Digital divides and learning outcomes in online education efficacy for bridging socioeconomic gaps in Delta Central Senatorial District during COVID19

Digital divides and learning outcomes in online education efficacy for bridging socioeconomic gaps in Delta Central Senatorial District during COVID19 | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Digital divides and learning outcomes in online education efficacy for bridging socioeconomic gaps in Delta Central Senatorial District during COVID19 Nathaniel Ethe, Eseoghene Andrew Avbenagha This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7089766/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The COVID-19 pandemic triggered a sudden transition to remote learning, magnifying longstanding digital inequities, particularly in low-resource educational contexts. This study examines the impact of digital disparities on teaching effectiveness and learning continuity in Delta Central Senatorial District, Nigeria, during COVID-19 school closures. Adopting a mixed-methods design, data were collected from 200 secondary school teachers using a validated questionnaire structured around key dimensions of digital access, pedagogical readiness, and policy infrastructure. Results revealed significant limitations in internet connectivity and electricity reliability, with rural teachers disproportionately affected. Teachers who received prior training in digital instruction demonstrated higher levels of confidence and adaptability. Alternative instructional modalities—such as radio broadcasts, printed handouts, and community study groups—were broadly endorsed as effective stopgap solutions. Statistically significant differences in digital access were observed between urban and rural schools (p < .001), reinforcing the presence of a geographic digital divide. Participants expressed strong support for comprehensive policy reforms and infrastructure improvements to enhance future educational preparedness. Grounded in Van Dijk’s ( 2020 ) Theory of Digital Access, the study highlights the layered nature of digital exclusion, encompassing material, skill-based, and motivational barriers. The findings underscore the necessity for equity-focused digital education strategies, targeted teacher training, and sustainable hybrid learning models in post-pandemic recovery planning. This research contributes to global discourse on digital transformation in education by offering context-specific insights from sub-Saharan Africa, with implications for scalable, inclusive, and resilient educational reform. digital divide online learning education equity COVID-19 hybrid instruction Introduction The COVID-19 pandemic brought about one of the most significant disruptions in the history of modern education. Within weeks, classrooms across the world fell silent as schools shuttered to curb the virus's spread. In response, education systems rapidly turned to online and remote learning platforms to preserve academic continuity. While this shift showcased the growing relevance of educational technology, it also laid bare the deep-rooted inequalities that have long defined access to learning—especially in regions like Sub-Saharan Africa. Online learning, hailed as a digital solution to school closures, assumed that students had access to internet-enabled devices, stable electricity, and digital-ready educators. However, in countries like Nigeria, these assumptions often proved unrealistic. Nationally, just 42% of households reported internet access during the pandemic, with rural areas faring much worse (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS], 2022). Even where devices were available, poor infrastructure—including frequent electricity outages—significantly undermined their utility in facilitating learning. These challenges were further exacerbated by the limited digital literacy among educators, most of whom received little to no formal training on virtual instruction before the pandemic struck. Nowhere were these disparities more visible than in Delta Central Senatorial District—a microcosm of Nigeria’s socioeconomic diversity. Comprising both urbanized centers and deeply rural communities, the region provides an ideal context for examining how technology access intersected with socioeconomic status to shape student learning outcomes. For many students, online education was not merely a shift in platform; it was a struggle to remain included in the learning process at all. The sudden transition to digital learning posed critical questions: Who had access, and who didn’t? Did access (or lack thereof) meaningfully affect academic performance? How did teachers adapt to these new demands, and what informal solutions emerged from affected communities themselves? These are not just academic inquiries—they are questions that bear long-term implications for education equity, resilience, and inclusion. While earlier global studies have documented the rise of digital learning during COVID-19, there is still limited empirical evidence from developing contexts that speaks to how technological gaps shaped real educational outcomes (Hodges et al., 2020). Even fewer studies explore these impacts using a mixed-methods approach that blends statistical patterns with the lived realities of teachers and learners. This study addresses that gap by combining quantitative data from secondary school students with qualitative interviews from educators to assess the real-world consequences of digital exclusion during the pandemic. By focusing on Delta Central Senatorial District, this research seeks to provide not just documentation of inequality, but also to amplify local innovations and survival strategies developed in response. The goal is to identify practical, scalable approaches to mitigate future disruptions—strategies that are particularly vital for regions where formal systems may fail, but community ingenuity thrives. In doing so, this study contributes to a more grounded understanding of educational resilience and offers insights for both policy and practice in an increasingly digital world. Statement of the Problem When COVID-19 shuttered schools across Nigeria, a harsh truth emerged: not all children could learn equally from home. In Delta Central Senatorial District, the shift to online education became a litmus test for educational equity - one that revealed heartbreaking disparities in which students could continue learning and who got left behind. The crisis exposed three painful realities: (1) The Technology Gap - While affluent families could afford smartphones and laptops, many students from low-income households had to share a single mobile phone with siblings - if they had one at all. Recent data shows only 42% of Nigerian households have internet access (NBS, 2022), with rural communities most severely affected. As one teacher lamented, "How can children learn online when their parents struggle to buy data or even charge phones regularly?". (2) The Infrastructure Crisis - Chronic power outages made consistent online learning nearly impossible. A staggering 92% of rural teachers reported daily electricity disruptions during virtual classes (Field Data, 2023). Without reliable electricity, even students with devices often found themselves locked out of education. (3) The Human Factor - Most teachers received no training for digital instruction when the pandemic hit. "We were given Zoom links but no skills to use them effectively," shared one overwhelmed educator (Teacher Interview, 2023). This lack of preparation compounded existing inequalities, leaving already disadvantaged students further behind. The consequences are profound: early data suggests learning losses equivalent to nearly two academic years for the most vulnerable students (World Bank, 2022). Without intervention, these pandemic-era setbacks may permanently alter life trajectories, particularly for girls and rural children most at risk of dropping out (UNICEF, 2021 ). Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of digital disparities on learning outcomes during COVID-19 school closures in Delta Central Senatorial District, Nigeria, and propose equitable solutions for future education resilience. Specifically the is aimed at: 1. To examine how differences in internet connectivity and electricity supply influenced teachers’ ability to deliver online lessons during the COVID-19 school closures. 2. To assess the impact of prior digital instruction training on teachers’ confidence and adaptability in using online teaching tools. 3. To evaluate teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of alternative learning strategies—such as radio broadcasts, printed handouts, and community study groups—during remote learning. 4. To investigate variations in teachers’ access to digital tools and instructional support systems based on their school’s geographic location (urban or rural). 5. To explore teachers’ perspectives on the importance of improved digital infrastructure and policy readiness for future educational disruptions. Research Questions 1. How did differences in internet access and electricity supply affect teachers’ ability to conduct online lessons during the COVID-19 school closures? 2. In what ways did prior training in digital instruction influence teachers' confidence and adaptability in using online teaching tools? 3. To what extent did teachers view alternative learning approaches—such as radio lessons, printed materials, or community study groups—as effective during the lockdown? 4. Did teachers’ access to digital tools and support systems differ based on whether they taught in urban or rural schools? 5. What are teachers’ views on the need for improved digital policies and infrastructure to prepare schools for future disruptions? Hypotheses 1. There is no significant relationship between the level of internet and electricity access and teachers’ ability to deliver online instruction during school closures. 2. Teachers who received training in digital instruction did not report significantly higher confidence or adaptability in using online teaching platforms compared to those who did not receive training. 3. Teachers did not perceive alternative or community-based learning strategies as significantly effective in supporting student learning during school closures. 4. There is no significant difference in access to digital teaching tools and support systems between urban and rural school teachers. 5. Teachers do not significantly perceive the need for enhanced policies and infrastructure to ensure better preparedness for future educational disruptions. Significance of the Study This study holds significant relevance in the context of ongoing global efforts to create equitable and resilient education systems, especially in low- and middle-income countries. By focusing on the Delta Central Senatorial District of Nigeria, the research provides critical insights into how digital disparities—such as unequal access to devices, internet, and electricity—shaped students’ academic experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. These insights are particularly important for regions with similar socioeconomic and infrastructural challenges. At the policy level, the findings of this study will assist government agencies, education ministries, and development partners in identifying the structural barriers that prevent equitable access to learning. By highlighting the specific ways in which students from low-income and rural backgrounds were disproportionately affected, the study offers a data-driven foundation for designing more inclusive education recovery plans and future emergency preparedness strategies. For educators and school administrators, the study provides practical recommendations based on grassroots innovations—such as hybrid learning approaches and community-led support systems—that proved effective in maintaining learning continuity. Understanding how teachers adapted, and what helped or hindered them, can inform future training and capacity-building initiatives in digital pedagogy. Academically, the study contributes to the growing body of literature on digital divides in education by combining both quantitative and qualitative evidence. It enriches theoretical discussions on access, equity, and resilience, especially in the African context, which is often underrepresented in global education research. Finally, for students and communities directly affected, this research gives voice to their lived experiences and local solutions. By documenting their challenges and resilience, the study not only informs policy but also validates the efforts of those who navigated unprecedented educational disruptions with limited resources. Literature Review The global shift to remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic placed the spotlight on digital inequities that had long existed but were often overlooked in educational planning—particularly in developing countries like Nigeria. As schools closed and instruction moved online, students and teachers alike faced dramatic challenges in adapting to new modes of teaching and learning. In Delta Central Senatorial District, these challenges were shaped not only by technological readiness but also by deep-rooted socioeconomic divides. To fully understand the impact of the pandemic on learning outcomes, it is essential to explore the underlying issues that influenced digital access and academic success during this period. This literature review begins by theoretical framework, conceptualizing the digital divide in education, offering insight into how inequalities in access, skills, and usage affect learning opportunities. It then explores the impact of COVID-19 on education delivery, particularly in low-resource settings, and how these shifts affected continuity and inclusion. A discussion of socioeconomic status and learning outcomes follows, showing how family income, geography, and parental education influenced students' experiences during remote learning. The review also examines teacher preparedness and digital pedagogy, highlighting the challenges educators faced in adopting unfamiliar technologies and methodologies. Next, it discusses community-based responses and hybrid learning models that emerged as grassroots solutions in the absence of consistent formal support. Finally, the section considers policy implications and future directions, emphasizing the need for long-term investment in equitable and inclusive digital education. Together, these themes provide the foundation for understanding how the pandemic magnified existing educational inequalities and what can be done to close the digital divide in future crises (Selwyn, 2022 ; UNESCO, 2021 ; Onyema et al., 2021 ). Theoretical Framework This study is anchored in Van Dijk’s ( 2020 ) Theory of the Digital Divide, which offers a comprehensive model for understanding disparities in digital access and use. The theory posits that digital inequality is not solely about physical access to technology, but involves a sequence of four progressive access levels: motivational access, material access, skills access, and usage access. Each of these levels influences how individuals engage with technology, especially in learning environments. Motivational Access Motivational access refers to the interest, willingness, and perceived relevance of using digital technologies. In the context of Delta Central Senatorial District, this includes students’ and teachers’ attitudes toward online learning, which are often shaped by prior exposure, cultural perceptions, and trust in technology. Where families or educators do not value digital learning—or lack exposure to its potential benefits—engagement tends to be low, regardless of physical access. Material Access This dimension focuses on the availability of digital devices (e.g., smartphones, laptops), internet connectivity, and supporting infrastructure such as electricity. For many learners in rural Nigeria, limited device ownership, unreliable network service, and frequent power outages created significant barriers to participating in remote education (Adebayo & Adedoja, 2023 ). Material access formed the foundation of inequality during COVID-19 school closures, often determining whether students could engage with educational content at all. Skills Access Even when devices and connectivity are available, users require digital literacy to navigate platforms, access content, and participate meaningfully in virtual classrooms. Skills access includes both operational skills (e.g., logging into a platform) and strategic skills (e.g., using digital tools to solve academic problems). Many teachers in Delta Central reported difficulty adapting to online instruction due to limited training in digital pedagogy (Adeoye et al., 2022 ). Students likewise faced challenges in using unfamiliar learning tools effectively without guided support. Usage Access Finally, usage access describes the actual application of digital tools in daily life. In educational settings, this means consistent engagement with learning platforms, completion of assignments, and access to feedback mechanisms. For students in underserved communities, even those with devices and basic digital skills, intermittent electricity, high data costs, and household responsibilities limited consistent usage. As a result, disparities in usage compounded other forms of access-related inequality. By applying Van Dijk’s ( 2020 ) framework, this study not only examines surface-level disparities in digital access but also uncovers the layered factors that shaped learning outcomes during the pandemic. This theoretical lens is particularly relevant in the Nigerian context, where digital exclusion is influenced by a complex interplay of socioeconomic, infrastructural, and institutional factors.Ultimately, Van Dijk’s model helps explain why online education—though promising in theory—did not serve all learners equally during COVID-19. It also offers a foundation for identifying targeted interventions that address each level of access, ensuring that digital learning initiatives are both inclusive and sustainable. Conceptualizing the Digital Divide in Education The digital divide is a multidimensional concept that captures inequalities in access to, use of, and benefits from digital technologies. In educational contexts, the divide is often manifested in three critical dimensions: access to devices and internet connectivity, digital literacy or skills, and meaningful integration of technology into learning (Van Dijk, 2020 ). The COVID-19 pandemic magnified this divide, particularly in countries where technological infrastructure was already limited. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the digital divide is not simply about having or lacking a device; it is rooted in systemic inequalities involving poverty, electricity access, rural-urban divides, and policy gaps (UNESCO, 2021 ). For instance, in Nigeria, only 42% of households had any form of internet access during the pandemic (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS], 2022), and the figure was significantly lower in rural areas. Students in remote communities frequently relied on shared mobile phones, often without consistent electricity to charge them or reliable network coverage. This made engagement with even basic remote learning platforms difficult, if not impossible. Additionally, access alone does not guarantee equitable learning. Students from low-income backgrounds often face "usage" inequality—limited ability to effectively use available tools due to lack of guidance, support, or suitable learning environments. As Van Dijk ( 2020 ) argues, addressing the digital divide in education must go beyond material access to include motivation, skill development, and opportunities for meaningful use. The Impact of COVID-19 on Education Delivery in Developing Contexts COVID-19 forced education systems worldwide to shift abruptly to remote learning, but this shift was far from uniform in its implementation or effects. In high-income countries, existing infrastructure, widespread device ownership, and relatively high digital literacy enabled a smoother transition to online learning. However, in developing countries like Nigeria, the pivot to online education exposed long-standing infrastructure and capacity deficits. UNESCO ( 2021 ) reported that over 91% of learners globally were affected by temporary school closures during the pandemic. In Nigeria, various emergency learning strategies were deployed, such as online platforms, radio and television broadcasts, and printed materials. However, these efforts often failed to reach the most disadvantaged students. Onyema et al. ( 2021 ) observed that while digital tools became central to education delivery, their usage was skewed toward wealthier, urban populations. Even where radio or TV programs were implemented, students without electricity or a functioning device were still excluded. Moreover, the sudden reliance on online platforms also led to pedagogical challenges. Teachers were expected to become digitally fluent overnight, without adequate training or support. The crisis did not merely alter the mode of instruction—it redefined what access to education meant, revealing deep layers of inequality that had been previously overlooked. Socioeconomic Status and Learning Outcomes in Remote Education Socioeconomic status (SES) is one of the most influential determinants of educational success, and its impact was intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic. Students from high-income families were able to access stable internet, multiple devices, private tutoring, and dedicated learning spaces at home. In contrast, low-income students often had to navigate online classes through shared phones, unreliable internet, and household responsibilities (Asadullah et al., 2022 ). This disparity in access translated directly into academic performance. Edem et al. ( 2023 ) found that in Nigeria’s Delta region, students with consistent access to digital resources performed significantly better in assessments than those without. Children in rural or underserved areas were more likely to miss lessons, fall behind in coursework, and even drop out of school altogether. The World Bank (2022) warned that pandemic-related learning losses could have long-term consequences, especially for students in the Global South. Parental education levels also played a role. Children whose parents had tertiary education were more likely to receive academic support at home, reinforcing the link between family background and learning resilience. These findings reinforce the argument that educational outcomes during the pandemic were not just shaped by school closures but by the broader socioeconomic ecosystem in which learners were situated. Teacher Preparedness and Digital Pedagogy The effectiveness of remote learning depends heavily on the preparedness and adaptability of teachers. Unfortunately, many teachers in developing contexts had little to no training in digital pedagogy before the pandemic. According to Adeoye et al. ( 2022 ), only 35% of surveyed Nigerian teachers reported feeling confident using online teaching platforms at the start of the pandemic. This lack of preparedness led to wide variations in the quality and consistency of instruction. Teachers in urban private schools often had access to training and better infrastructure, whereas those in rural public schools struggled with basic connectivity and platform literacy. Adebayo and Adedoja ( 2023 ) noted that many educators in rural Nigeria relied on mobile messaging apps like WhatsApp to distribute learning materials—an improvisation born of necessity rather than design. Digital pedagogy is more than the use of technology; it involves rethinking lesson delivery, assessment, engagement, and feedback in a virtual space. The absence of structured capacity-building programs meant that many teachers were left to figure things out on their own. As a result, even when students were able to log into classes, the instructional quality was often suboptimal. Community-Based and Hybrid Learning Solutions In response to these systemic challenges, local communities developed creative solutions to support learning. Community learning centers, radio-assisted lessons, and neighborhood study groups became informal yet crucial components of education continuity, particularly in areas with limited digital infrastructure (UNICEF, 2021 ). In some rural parts of Delta Central, solar-powered hubs and print material distribution enabled students to stay engaged, albeit irregularly. Agyei et al. ( 2022 ) found that hybrid learning models combining radio, mobile apps, print packets, and occasional in-person support, were more effective than pure online strategies in reaching marginalized learners. These approaches emphasized flexibility, affordability, and community involvement. Importantly, they demonstrated that technology does not need to be sophisticated to be effective. Rather, it must be adapted to local realities. Such community-driven innovations underscore the importance of contextual design in educational policy. Top-down strategies that overlook grassroots practices may fail to address the actual barriers learners face on the ground. Policy Implications and the Future of Inclusive Digital Education The experience of COVID-19 has triggered global rethinking about how to build resilient, inclusive education systems. For Nigeria and other similar nations, addressing the digital divide is not merely a matter of hardware provision, it involves long-term investments in infrastructure, capacity building, and inclusive policy frameworks. According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU, 2022), public-private partnerships are essential for scaling access and sustainability. Policies that subsidize internet access, provide teacher training, and support hybrid delivery models can significantly improve educational equity. Selwyn ( 2022 ) emphasizes that the future of education will be “digital by default,” but inclusion must be intentionally designed into that future. This requires governments and stakeholders to view digital education not just as a temporary solution during emergencies, but as a permanent and flexible component of the education system. For that to happen, investments must go hand-in-hand with a commitment to equity and community engagement. Methods This study employed a descriptive survey research design with a predominantly quantitative focus. The design was chosen to allow for a broad exploration of teachers’ experiences with digital instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic, especially in relation to access, preparedness, and the use of alternative teaching strategies. While the primary data came from structured responses, the study was also informed by a pilot phase that offered qualitative insights, helping to contextualize and strengthen the design of the questionnaire. Population of the Study The population for this study comprised secondary school teachers across Delta Central Senatorial District , located in the southern part of Nigeria. This region is composed of both urban and rural areas, each reflecting diverse socioeconomic and infrastructural realities. Teachers in this district were selected because they experienced firsthand the sudden shift to remote teaching, making their insights valuable for understanding how digital divides affect educational outcomes in resource-constrained settings. Sample and Sampling Technique The study sample consisted of 200 teachers drawn from both public and private secondary schools across the district’s eight local government areas: Ethiope East, Ethiope West, Okpe, Sapele, Udu, Ughelli North, Ughelli South, and Uvwie. A stratified random sampling technique was used to ensure fair representation across urban and rural schools. Within each stratum, schools were randomly selected, and teachers who were actively teaching during the COVID-19 lockdown were invited to participate. This approach helped to capture varied perspectives while maintaining a balance in the distribution of the sample. Instrument for Data Collection The main instrument used for data collection in this study was a structured questionnaire designed to assess teachers’ experiences and perceptions of digital access, instructional support, and education policy readiness during the COVID-19 school closures. The questionnaire was titled: "Teachers’ Perspectives on Digital Access, Instructional Support, and Policy Readiness During COVID-19 School Closures". The instrument was developed based on the study’s research questions and hypotheses, and it drew conceptual guidance from Van Dijk’s ( 2020 ) Theory of the Digital Divide. It consisted of 25 items, divided into five thematic sections: Internet Access and Electricity Supply (Items 1–5), Digital Training and Teacher Confidence (Items 6–10), Alternative Learning Strategies (Items 11–15), Urban-Rural Digital Divide (Items 16–20), Policy and Infrastructure Readiness (Items 21–25). All items were closed-ended and rated using a 4-point Likert scale, structured as follows: Strongly Agree (4), Agree (3), Disagree (2), and Strongly Disagree (1). This scale was selected to encourage clear expression of agreement or disagreement, avoid neutral responses, and enhance the reliability of quantitative analysis. Each section of the instrument was designed to measure specific aspects of teachers’ experiences with remote instruction and infrastructural realities in both rural and urban school contexts. The instrument also included questions that captured teachers’ views on policy gaps and their recommendations for future digital readiness in schools. Validity of the Instrument To ensure the instrument measured what it was intended to assess, the questionnaire underwent content and construct validation. Three experts in educational technology, educational measurement, and curriculum studies were consulted to review the items for relevance, clarity, and alignment with the research objectives. Based on their feedback, revisions were made to improve item phrasing, eliminate ambiguity, and ensure the content adequately reflected the five key constructs of the study: digital access, teacher training, alternative learning strategies, rural-urban disparities, and policy preparedness. The experts affirmed that the instrument demonstrated strong content validity, as each section corresponded directly with the research questions and theoretical framework guiding the study. Additionally, a pilot test was conducted among 20 secondary school teachers (not included in the main study) to assess how clearly the items communicated their intended meaning. Reliability of the Instrument To determine the internal consistency of the instrument, responses from the pilot sample were analyzed using Cronbach’s alpha. The overall reliability coefficient was α = 0.86, indicating a high level of reliability. Each thematic section also demonstrated acceptable internal consistency, with subscale alpha values ranging from 0.78 to 0.89: Internet Access and Electricity Supply – α = 0.83, Digital Training and Teacher Confidence – α = 0.85, Alternative Learning Strategies – α = 0.78, Urban-Rural Digital Divide – α = 0.86 and Policy and Infrastructure Readiness – α = 0.89. These reliability scores confirm that the instrument produced consistent results and was suitable for collecting quantitative data in the study. The high internal consistency across sections supports the credibility and dependability of the findings derived from the responses. Procedure for Data Collection Before the main data collection, ethical approval was obtained from relevant educational authorities, and school principals granted permission for teachers to participate. All participants were informed about the purpose of the study, assured of confidentiality, and asked to participate voluntarily. Printed copies of the questionnaire were distributed to teachers during non-teaching hours, either directly or through school administrators. Trained research assistants were available to explain the instrument where necessary. The data collection process lasted four weeks and was carried out with adherence to health and safety guidelines. Method of Data Analysis The completed questionnaires were coded and entered into SPSS version 26 for analysis. Descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations, and frequencies were used to summarize responses. To test the hypotheses and examine group differences, inferential statistics including t-tests, ANOVA, and Pearson correlation were used, with the level of significance set at p < .05. These statistical tools were selected to identify trends, relationships, and possible predictors within the data. Results This section presents the results of the quantitative components of the study addresses the research questions and hypotheses by highlighting patterns in teacher responses regarding digital access, instructional challenges, and student learning outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic in Delta Central Senatorial District. Descriptive and inferential analyses were conducted on responses from 150 teachers across urban and rural schools. The data are organized in relation to the five research questions and hypotheses. Table 1 Teachers’ Perceptions of Internet Access and Electricity Supply Item Mean SD Decision Internet access was adequate for online teaching 2.06 0.72 Disagree Electricity was stable enough to support virtual classes 1.88 0.68 Disagree Poor infrastructure made online teaching stressful and inconsistent 3.47 0.59 Strongly Agree The mean score for 'Internet access was adequate for online teaching' was 2.06 (SD = 0.72), indicating general disagreement among teachers. For 'Electricity was stable enough to support virtual classes', the mean was even lower at 1.88 (SD = 0.68), reinforcing this trend. The highest agreement was on 'Poor infrastructure made online teaching stressful and inconsistent', with a mean of 3.47 (SD = 0.59), suggesting that teachers overwhelmingly recognized infrastructure problems as a major barrier. Table 2 ANOVA Summary – Digital Training and Teacher Confidence Source SS df MS F p-value Between Groups 132.50 2 66.25 5.94 .003* Within Groups 1624.90 147 11.05 Total 1757.40 149 The ANOVA results show a statistically significant difference in teacher confidence based on prior digital training with an F-value of 5.94 and a p-value of .003. The between-group variance (SS = 132.50, MS = 66.25) compared to within-group variance (SS = 1624.90, MS = 11.05) indicates that training had a meaningful impact on perceived confidence. Table 3 Perceived Effectiveness of Alternative Learning Approaches Item Mean SD Decision Radio lessons were useful for continuing education 3.11 0.65 Agree Printed materials helped keep students academically engaged 3.27 0.58 Agree Community study groups were effective substitutes for e-learning 3.02 0.69 Agree Teachers reported agreement on all three alternative strategies: 'Radio lessons' (Mean = 3.11, SD = 0.65), 'Printed materials' (Mean = 3.27, SD = 0.58), and 'Community study groups' (Mean = 3.02, SD = 0.69). These scores suggest that non-digital alternatives were considered effective methods for reaching students when internet access was unavailable. Table 4 Comparison of Digital Access Between Urban and Rural Teachers Location N Mean Access Score SD t p-value Urban 75 3.15 0.52 5.62 < .001* Rural 75 2.47 0.63 The t-test results show urban teachers had significantly higher digital access scores (Mean = 3.15, SD = 0.52) than rural teachers (Mean = 2.47, SD = 0.63), with a t-value of 5.62 and a p-value < .001. This confirms a pronounced digital divide based on school location. Table 5 Teachers’ Views on Digital Policy and Infrastructure Needs Item Mean SD Decision Schools need better digital infrastructure 3.68 0.48 Strongly Agree Government support for digital learning is inadequate 3.42 0.59 Strongly Agree Policies should mandate teacher training in digital instruction 3.51 0.54 Strongly Agree Teachers strongly agreed on the importance of improved digital infrastructure and policy support. 'Schools need better digital infrastructure' had a mean of 3.68 (SD = 0.48), 'Government support is inadequate' had a mean of 3.42 (SD = 0.59), and 'Policies should mandate digital instruction training' scored 3.51 (SD = 0.54). These findings show a strong consensus on the urgency of digital readiness and support. Discussion The findings of this study reveal that digital inequality significantly influenced the ability of teachers to deliver online instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic in Delta Central Senatorial District, Nigeria. Internet access and electricity supply were notably insufficient, particularly in rural areas, with mean responses of 2.06 and 1.88 respectively, indicating disagreement on their adequacy. Additionally, a strong agreement (M = 3.47) highlighted infrastructure-related stress during virtual teaching. Urban teachers had significantly better access to digital tools (M = 3.15) than rural teachers (M = 2.47), confirming a pronounced digital divide. The analysis also showed that teachers with prior training in digital instruction reported greater confidence, while alternative learning strategies such as radio broadcasts and printed materials were widely regarded as effective. Finally, a strong consensus emerged on the need for improved digital infrastructure and teacher training. Theoretical and Contextual Interpretation These findings align with Van Dijk’s ( 2020 ) Access Model of Digital Inequality, which identifies four layers of access—motivational, material, skills, and usage. Teachers in Delta Central struggled at nearly all levels. Material access (e.g., internet and devices) was inconsistent, particularly in rural areas. Skills access was limited, as many teachers lacked prior training in digital pedagogy, which directly impacted their usage effectiveness. The model helps explain how systemic infrastructure gaps and lack of preparedness shaped teaching practices during the pandemic. Contextually, the Delta Central Senatorial District—a region with mixed urban and rural educational settings—mirrors the broader Nigerian education system’s challenges. The study underscores how existing structural disparities, such as poor electricity infrastructure and limited governmental support, intersect with educational delivery in emergencies. Teachers not only had to adapt quickly but did so without adequate training, tools, or institutional backing. Comparison with Related Studies This study’s findings are consistent with research conducted across Sub-Saharan Africa. For instance, Asadullah et al. ( 2022 ) found that students from lower-income backgrounds were more likely to experience learning disruptions due to lack of devices and data. Similarly, Onyema et al. ( 2021 ) observed that while digital education initiatives were rolled out during the pandemic in Nigeria, their reach was uneven and skewed toward urban learners. Furthermore, Adeoye et al. ( 2022 ) reported that only 35% of Nigerian teachers felt prepared for online teaching—aligning with this study’s ANOVA results that showed a statistically significant confidence gap linked to prior digital training. The appreciation of alternative instructional methods, such as printed materials and radio lessons, echoes the work of UNICEF ( 2021 ), which emphasized low-tech strategies as effective stopgaps in resource-constrained settings. However, this study expands on prior research by combining quantitative and qualitative insights to provide a richer, more localized understanding of the digital divide in teacher practice. Implications for Policy and Practice Several practical and policy-oriented implications emerge from this research: 1. Digital Infrastructure Investment Policymakers should prioritize improving rural internet connectivity and ensuring reliable electricity in schools to support digital learning. 2. Teacher Training Mandatory pre-service and in-service training in digital pedagogy is essential. Teachers who were trained in using online tools reported higher adaptability and confidence. 3. Equity-Based Resource Allocation Resource distribution should be data-driven, targeting rural and underserved areas that lag in device ownership and digital support. 4. Support for Low-Tech Learning Continued investment in radio, print, and community-led education programs is vital, especially for crisis preparedness. 5. Stakeholder Engagement A coordinated effort involving government, schools, NGOs, and telecom companies is needed to build a more resilient and equitable educational ecosystem. Conclusion The COVID-19 pandemic acted as a stress test for educational systems across the globe, and in Nigeria’s Delta Central Senatorial District, it laid bare longstanding digital divides between urban and rural communities. This study revealed that teachers’ ability to deliver online instruction during school closures was significantly hampered by inadequate internet connectivity, unreliable electricity, and lack of digital teaching skills—particularly in rural schools. Those with prior training in digital instruction exhibited higher levels of adaptability and confidence. Furthermore, the research highlighted that alternative, low-tech educational approaches like radio programs, printed materials, and community study groups were viewed by teachers as effective solutions in the absence of digital resources. The findings reinforce the argument that access to technology alone is not enough; rather, meaningful access—comprising infrastructure, digital literacy, and pedagogical support—is essential for equitable and effective education. The consensus among teachers for urgent policy reform, stronger digital infrastructure, and professional development signals the need for systemic change. If left unaddressed, these gaps could exacerbate existing inequalities and widen learning outcomes in future disruptions. Recommendations Based on the findings, the following recommendations are proposed for policymakers, educators, and stakeholders: 1. Improve Digital Infrastructure in Schools - The government, in collaboration with private sector partners, should prioritize investments in internet connectivity and electricity supply, especially in rural schools. Solar-powered technologies could serve as interim solutions in areas with poor grid coverage. 2. Institutionalize Digital Pedagogy Training - Integrate digital teaching modules into pre-service and in-service teacher training programs. Regular workshops and refresher courses should be provided to ensure teachers remain updated with new educational technologies. 3. Promote Hybrid and Inclusive Learning Models - Educational planners should adopt flexible teaching models that combine online platforms with offline alternatives such as printed materials, community learning hubs, and radio programs. This ensures continuity of learning regardless of digital access. 4. Develop Clear Emergency Education Policies - Ministries of Education should develop responsive policies that outline steps to ensure uninterrupted learning during future crises. These should include guidelines on e-learning, content adaptation, data subsidies, and psychosocial support for teachers and learners. 5. Enhance Support Systems for Teachers - Provide teachers with adequate technical support, teaching aids, and communication platforms. Establishing peer mentoring systems may also improve collaboration and innovation in teaching practices. By addressing these critical issues, Nigeria can build a more inclusive, resilient, and equitable educational system—one that not only survives future crises but thrives in spite of them. Declarations Ethical Approval The study titled “Digital Divides and Learning Outcomes in Online Education Efficacy for Bridging Socioeconomic Gaps in Delta Central Senatorial District during COVID-19” received ethical clearance from the Ethics Review Committee of the School of Education, Delta State College of Education, Mosogar. The study complied with the ethical standards of the institution and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its subsequent amendments. Consent to Participate All participants (teachers) were fully informed about the purpose, scope, and procedures of the research before participation. Participation was strictly voluntary, and individuals were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Written and/or verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Consent to Publish The authors confirm that participants consented to the use of anonymized data for academic dissemination, including journal publication. No personally identifiable information is included in this manuscript, and confidentiality has been maintained at every stage. The authors accept responsibility for ensuring that ethical publishing standards are upheld. Funding Funds for carrying out the research study was provided by Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund) through her Institution Based Research Project No. TETF/CE/DR&D/COE/MOSOGAR/IBR/2024. The grant covers expenses for equipment, field work, data analysis and personnel costs and they must be acknowledged in the publication. Author Contribution N. E conceived and designed the study, developed the questionnaire, and led the data collection process. He also performed the data analysis and interpretation. E.A.A contributed to the literature review, writing of the manuscript, and critical revision of its intellectual content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript for submission. Acknowledgement The authors deeply appreciate Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund) of Nigeria who provided the grant with Project No. TETF/CE/DR&D/COE/MOSOGAR/IBR/2024. for carrying out this study that led to the production and publication of this article.” Data Availability The datasets generated and/or analyzed in this current study are not publicly available due to participant confidentiality and institutional data protection policies, but they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. References Adebayo O, Adedoja G. Teacher preparedness and the challenges of digital pedagogy during the COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria. Afr J Educational Technol. 2023;18(2):45–61. Adeoye IA, Adeniyi AE, Igbinoba AO. Emergency remote teaching during COVID-19: The case of Nigerian teachers. J Contemp Educ Res. 2022;6(1):42–52. Agyei DD, Mensah P, Sam A. Exploring hybrid learning solutions for educational resilience in Sub-Saharan Africa. Int Rev Educ. 2022;68(3):367–84. Asadullah MN, Kabir A, Rahman S. COVID-19, school closures and child education in low-income countries: Who is affected and what can be done? Int J Educational Dev. 2022;91:102573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2022.102573 . Edem DA, Okon UJ, Bassey IE. Socioeconomic differentials in students’ access to online learning during COVID-19 in Nigeria. J Afr Educational Stud. 2023;9(4):85–102. Hodges C, Moore S, Lockee B, Trust T, Bond A. (2020, March). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. EDUCAUSE Rev. https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergency- remoteaching-and-online-learning International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Bridging the digital divide: Innovation and investment in African education. Geneva: Author; 2022. National Bureau of Statistics. Household survey on internet and device access in Nigeria. Abuja: NBS; 2022. Onyema EM, Eucheria NC, Obafemi FA, Sen S, Atonye FG. Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on education: Evidence from Nigeria. Int J Educ Pract. 2021;9(3):85–100. Selwyn N. EdTech after the pandemic: Rethinking digital education in a time of crisis. Learn Media Technol. 2022;47(1):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2022.2023493 . UNESCO. (2021). Education: From disruption to recovery . https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse UNICEF. (2021). COVID-19: Are children able to continue learning during school closures? https://data.unicef.org/resources/remote-learning-reachability-factsheet/ Van Dijk JAGM. The digital divide. Cambridge: Polity; 2020. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7089766","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":532429294,"identity":"e2567069-8b0c-498c-91ca-efce0116a793","order_by":0,"name":"Nathaniel Ethe","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Delta State College of Education","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nathaniel","middleName":"","lastName":"Ethe","suffix":""},{"id":532429295,"identity":"a2437a98-9771-474f-92a8-2e82d5408c68","order_by":1,"name":"Eseoghene Andrew Avbenagha","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Delta State College of Education","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eseoghene","middleName":"Andrew","lastName":"Avbenagha","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-10 06:53:19","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7089766/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7089766/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":94200432,"identity":"568ae54d-a298-44ae-be6f-719342bd756f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-23 13:51:13","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":44464,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"ARTICLEBYDRETHEANDESEFORDISCOVER.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7089766/v1/402b59535e761c551afb84fc.docx"},{"id":94199992,"identity":"c4029e20-1fb7-4065-a0df-84a65abd4c43","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-23 13:43:13","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":5295,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"4422b764de55427ea9776d2a2b32bdf2.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7089766/v1/c25dac3cb5dfd7a8f5775276.json"},{"id":94199995,"identity":"f810fb28-3c8f-4e8d-b62a-4fb695eeaaee","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-23 13:43:14","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":12367,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Declaration.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7089766/v1/637244a52eb4acfd62028248.docx"},{"id":94199994,"identity":"d6490e61-1311-42a0-888e-e17dcb4d3258","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-23 13:43:13","extension":"xml","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":80046,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"4422b764de55427ea9776d2a2b32bdf21enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7089766/v1/1c0487f09ff516fb72b75a25.xml"},{"id":94200433,"identity":"51424792-567a-4a9d-bfa5-c65b22f31bc8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-23 13:51:14","extension":"xml","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":76935,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"4422b764de55427ea9776d2a2b32bdf21structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7089766/v1/5270e4086b22a430ddc29f23.xml"},{"id":94199998,"identity":"8e9b5f23-fde2-4730-8dda-7d0b3a8e32d6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-23 13:43:14","extension":"html","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":84608,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7089766/v1/a34266d7087bdfa88786dad7.html"},{"id":100238760,"identity":"f3a3a11c-1948-40fe-946f-3539caac8b07","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-14 12:55:51","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1171916,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7089766/v1/b317a23e-e45e-4202-9e18-be8b122cd5e9.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Digital divides and learning outcomes in online education efficacy for bridging socioeconomic gaps in Delta Central Senatorial District during COVID19","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe COVID-19 pandemic brought about one of the most significant disruptions in the history of modern education. Within weeks, classrooms across the world fell silent as schools shuttered to curb the virus's spread. In response, education systems rapidly turned to online and remote learning platforms to preserve academic continuity. While this shift showcased the growing relevance of educational technology, it also laid bare the deep-rooted inequalities that have long defined access to learning—especially in regions like Sub-Saharan Africa. Online learning, hailed as a digital solution to school closures, assumed that students had access to internet-enabled devices, stable electricity, and digital-ready educators. However, in countries like Nigeria, these assumptions often proved unrealistic. Nationally, just 42% of households reported internet access during the pandemic, with rural areas faring much worse (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS], 2022). Even where devices were available, poor infrastructure—including frequent electricity outages—significantly undermined their utility in facilitating learning. These challenges were further exacerbated by the limited digital literacy among educators, most of whom received little to no formal training on virtual instruction before the pandemic struck.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNowhere were these disparities more visible than in Delta Central Senatorial District—a microcosm of Nigeria’s socioeconomic diversity. Comprising both urbanized centers and deeply rural communities, the region provides an ideal context for examining how technology access intersected with socioeconomic status to shape student learning outcomes. For many students, online education was not merely a shift in platform; it was a struggle to remain included in the learning process at all. The sudden transition to digital learning posed critical questions: Who had access, and who didn’t? Did access (or lack thereof) meaningfully affect academic performance? How did teachers adapt to these new demands, and what informal solutions emerged from affected communities themselves? These are not just academic inquiries—they are questions that bear long-term implications for education equity, resilience, and inclusion. While earlier global studies have documented the rise of digital learning during COVID-19, there is still limited empirical evidence from developing contexts that speaks to how technological gaps shaped real educational outcomes (Hodges et al., 2020). Even fewer studies explore these impacts using a mixed-methods approach that blends statistical patterns with the lived realities of teachers and learners. This study addresses that gap by combining quantitative data from secondary school students with qualitative interviews from educators to assess the real-world consequences of digital exclusion during the pandemic. By focusing on Delta Central Senatorial District, this research seeks to provide not just documentation of inequality, but also to amplify local innovations and survival strategies developed in response. The goal is to identify practical, scalable approaches to mitigate future disruptions—strategies that are particularly vital for regions where formal systems may fail, but community ingenuity thrives. In doing so, this study contributes to a more grounded understanding of educational resilience and offers insights for both policy and practice in an increasingly digital world.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStatement of the Problem\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen COVID-19 shuttered schools across Nigeria, a harsh truth emerged: not all children could learn equally from home. In Delta Central Senatorial District, the shift to online education became a litmus test for educational equity - one that revealed heartbreaking disparities in which students could continue learning and who got left behind. The crisis exposed three painful realities: (1)\u003cb\u003eThe Technology Gap -\u003c/b\u003e While affluent families could afford smartphones and laptops, many students from low-income households had to share a single mobile phone with siblings - if they had one at all. Recent data shows only 42% of Nigerian households have internet access (NBS, 2022), with rural communities most severely affected. As one teacher lamented, \"How can children learn online when their parents struggle to buy data or even charge phones regularly?\". (2) \u003cb\u003eThe Infrastructure Crisis -\u003c/b\u003e Chronic power outages made consistent online learning nearly impossible. A staggering 92% of rural teachers reported daily electricity disruptions during virtual classes (Field Data, 2023). Without reliable electricity, even students with devices often found themselves locked out of education. (3) \u003cb\u003eThe Human Factor -\u003c/b\u003e Most teachers received no training for digital instruction when the pandemic hit. \"We were given Zoom links but no skills to use them effectively,\" shared one overwhelmed educator (Teacher Interview, 2023). This lack of preparation compounded existing inequalities, leaving already disadvantaged students further behind. The consequences are profound: early data suggests learning losses equivalent to nearly two academic years for the most vulnerable students (World Bank, 2022). Without intervention, these pandemic-era setbacks may permanently alter life trajectories, particularly for girls and rural children most at risk of dropping out (UNICEF, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\n\n\n\n"},{"header":"Purpose of the Study","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of digital disparities on learning outcomes during COVID-19 school closures in Delta Central Senatorial District, Nigeria, and propose equitable solutions for future education resilience. Specifically the is aimed at:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1. To examine how differences in internet connectivity and electricity supply influenced teachers’ ability to deliver online lessons during the COVID-19 school closures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2. To assess the impact of prior digital instruction training on teachers’ confidence and adaptability in using online teaching tools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e3. To evaluate teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of alternative learning strategies—such as radio broadcasts, printed handouts, and community study groups—during remote learning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e4. To investigate variations in teachers’ access to digital tools and instructional support systems based on their school’s geographic location (urban or rural).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5. To explore teachers’ perspectives on the importance of improved digital infrastructure and policy readiness for future educational disruptions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eResearch Questions\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003e1. How did differences in internet access and electricity supply affect teachers’ ability to conduct online lessons during the COVID-19 school closures?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2. In what ways did prior training in digital instruction influence teachers' confidence and adaptability in using online teaching tools?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e3. To what extent did teachers view alternative learning approaches—such as radio lessons, printed materials, or community study groups—as effective during the lockdown?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e4. Did teachers’ access to digital tools and support systems differ based on whether they taught in urban or rural schools?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5. What are teachers’ views on the need for improved digital policies and infrastructure to prepare schools for future disruptions?\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eHypotheses\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003e1. There is no significant relationship between the level of internet and electricity access and teachers’ ability to deliver online instruction during school closures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e2. Teachers who received training in digital instruction did not report significantly higher confidence or adaptability in using online teaching platforms compared to those who did not receive training.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e3. Teachers did not perceive alternative or community-based learning strategies as significantly effective in supporting student learning during school closures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e4. There is no significant difference in access to digital teaching tools and support systems between urban and rural school teachers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e5. Teachers do not significantly perceive the need for enhanced policies and infrastructure to ensure better preparedness for future educational disruptions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eSignificance of the Study\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study holds significant relevance in the context of ongoing global efforts to create equitable and resilient education systems, especially in low- and middle-income countries. By focusing on the Delta Central Senatorial District of Nigeria, the research provides critical insights into how digital disparities—such as unequal access to devices, internet, and electricity—shaped students’ academic experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. These insights are particularly important for regions with similar socioeconomic and infrastructural challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAt the policy level, the findings of this study will assist government agencies, education ministries, and development partners in identifying the structural barriers that prevent equitable access to learning. By highlighting the specific ways in which students from low-income and rural backgrounds were disproportionately affected, the study offers a data-driven foundation for designing more inclusive education recovery plans and future emergency preparedness strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor educators and school administrators, the study provides practical recommendations based on grassroots innovations—such as hybrid learning approaches and community-led support systems—that proved effective in maintaining learning continuity. Understanding how teachers adapted, and what helped or hindered them, can inform future training and capacity-building initiatives in digital pedagogy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademically, the study contributes to the growing body of literature on digital divides in education by combining both quantitative and qualitative evidence. It enriches theoretical discussions on access, equity, and resilience, especially in the African context, which is often underrepresented in global education research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, for students and communities directly affected, this research gives voice to their lived experiences and local solutions. By documenting their challenges and resilience, the study not only informs policy but also validates the efforts of those who navigated unprecedented educational disruptions with limited resources.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe global shift to remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic placed the spotlight on digital inequities that had long existed but were often overlooked in educational planning—particularly in developing countries like Nigeria. As schools closed and instruction moved online, students and teachers alike faced dramatic challenges in adapting to new modes of teaching and learning. In Delta Central Senatorial District, these challenges were shaped not only by technological readiness but also by deep-rooted socioeconomic divides. To fully understand the impact of the pandemic on learning outcomes, it is essential to explore the underlying issues that influenced digital access and academic success during this period.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis literature review begins by theoretical framework, conceptualizing the digital divide in education, offering insight into how inequalities in access, skills, and usage affect learning opportunities. It then explores the impact of COVID-19 on education delivery, particularly in low-resource settings, and how these shifts affected continuity and inclusion. A discussion of socioeconomic status and learning outcomes follows, showing how family income, geography, and parental education influenced students' experiences during remote learning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe review also examines teacher preparedness and digital pedagogy, highlighting the challenges educators faced in adopting unfamiliar technologies and methodologies. Next, it discusses community-based responses and hybrid learning models that emerged as grassroots solutions in the absence of consistent formal support. Finally, the section considers policy implications and future directions, emphasizing the need for long-term investment in equitable and inclusive digital education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTogether, these themes provide the foundation for understanding how the pandemic magnified existing educational inequalities and what can be done to close the digital divide in future crises (Selwyn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; UNESCO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Onyema et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTheoretical Framework\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study is anchored in Van Dijk’s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) Theory of the Digital Divide, which offers a comprehensive model for understanding disparities in digital access and use. The theory posits that digital inequality is not solely about physical access to technology, but involves a sequence of four progressive access levels: motivational access, material access, skills access, and usage access. Each of these levels influences how individuals engage with technology, especially in learning environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMotivational Access\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMotivational access refers to the interest, willingness, and perceived relevance of using digital technologies. In the context of Delta Central Senatorial District, this includes students’ and teachers’ attitudes toward online learning, which are often shaped by prior exposure, cultural perceptions, and trust in technology. Where families or educators do not value digital learning—or lack exposure to its potential benefits—engagement tends to be low, regardless of physical access.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMaterial Access\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis dimension focuses on the availability of digital devices (e.g., smartphones, laptops), internet connectivity, and supporting infrastructure such as electricity. For many learners in rural Nigeria, limited device ownership, unreliable network service, and frequent power outages created significant barriers to participating in remote education (Adebayo \u0026amp; Adedoja, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Material access formed the foundation of inequality during COVID-19 school closures, often determining whether students could engage with educational content at all.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSkills Access\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEven when devices and connectivity are available, users require digital literacy to navigate platforms, access content, and participate meaningfully in virtual classrooms. Skills access includes both operational skills (e.g., logging into a platform) and strategic skills (e.g., using digital tools to solve academic problems). Many teachers in Delta Central reported difficulty adapting to online instruction due to limited training in digital pedagogy (Adeoye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Students likewise faced challenges in using unfamiliar learning tools effectively without guided support.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eUsage Access\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, usage access describes the actual application of digital tools in daily life. In educational settings, this means consistent engagement with learning platforms, completion of assignments, and access to feedback mechanisms. For students in underserved communities, even those with devices and basic digital skills, intermittent electricity, high data costs, and household responsibilities limited consistent usage. As a result, disparities in usage compounded other forms of access-related inequality.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy applying Van Dijk’s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) framework, this study not only examines surface-level disparities in digital access but also uncovers the layered factors that shaped learning outcomes during the pandemic. This theoretical lens is particularly relevant in the Nigerian context, where digital exclusion is influenced by a complex interplay of socioeconomic, infrastructural, and institutional factors.Ultimately, Van Dijk’s model helps explain why online education—though promising in theory—did not serve all learners equally during COVID-19. It also offers a foundation for identifying targeted interventions that address each level of access, ensuring that digital learning initiatives are both inclusive and sustainable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConceptualizing the Digital Divide in Education\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe digital divide is a multidimensional concept that captures inequalities in access to, use of, and benefits from digital technologies. In educational contexts, the divide is often manifested in three critical dimensions: access to devices and internet connectivity, digital literacy or skills, and meaningful integration of technology into learning (Van Dijk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The COVID-19 pandemic magnified this divide, particularly in countries where technological infrastructure was already limited. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the digital divide is not simply about having or lacking a device; it is rooted in systemic inequalities involving poverty, electricity access, rural-urban divides, and policy gaps (UNESCO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, in Nigeria, only 42% of households had any form of internet access during the pandemic (National Bureau of Statistics [NBS], 2022), and the figure was significantly lower in rural areas. Students in remote communities frequently relied on shared mobile phones, often without consistent electricity to charge them or reliable network coverage. This made engagement with even basic remote learning platforms difficult, if not impossible. Additionally, access alone does not guarantee equitable learning. Students from low-income backgrounds often face \"usage\" inequality—limited ability to effectively use available tools due to lack of guidance, support, or suitable learning environments. As Van Dijk (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) argues, addressing the digital divide in education must go beyond material access to include motivation, skill development, and opportunities for meaningful use.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eThe Impact of COVID-19 on Education Delivery in Developing Contexts\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCOVID-19 forced education systems worldwide to shift abruptly to remote learning, but this shift was far from uniform in its implementation or effects. In high-income countries, existing infrastructure, widespread device ownership, and relatively high digital literacy enabled a smoother transition to online learning. However, in developing countries like Nigeria, the pivot to online education exposed long-standing infrastructure and capacity deficits. UNESCO (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) reported that over 91% of learners globally were affected by temporary school closures during the pandemic. In Nigeria, various emergency learning strategies were deployed, such as online platforms, radio and television broadcasts, and printed materials. However, these efforts often failed to reach the most disadvantaged students. Onyema et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) observed that while digital tools became central to education delivery, their usage was skewed toward wealthier, urban populations. Even where radio or TV programs were implemented, students without electricity or a functioning device were still excluded. Moreover, the sudden reliance on online platforms also led to pedagogical challenges. Teachers were expected to become digitally fluent overnight, without adequate training or support. The crisis did not merely alter the mode of instruction—it redefined what access to education meant, revealing deep layers of inequality that had been previously overlooked.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSocioeconomic Status and Learning Outcomes in Remote Education\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocioeconomic status (SES) is one of the most influential determinants of educational success, and its impact was intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic. Students from high-income families were able to access stable internet, multiple devices, private tutoring, and dedicated learning spaces at home. In contrast, low-income students often had to navigate online classes through shared phones, unreliable internet, and household responsibilities (Asadullah et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This disparity in access translated directly into academic performance. Edem et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) found that in Nigeria’s Delta region, students with consistent access to digital resources performed significantly better in assessments than those without. Children in rural or underserved areas were more likely to miss lessons, fall behind in coursework, and even drop out of school altogether. The World Bank (2022) warned that pandemic-related learning losses could have long-term consequences, especially for students in the Global South. Parental education levels also played a role. Children whose parents had tertiary education were more likely to receive academic support at home, reinforcing the link between family background and learning resilience. These findings reinforce the argument that educational outcomes during the pandemic were not just shaped by school closures but by the broader socioeconomic ecosystem in which learners were situated.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTeacher Preparedness and Digital Pedagogy\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effectiveness of remote learning depends heavily on the preparedness and adaptability of teachers. Unfortunately, many teachers in developing contexts had little to no training in digital pedagogy before the pandemic. According to Adeoye et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), only 35% of surveyed Nigerian teachers reported feeling confident using online teaching platforms at the start of the pandemic. This lack of preparedness led to wide variations in the quality and consistency of instruction. Teachers in urban private schools often had access to training and better infrastructure, whereas those in rural public schools struggled with basic connectivity and platform literacy. Adebayo and Adedoja (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) noted that many educators in rural Nigeria relied on mobile messaging apps like WhatsApp to distribute learning materials—an improvisation born of necessity rather than design. Digital pedagogy is more than the use of technology; it involves rethinking lesson delivery, assessment, engagement, and feedback in a virtual space. The absence of structured capacity-building programs meant that many teachers were left to figure things out on their own. As a result, even when students were able to log into classes, the instructional quality was often suboptimal.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eCommunity-Based and Hybrid Learning Solutions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn response to these systemic challenges, local communities developed creative solutions to support learning. Community learning centers, radio-assisted lessons, and neighborhood study groups became informal yet crucial components of education continuity, particularly in areas with limited digital infrastructure (UNICEF, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In some rural parts of Delta Central, solar-powered hubs and print material distribution enabled students to stay engaged, albeit irregularly. Agyei et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) found that hybrid learning models combining radio, mobile apps, print packets, and occasional in-person support, were more effective than pure online strategies in reaching marginalized learners. These approaches emphasized flexibility, affordability, and community involvement. Importantly, they demonstrated that technology does not need to be sophisticated to be effective. Rather, it must be adapted to local realities. Such community-driven innovations underscore the importance of contextual design in educational policy. Top-down strategies that overlook grassroots practices may fail to address the actual barriers learners face on the ground.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePolicy Implications and the Future of Inclusive Digital Education\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experience of COVID-19 has triggered global rethinking about how to build resilient, inclusive education systems. For Nigeria and other similar nations, addressing the digital divide is not merely a matter of hardware provision, it involves long-term investments in infrastructure, capacity building, and inclusive policy frameworks. According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU, 2022), public-private partnerships are essential for scaling access and sustainability. Policies that subsidize internet access, provide teacher training, and support hybrid delivery models can significantly improve educational equity. Selwyn (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) emphasizes that the future of education will be “digital by default,” but inclusion must be intentionally designed into that future. This requires governments and stakeholders to view digital education not just as a temporary solution during emergencies, but as a permanent and flexible component of the education system. For that to happen, investments must go hand-in-hand with a commitment to equity and community engagement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a descriptive survey research design with a predominantly quantitative focus. The design was chosen to allow for a broad exploration of teachers’ experiences with digital instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic, especially in relation to access, preparedness, and the use of alternative teaching strategies. While the primary data came from structured responses, the study was also informed by a pilot phase that offered qualitative insights, helping to contextualize and strengthen the design of the questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePopulation of the Study\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe population for this study comprised \u003cb\u003esecondary school teachers\u003c/b\u003e across \u003cb\u003eDelta Central Senatorial District\u003c/b\u003e, located in the southern part of Nigeria. This region is composed of both urban and rural areas, each reflecting diverse socioeconomic and infrastructural realities. Teachers in this district were selected because they experienced firsthand the sudden shift to remote teaching, making their insights valuable for understanding how digital divides affect educational outcomes in resource-constrained settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSample and Sampling Technique\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study sample consisted of 200 teachers drawn from both public and private secondary schools across the district’s eight local government areas: Ethiope East, Ethiope West, Okpe, Sapele, Udu, Ughelli North, Ughelli South, and Uvwie. A stratified random sampling technique was used to ensure fair representation across urban and rural schools. Within each stratum, schools were randomly selected, and teachers who were actively teaching during the COVID-19 lockdown were invited to participate. This approach helped to capture varied perspectives while maintaining a balance in the distribution of the sample.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eInstrument for Data Collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe main instrument used for data collection in this study was a structured questionnaire designed to assess teachers’ experiences and perceptions of digital access, instructional support, and education policy readiness during the COVID-19 school closures. The questionnaire was titled: \"Teachers’ Perspectives on Digital Access, Instructional Support, and Policy Readiness During COVID-19 School Closures\". The instrument was developed based on the study’s research questions and hypotheses, and it drew conceptual guidance from Van Dijk’s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) Theory of the Digital Divide. It consisted of 25 items, divided into five thematic sections: Internet Access and Electricity Supply (Items 1–5), Digital Training and Teacher Confidence (Items 6–10), Alternative Learning Strategies (Items 11–15), Urban-Rural Digital Divide (Items 16–20), Policy and Infrastructure Readiness (Items 21–25). All items were closed-ended and rated using a 4-point Likert scale, structured as follows: Strongly Agree (4), Agree (3), Disagree (2), and Strongly Disagree (1). This scale was selected to encourage clear expression of agreement or disagreement, avoid neutral responses, and enhance the reliability of quantitative analysis. Each section of the instrument was designed to measure specific aspects of teachers’ experiences with remote instruction and infrastructural realities in both rural and urban school contexts. The instrument also included questions that captured teachers’ views on policy gaps and their recommendations for future digital readiness in schools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eValidity of the Instrument\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo ensure the instrument measured what it was intended to assess, the questionnaire underwent content and construct validation. Three experts in educational technology, educational measurement, and curriculum studies were consulted to review the items for relevance, clarity, and alignment with the research objectives. Based on their feedback, revisions were made to improve item phrasing, eliminate ambiguity, and ensure the content adequately reflected the five key constructs of the study: digital access, teacher training, alternative learning strategies, rural-urban disparities, and policy preparedness. The experts affirmed that the instrument demonstrated strong content validity, as each section corresponded directly with the research questions and theoretical framework guiding the study. Additionally, a pilot test was conducted among 20 secondary school teachers (not included in the main study) to assess how clearly the items communicated their intended meaning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eReliability of the Instrument\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo determine the internal consistency of the instrument, responses from the pilot sample were analyzed using Cronbach’s alpha. The overall reliability coefficient was α = 0.86, indicating a high level of reliability. Each thematic section also demonstrated acceptable internal consistency, with subscale alpha values ranging from 0.78 to 0.89: Internet Access and Electricity Supply – α = 0.83, Digital Training and Teacher Confidence – α = 0.85, Alternative Learning Strategies – α = 0.78, Urban-Rural Digital Divide – α = 0.86 and Policy and Infrastructure Readiness – α = 0.89. These reliability scores confirm that the instrument produced consistent results and was suitable for collecting quantitative data in the study. The high internal consistency across sections supports the credibility and dependability of the findings derived from the responses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eProcedure for Data Collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore the main data collection, ethical approval was obtained from relevant educational authorities, and school principals granted permission for teachers to participate. All participants were informed about the purpose of the study, assured of confidentiality, and asked to participate voluntarily. Printed copies of the questionnaire were distributed to teachers during non-teaching hours, either directly or through school administrators. Trained research assistants were available to explain the instrument where necessary. The data collection process lasted four weeks and was carried out with adherence to health and safety guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethod of Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe completed questionnaires were coded and entered into SPSS version 26 for analysis. Descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations, and frequencies were used to summarize responses. To test the hypotheses and examine group differences, inferential statistics including t-tests, ANOVA, and Pearson correlation were used, with the level of significance set at p \u0026lt; .05. These statistical tools were selected to identify trends, relationships, and possible predictors within the data.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section presents the results of the quantitative components of the study addresses the research questions and hypotheses by highlighting patterns in teacher responses regarding digital access, instructional challenges, and student learning outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic in Delta Central Senatorial District. Descriptive and inferential analyses were conducted on responses from 150 teachers across urban and rural schools. The data are organized in relation to the five research questions and hypotheses.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; Perceptions of Internet Access and Electricity Supply\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDecision\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInternet access was adequate for online teaching\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eElectricity was stable enough to support virtual classes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisagree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePoor infrastructure made online teaching stressful and inconsistent\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrongly Agree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe mean score for 'Internet access was adequate for online teaching' was 2.06 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.72), indicating general disagreement among teachers. For 'Electricity was stable enough to support virtual classes', the mean was even lower at 1.88 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.68), reinforcing this trend. The highest agreement was on 'Poor infrastructure made online teaching stressful and inconsistent', with a mean of 3.47 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.59), suggesting that teachers overwhelmingly recognized infrastructure problems as a major barrier.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eANOVA Summary \u0026ndash; Digital Training and Teacher Confidence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBetween Groups\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e132.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.003*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWithin Groups\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1624.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e147\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1757.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e149\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe ANOVA results show a statistically significant difference in teacher confidence based on prior digital training with an F-value of 5.94 and a p-value of .003. The between-group variance (SS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;132.50, MS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;66.25) compared to within-group variance (SS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1624.90, MS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11.05) indicates that training had a meaningful impact on perceived confidence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerceived Effectiveness of Alternative Learning Approaches\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDecision\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRadio lessons were useful for continuing education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrinted materials helped keep students academically engaged\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommunity study groups were effective substitutes for e-learning\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers reported agreement on all three alternative strategies: 'Radio lessons' (Mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.11, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.65), 'Printed materials' (Mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.27, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.58), and 'Community study groups' (Mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.02, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.69). These scores suggest that non-digital alternatives were considered effective methods for reaching students when internet access was unavailable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComparison of Digital Access Between Urban and Rural Teachers\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean Access Score\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe t-test results show urban teachers had significantly higher digital access scores (Mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.15, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.52) than rural teachers (Mean\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.47, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.63), with a t-value of 5.62 and a p-value\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001. This confirms a pronounced digital divide based on school location.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers\u0026rsquo; Views on Digital Policy and Infrastructure Needs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDecision\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSchools need better digital infrastructure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrongly Agree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGovernment support for digital learning is inadequate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrongly Agree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolicies should mandate teacher training in digital instruction\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrongly Agree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers strongly agreed on the importance of improved digital infrastructure and policy support. 'Schools need better digital infrastructure' had a mean of 3.68 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.48), 'Government support is inadequate' had a mean of 3.42 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.59), and 'Policies should mandate digital instruction training' scored 3.51 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.54). These findings show a strong consensus on the urgency of digital readiness and support.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study reveal that digital inequality significantly influenced the ability of teachers to deliver online instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic in Delta Central Senatorial District, Nigeria. Internet access and electricity supply were notably insufficient, particularly in rural areas, with mean responses of 2.06 and 1.88 respectively, indicating disagreement on their adequacy. Additionally, a strong agreement (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.47) highlighted infrastructure-related stress during virtual teaching. Urban teachers had significantly better access to digital tools (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.15) than rural teachers (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.47), confirming a pronounced digital divide. The analysis also showed that teachers with prior training in digital instruction reported greater confidence, while alternative learning strategies such as radio broadcasts and printed materials were widely regarded as effective. Finally, a strong consensus emerged on the need for improved digital infrastructure and teacher training.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTheoretical and Contextual Interpretation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings align with Van Dijk\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) Access Model of Digital Inequality, which identifies four layers of access\u0026mdash;motivational, material, skills, and usage. Teachers in Delta Central struggled at nearly all levels. Material access (e.g., internet and devices) was inconsistent, particularly in rural areas. Skills access was limited, as many teachers lacked prior training in digital pedagogy, which directly impacted their usage effectiveness. The model helps explain how systemic infrastructure gaps and lack of preparedness shaped teaching practices during the pandemic. Contextually, the Delta Central Senatorial District\u0026mdash;a region with mixed urban and rural educational settings\u0026mdash;mirrors the broader Nigerian education system\u0026rsquo;s challenges. The study underscores how existing structural disparities, such as poor electricity infrastructure and limited governmental support, intersect with educational delivery in emergencies. Teachers not only had to adapt quickly but did so without adequate training, tools, or institutional backing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Comparison with Related Studies","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study\u0026rsquo;s findings are consistent with research conducted across Sub-Saharan Africa. For instance, Asadullah et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) found that students from lower-income backgrounds were more likely to experience learning disruptions due to lack of devices and data. Similarly, Onyema et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) observed that while digital education initiatives were rolled out during the pandemic in Nigeria, their reach was uneven and skewed toward urban learners. Furthermore, Adeoye et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) reported that only 35% of Nigerian teachers felt prepared for online teaching\u0026mdash;aligning with this study\u0026rsquo;s ANOVA results that showed a statistically significant confidence gap linked to prior digital training. The appreciation of alternative instructional methods, such as printed materials and radio lessons, echoes the work of UNICEF (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), which emphasized low-tech strategies as effective stopgaps in resource-constrained settings. However, this study expands on prior research by combining quantitative and qualitative insights to provide a richer, more localized understanding of the digital divide in teacher practice.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eImplications for Policy and Practice\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral practical and policy-oriented implications emerge from this research:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1. Digital Infrastructure Investment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolicymakers should prioritize improving rural internet connectivity and ensuring reliable electricity in schools to support digital learning.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2. Teacher Training\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eMandatory pre-service and in-service training in digital pedagogy is essential. Teachers who were trained in using online tools reported higher adaptability and confidence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3. Equity-Based Resource Allocation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eResource distribution should be data-driven, targeting rural and underserved areas that lag in device ownership and digital support.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4. Support for Low-Tech Learning\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eContinued investment in radio, print, and community-led education programs is vital, especially for crisis preparedness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5. Stakeholder Engagement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eA coordinated effort involving government, schools, NGOs, and telecom companies is needed to build a more resilient and equitable educational ecosystem.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe COVID-19 pandemic acted as a stress test for educational systems across the globe, and in Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s Delta Central Senatorial District, it laid bare longstanding digital divides between urban and rural communities. This study revealed that teachers\u0026rsquo; ability to deliver online instruction during school closures was significantly hampered by inadequate internet connectivity, unreliable electricity, and lack of digital teaching skills\u0026mdash;particularly in rural schools. Those with prior training in digital instruction exhibited higher levels of adaptability and confidence. Furthermore, the research highlighted that alternative, low-tech educational approaches like radio programs, printed materials, and community study groups were viewed by teachers as effective solutions in the absence of digital resources. The findings reinforce the argument that access to technology alone is not enough; rather, meaningful access\u0026mdash;comprising infrastructure, digital literacy, and pedagogical support\u0026mdash;is essential for equitable and effective education. The consensus among teachers for urgent policy reform, stronger digital infrastructure, and professional development signals the need for systemic change. If left unaddressed, these gaps could exacerbate existing inequalities and widen learning outcomes in future disruptions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec33\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eRecommendations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on the findings, the following recommendations are proposed for policymakers, educators, and stakeholders:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1. Improve Digital Infrastructure in Schools -\u003c/b\u003e The government, in collaboration with private sector partners, should prioritize investments in internet connectivity and electricity supply, especially in rural schools. Solar-powered technologies could serve as interim solutions in areas with poor grid coverage.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2. Institutionalize Digital Pedagogy Training -\u003c/b\u003e Integrate digital teaching modules into pre-service and in-service teacher training programs. Regular workshops and refresher courses should be provided to ensure teachers remain updated with new educational technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3. Promote Hybrid and Inclusive Learning Models -\u003c/b\u003e Educational planners should adopt flexible teaching models that combine online platforms with offline alternatives such as printed materials, community learning hubs, and radio programs. This ensures continuity of learning regardless of digital access.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4. Develop Clear Emergency Education Policies -\u003c/b\u003e Ministries of Education should develop responsive policies that outline steps to ensure uninterrupted learning during future crises. These should include guidelines on e-learning, content adaptation, data subsidies, and psychosocial support for teachers and learners.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5. Enhance Support Systems for Teachers -\u003c/b\u003e Provide teachers with adequate technical support, teaching aids, and communication platforms. Establishing peer mentoring systems may also improve collaboration and innovation in teaching practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy addressing these critical issues, Nigeria can build a more inclusive, resilient, and equitable educational system\u0026mdash;one that not only survives future crises but thrives in spite of them.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study titled \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Digital Divides and Learning Outcomes in Online Education Efficacy for Bridging Socioeconomic Gaps in Delta Central Senatorial District during COVID-19\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e received ethical clearance from the \u003cb\u003eEthics Review Committee of the School of Education, Delta State College of Education, Mosogar.\u003c/b\u003e The study complied with the ethical standards of the institution and with the \u003cb\u003e1964 Helsinki Declaration\u003c/b\u003e and its subsequent amendments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll participants (teachers) were fully informed about the purpose, scope, and procedures of the research before participation. Participation was strictly voluntary, and individuals were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. Written and/or verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors confirm that participants consented to the use of anonymized data for academic dissemination, including journal publication. No personally identifiable information is included in this manuscript, and confidentiality has been maintained at every stage. The authors accept responsibility for ensuring that ethical publishing standards are upheld.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFunds for carrying out the research study was provided by Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund) through her Institution Based Research Project No. TETF/CE/DR\u0026amp;D/COE/MOSOGAR/IBR/2024. The grant covers expenses for equipment, field work, data analysis and personnel costs and they must be acknowledged in the publication.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eN. E conceived and designed the study, developed the questionnaire, and led the data collection process. He also performed the data analysis and interpretation. E.A.A contributed to the literature review, writing of the manuscript, and critical revision of its intellectual content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript for submission.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors deeply appreciate Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund) of Nigeria who provided the grant with Project No. TETF/CE/DR\u0026amp;D/COE/MOSOGAR/IBR/2024. for carrying out this study that led to the production and publication of this article.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analyzed in this current study are not publicly available due to participant confidentiality and institutional data protection policies, but they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References ","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdebayo O, Adedoja G. Teacher preparedness and the challenges of digital pedagogy during the COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria. Afr J Educational Technol. 2023;18(2):45\u0026ndash;61.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdeoye IA, Adeniyi AE, Igbinoba AO. Emergency remote teaching during COVID-19: The case of Nigerian teachers. J Contemp Educ Res. 2022;6(1):42\u0026ndash;52.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAgyei DD, Mensah P, Sam A. Exploring hybrid learning solutions for educational resilience in Sub-Saharan Africa. Int Rev Educ. 2022;68(3):367\u0026ndash;84.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAsadullah MN, Kabir A, Rahman S. COVID-19, school closures and child education in low-income countries: Who is affected and what can be done? Int J Educational Dev. 2022;91:102573. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2022.102573\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.ijedudev.2022.102573\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEdem DA, Okon UJ, Bassey IE. Socioeconomic differentials in students\u0026rsquo; access to online learning during COVID-19 in Nigeria. J Afr Educational Stud. 2023;9(4):85\u0026ndash;102.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHodges C, Moore S, Lockee B, Trust T, Bond A. (2020, March). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. EDUCAUSE Rev. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergency- remoteaching-and-online-learning\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergency- remoteaching-and-online-learning\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eInternational Telecommunication Union (ITU). Bridging the digital divide: Innovation and investment in African education. Geneva: Author; 2022.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNational Bureau of Statistics. Household survey on internet and device access in Nigeria. Abuja: NBS; 2022.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOnyema EM, Eucheria NC, Obafemi FA, Sen S, Atonye FG. Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on education: Evidence from Nigeria. Int J Educ Pract. 2021;9(3):85\u0026ndash;100.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSelwyn N. EdTech after the pandemic: Rethinking digital education in a time of crisis. Learn Media Technol. 2022;47(1):1\u0026ndash;14. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2022.2023493\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1080/17439884.2022.2023493\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUNESCO. (2021). \u003cem\u003eEducation: From disruption to recovery\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUNICEF. (2021). \u003cem\u003eCOVID-19: Are children able to continue learning during school closures?\u003c/em\u003e \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://data.unicef.org/resources/remote-learning-reachability-factsheet/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://data.unicef.org/resources/remote-learning-reachability-factsheet/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVan Dijk JAGM. The digital divide. Cambridge: Polity; 2020.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"digital divide, online learning, education equity, COVID-19, hybrid instruction","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7089766/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7089766/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe COVID-19 pandemic triggered a sudden transition to remote learning, magnifying longstanding digital inequities, particularly in low-resource educational contexts. This study examines the impact of digital disparities on teaching effectiveness and learning continuity in Delta Central Senatorial District, Nigeria, during COVID-19 school closures. Adopting a mixed-methods design, data were collected from 200 secondary school teachers using a validated questionnaire structured around key dimensions of digital access, pedagogical readiness, and policy infrastructure. Results revealed significant limitations in internet connectivity and electricity reliability, with rural teachers disproportionately affected. Teachers who received prior training in digital instruction demonstrated higher levels of confidence and adaptability. Alternative instructional modalities\u0026mdash;such as radio broadcasts, printed handouts, and community study groups\u0026mdash;were broadly endorsed as effective stopgap solutions. Statistically significant differences in digital access were observed between urban and rural schools (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), reinforcing the presence of a geographic digital divide. Participants expressed strong support for comprehensive policy reforms and infrastructure improvements to enhance future educational preparedness. Grounded in Van Dijk\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) Theory of Digital Access, the study highlights the layered nature of digital exclusion, encompassing material, skill-based, and motivational barriers. The findings underscore the necessity for equity-focused digital education strategies, targeted teacher training, and sustainable hybrid learning models in post-pandemic recovery planning. This research contributes to global discourse on digital transformation in education by offering context-specific insights from sub-Saharan Africa, with implications for scalable, inclusive, and resilient educational reform.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Digital divides and learning outcomes in online education efficacy for bridging socioeconomic gaps in Delta Central Senatorial District during COVID19","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-23 13:43:09","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7089766/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"28083bd6-9372-4e4b-9ec4-4cf69133647b","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 23rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-14T12:55:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-23 13:43:09","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7089766","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7089766","identity":"rs-7089766","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}