosomwan UE et Amadasun E. (2008) Ectoparasite de certaines esp\u0026egrave;ces d\u0026apos;oiseaux au zoo d\u0026apos;Ogba \u0026agrave; B\u0026eacute;nin ville. S Ouest Niger Biosci Res comm. 20(5) : 231-235. https://urlz.fr/q50d\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFAO. (2004) Production en aviculture familiale, Manuel de production et de sant\u0026eacute; animales de la FAO, 2004.http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/y5169f/y5169f01.htm. [Consult\u0026eacute; le 21octobre 2023] \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFarid R, Mohammad M, Abdolali C, Shahin S et G. Maryam. (2016) Pr\u0026eacute;valence des ectoparasites chez les poulets \u0026eacute;lev\u0026eacute;s en libert\u0026eacute;, les pigeons domestiques (Columba livia domestica) et les dindes dans la province de Kermanshah, ouest de l\u0026apos;Iran, J Parasit Dis, 40(2) : 448-453. https://urlz.fr/q50C\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFilippi J. (2013) Etude parasitologique d\u0026rsquo;Anguilla Anguilla dans deux lagunes de Corse et \u0026eacute;tude ultra-structurale du t\u0026eacute;gument de trois dig\u0026egrave;nes parasites de cette anguille. Tse en sciences agricoles, Universit\u0026eacute; Pascal Paoli.156. https://urlz.fr/q50V\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuy JH, Khajavi MM et Sparagano O. (2004) Acarien rouge (Dermanyssus gallinae) dans les unit\u0026eacute;s de ponte du nord de l\u0026rsquo;Angleterre. British Poultry Science, 45: S15 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00071660410001698001\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHaider Shah A, Nisar Khan M, Iqbal Z et Sohail Sajid M. (2004) Infestation de tiques chez la volaille. Int J Agr Biol, 6: 1162-1165. DOI: 10.5555/20053026680\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHobbenaghi, R, Tavassoli M, Alimehr M, Shokrpoor S and Ghorbanzadeghan M. (2012) Histopathological study of the mite biting (Dermanyssus gallinae) in poultry skin. Veterinary Research Forum. 3 (3) 205 - 208\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKaoud, H.A et EL- Dahshan AR. (2010). Effet de l\u0026apos;infestation par l\u0026apos;acarien rouge D. \u003cem\u003egallinae\u003c/em\u003e sur les performances et le profil immunitaire des reproducteurs de poulets de chair vaccin\u0026eacute;s. Journal de la science am\u0026eacute;ricaine, 6 : 72-78. https://urlz.fr/q519\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKilpinen O, Roepstorff A, Permin A, Norgaard-Nielsm G, Lawson LG et Simonsen HB. (2005) Influence des infections par Dermanyssus gallinae et Ascaridia galli sur le comportement et la sant\u0026eacute; des poules pondeuses (Gallus gallus domesticus). Science britannique de la volaille, 46, 26-34. DOI : https://doi.org/10.1080/00071660400023839\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMarangi M, Morelli V, Pati S, Camarda A, Cafiero MA et Giangaspero A. (2012) R\u0026eacute;sidus d\u0026apos;acaricides chez des poules pondeuses naturellement infest\u0026eacute;es par l\u0026apos;acarien rouge Dermanyssus gallines. PloS One, 7(2) : e31795. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0031795\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNnadi PA et George SO. (2010) Une enqu\u0026ecirc;te transversale sur les parasites des poulets dans des villages s\u0026eacute;lectionn\u0026eacute;s dans les zones subhumides du sud de Castern Nigeria. J Parasitol Res. 1-6 . DOI : https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/141824\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOmaka O. (2021) Pr\u0026eacute;valence de l\u0026apos;infestation d\u0026apos;ectoparasites du poulet dans trois \u0026eacute;levages avicoles d\u0026apos; Awka , 3(2) : 1-13 . https://urlz.fr/q4yV\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePaliy AP, Mashkey AM, Sumakova NV et Paliy AP. (2018) R\u0026eacute;partition des ectoparasites de volailles dans les fermes industrielles, les fermes et les parcelles priv\u0026eacute;es avec diff\u0026eacute;rentes technologies d\u0026apos;\u0026eacute;levage. Diversit\u0026eacute; des biosyst\u0026egrave;mes, 26(2):153-159. DOI : 10.15421/011824\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRadfar MH, Khedri J, Adinehbeigi K, Nabavi R, Rahmani K. (2012) Pr\u0026eacute;valence du parasite et facteurs de risque associ\u0026eacute;s chez le pigeon domestique (Columba livia domestica) et les poulets de basse-cour \u0026eacute;lev\u0026eacute;s en libert\u0026eacute; dans la r\u0026eacute;gion du Sistan en Iran. J Parasit Dis 36(2) : 220- 225 https://urlz.fr/q51h\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRahbari S, Nabian S et Ronaghi H. (2009) H\u0026eacute;matophages acariens dans les \u0026eacute;levages de volailles d\u0026apos;Iran. Journal iranien des maladies transmises par les arthropodes, 3 : 18-21. https://urlz.fr/q51o\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRoy L et Buironfosse T. (2011) Utilisation des donn\u0026eacute;es de s\u0026eacute;quence mitochondriale et nucl\u0026eacute;aire pour d\u0026eacute;manteler la structure de la population d\u0026apos;esp\u0026egrave;ces nuisibles complexes : une \u0026eacute;tude de cas avec Dermanyssus gallines. Plosone, 6 : e22305. DOI : hpps // doi . 10.1371/journal.pone.0022305\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRuff MD. (1999) Important parasite in poultry production systems (Parasites important dans les syst\u0026egrave;mes de production de volailles) Vet Parasitol 84:337. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4017(99)00076-X\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSabuni ZA, Mbuthia PG, Maingi N, Nyaga PN, Njagi LW, Bebora LC et Michieka J. (2010) Pr\u0026eacute;valence de l\u0026apos;infestation d\u0026apos;ectoparasites chez les poulets villageois indig\u0026egrave;nes en libert\u0026eacute; dans diff\u0026eacute;rentes zones agro -\u0026eacute;cologiques au Kenya. 43 : 133-135. http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd22/11/because22212.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSadiq NA, Adejinmi JO, Adedokum OA, Fashanu SO, Alimi AA, and Sofunmade YT. (2003) Ectoparasite and haemoparasite of native chickens (Gallus domesticus) in Ibadan and its environs. Tropical Vet, 21:187-191.https://www.kurdipedia.org/wiki/Q51O\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSalifou S, Natta YA, Odjo AM et Pangui LJ. (2008) Ectoparasite arthropodes du turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) in northwest Benin. Revue d\u0026apos;\u0026eacute;levage et de m\u0026eacute;decine v\u0026eacute;t\u0026eacute;rinaire des pays tropicaux, 61 (3-4), 185-189. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19182/remvt.9987\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShanta IS, Begum N, Anisuzzaman A, Bari ASM et Karim MJ. (2006) Prevalence et clinico-pathological effects of ectoparasites in backyard poultry. Bangladesh Journal of Veterinary Medicine ,4(1): 19-26. DOI:10.3329/bjvm.v4i1.1520\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSigognault Flochlay A,Thomas E et Sparagano O. (2017) Acarien rouge de la volaille ( Dermanyssus gallinae ) infestation : Une maladie parasitologique \u0026agrave; large impact qui reste encore un d\u0026eacute;fi important pour l\u0026apos;industrie de la ponte en Europe. Parasites et vecteurs, 10 : 357. DOI 10.1186/s13071-017-2292-4\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSodjinou DB, Agbodan KML, Akpavi S et Houndonougbo MF. (2022) Inventory of Ethno-Botanical Knowledge and Indigenous Perception of Plants used in Poultry Farms in the Maritime Region of Togo. (IJMPNP), 8(3) : 9-16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.20431/2454-7999.0803002\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSoulsby E. (1982) Helminthes, arthropodes et protozoaires des animaux domestiques. Balliere, Tyndall et Cassel, Londres, 809p. https://urlz.fr/q52S\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSparagano O, George DR, Harrington DWJ et Giangaspero A. (2014) Importance et contr\u0026ocirc;le du t\u0026eacute;tranyque rouge de la volaille, Dermanyssus gallines. Revue annuelle d\u0026rsquo;entomologie, 59 : 447-466. EST CE QUE JE : https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162101\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSparagano O, Pavlitevi A, Murano T, Camarda A et Sahibi H. (2009) Pr\u0026eacute;valence et chiffres cl\u0026eacute;s pour la volaille rouge mit Dermanyssus gallinae dans les \u0026eacute;levages de volailles. Exp Appl Acarol, 48: 3-10. DOI: 10.1007/s10493-008-9233-z\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTona K, Nenonene AY, Fiougou S, Oke E, Fafiolu AO et Pitala W. (2022) Effet des r\u0026eacute;gimes \u0026agrave; base de s\u0026eacute;l\u0026eacute;nium sur les performances zootechniques, les param\u0026egrave;tres h\u0026eacute;matologiques et le poids relatif des organes internes chez les poulets de chair. J. Monde Poult. R\u0026eacute;s. 12(3): 192-198. DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.36380/jwpr.2022.22\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVan Emous R. (2005) En guerre contre l\u0026apos;acarien rouge ! Internationale de la volaille, 44: 26-33 https://urlz.fr/q53J\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWalker A. (1994) Les arthropodes des animaux humains et domestiques. Un guide pour l\u0026rsquo;identification pr\u0026eacute;liminaire. Chapman et Hall Londres, 109p. https://urlz.fr/q53B\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang FF, Wang M, Xu FR, Liang DM et Pan BL. (2010) Enqu\u0026ecirc;te sur la pr\u0026eacute;valence et le contr\u0026ocirc;le des ectoparasites chez les volailles en cage en Chine. Dossier v\u0026eacute;t\u0026eacute;rinaire, 167, 934-937.https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.c6212\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWilliams RE. (2003) B\u0026eacute;tail et volaille: control of Poultry pests. Departement d\u0026rsquo;entomologie, Purdue University Cooperative Extensive Service Fiche d\u0026rsquo;information., n\u0026deg;E-3 https://urlz.fr/q53m\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYakhchali M, Rasouli S et Alborzi E. (2013) Pr\u0026eacute;valence et r\u0026eacute;partition des poux rouges de la volaille dans les \u0026eacute;levages de poules pondeuses de la province de Markazi en Iran. Iranien J Vet Rest, 14(1) :72-74. https://doi.org/10.22099/ijvr.2013.1394.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Photo 1 and 2","content":"\u003cp\u003ePhoto 1 and 2 are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e\n"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"tropical-animal-health-and-production","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"trop","sideBox":"Learn more about [Tropical Animal Health and Production](https://www.springer.com/journal/11250)","snPcode":"11250","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11250/3","title":"Tropical Animal Health and Production","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"poultry, ectoparasite, environmental determinants, prevalence, maritime Region of Togo","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5521099/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5521099/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"Ectoparasites are pests of animals and poultry in particular. The presence of ectoparasites in birds affects their productivity and facilitates the transmission of pathogenic agents. This study aimed to explore the diversity of ectoparasites in laying hens, evaluate their prevalence, and analyse the environmental factors promoting the proliferation of ectoparasites. The study was conducted in three prefectures of the Maritime Region of Togo. It covered ninety (90) modern laying hen farms. A total of 576 laying hens were randomly sampled in the three prefectures. Ectoparasites were collected by freezing, direct ectoparasite sampling, leg scratching, and the weight of infested and non-infested birds. Ten (10) species of ectoparasites were identified, with an average infestation rate of 73.26%. The prevalence of acarid (59.54%) and louse (37.21%) parasitism was significantly higher (P\u0026lt;0.0001) than the prevalence of flea (03.25%) parasitism. The variation in the prevalence rate of each ectoparasite species was significantly (P\u0026lt;0.0001) related to the locality. Dermanyssus gallinae and Menacanthus stamineus were the most prevalent species, with 100% and 70.23% prevalence rates, respectively. The duration of brood renewal was the most important factor (P\u0026lt;0.0001) favors the proliferation of ectoparasites. Laying hens are more infested by Dermanyssus gallinae and Menacanthus stamineus, and the duration of brood renewal is the most important factor in the proliferation of ectoparasites. Most ectoparasites proliferate when the temperature in poultry houses is above 28°C and the humidity is above 47%. To effectively combat the adverse effects of these ectoparasites, research should focus on the vector-borne diseases they transmit to poultry.","manuscriptTitle":"Combating ectoparasites in Togolese laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus): Exploring diversity, prevalence and environmental determinant","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-18 18:40:01","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5521099/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-04-09T01:46:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Tropical Animal Health and Production","date":"2025-03-31T10:07:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"tropical-animal-health-and-production","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"trop","sideBox":"Learn more about [Tropical Animal Health and Production](https://www.springer.com/journal/11250)","snPcode":"11250","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11250/3","title":"Tropical Animal Health and Production","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"b78889b5-a6a4-4834-b9db-139f44358eea","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 18th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-06-30T16:05:21+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5521099","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-025-04518-0","journal":{"identity":"tropical-animal-health-and-production","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Tropical Animal Health and Production"},"publishedOn":"2025-06-26 15:56:56","publishedOnDateReadable":"June 26th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-18 18:40:01","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11250-025-04518-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-025-04518-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5521099","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5521099","identity":"rs-5521099","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}