Experimental Study on the Application of Electrospinning Technology in the Conservation of Ancient Silk Textiles

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To develop a mild and characterizable consolidation system, this study introduced electrospinning technology to prepare silk fibroin (SF)/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) composite nanofiber membranes, optimized via glycerol modification. The optimal formulation (SF:PVA = 3:7, 2 mL glycerol, appropriate ethanol) and process parameters (20 kV voltage, 0.5 mL/h flow rate, 12 cm tip-to-collector distance) yielded dense, uniformly distributed nanofibers. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed good fiber continuity without bead defects, while Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy verified intact silk fibroin structure and enhanced hydrogen bonding (no adverse functional groups). Tensile tests showed significantly improved breaking strength and elongation of aged silk after coating, with the 3-hour deposition sample exhibiting the greatest enhancement. Peel tests revealed a maximum peel force ≤ 0.3 N, enabling gentle whole-membrane removal. This glycerol-modified SF/PVA electrospun membrane achieves effective surface consolidation with minimal intervention, good compatibility, and reversibility, providing a feasible paradigm for silk textile relic conservation and laying a methodological foundation for spectroscopic evaluation systems. Fragile silk relics often suffer from poor compatibility and irreversible damage when using traditional consolidation methods. We developed a new reversible method using electrospinning technology to prepare SF/PVA composite nanofiber membranes with glycerol modification. The thin, transparent membrane significantly improves the mechanical strength of aged silk while maintaining its flexibility. Importantly, it can be gently peeled off from the relic surface without causing damage (maximum peel force ≤ 0.3 N), meeting the "minimum intervention" principle of cultural heritage conservation. This study offers a safe and effective solution for protecting fragile silk textiles, with potential application in the conservation of other organic cultural relics. Silk textile relics electrospinning nanofiber membrane silk fibroin reversible reinforcement conservation technology Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 1 Introduction Silk textiles, as important carriers of ancient Chinese material culture, embody the technological level of ancient textile craftsmanship and bear abundant historical information and cultural value. However, as silk textiles are essentially organic materials composed of proteins or cellulose, they are highly susceptible to erosion by environmental changes. Prolonged burial leads to fiber degradation, strength attenuation and structural pulverization; after excavation, their fragility is further exacerbated due to abrupt changes in temperature and humidity as well as microbial activity. Whether at archaeological excavation sites, in long-term museum preservation or exhibition environments, silk textiles are among the most difficult cultural relics to conserve. Under the fundamental principles of "minimum intervention, compatibility and reversibility" in cultural heritage conservation, achieving effective consolidation without altering the original appearance of cultural relics has always been a core technical challenge in the field of textile conservation. The development of silk textile conservation in China can be divided into several stages, including physical methods, chemical methods, physicochemical combined methods, and the exploration of interdisciplinary approaches and new materials since the 21st century. In the 1930s, Ma Heng first adopted the glass clamping method on embroidered fragments unearthed from the Wuluchong Tomb, retarding fabric deterioration by isolating them from the external environment 1 . This method marked the beginning of the systematic conservation of unearthed silk textiles, yet its application was limited to sheet-like cultural relics. In the 1950s, the Palace Museum drew on the mounting techniques of calligraphy and painting works, carrying out splicing and exhibition of Liao Dynasty textiles via backing with silk fabric, which achieved remarkable consolidation effects. Nevertheless, it obscured the information on the back of the fabrics, restricted craft research, and lacked reversibility. Such methods represented the limitations of early consolidation ideas: they emphasized stability and exhibition but often sacrificed the integrity of the intrinsic information of cultural relics and failed to meet the contemporary conservation concept of "reversibility and minimal intervention". From the 1950s to the 1970s, with the development of the chemical industry, polymer spraying and coating technologies were gradually applied to silk textile conservation. In 1958, cultural heritage conservation practitioners sprayed polymethyl methacrylate on textiles unearthed from the Dingling Mausoleum to enhance strength and fix pulverized fibers; in 1972, casein was used for spray consolidation of painted fabrics unearthed from the Mawangdui Han Tomb. Although such methods could improve breaking strength in the short term, the poor compatibility between the materials and silk fibroin often caused fabric hardening, loss of elasticity, and irreversible treatment, which could not meet the requirements of long-term preservation. Such chemical spraying methods "focused on reinforcement" had advantages in improving short-term mechanical properties, but they generally suffered from drawbacks such as poor compatibility, material irreversibility and aging embrittlement, whose limitations remain a consensus in the industry to this day. In the 1970s, the landmark silk mesh consolidation method emerged. The Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences first applied this method in the restoration project of the "Albanian Parchment Manuscripts", weaving single silk filaments into transparent plain silk mesh with a net winding machine, and adhering it to the surface of fragile book pages via alcohol dissolution or hot melting with polyvinyl butyral (PVB) solution, thus achieving effective support for the overall structure. Subsequently, the inventors extended this method to the conservation of unearthed silk textiles, using silk mesh with a diameter of only 3 ~ 12 µm to consolidate damaged fabrics 2 . The silk mesh is barely visible to the naked eye, and while enhancing the overall strength, it well preserves the original appearance and structural information of cultural relics. The silk mesh consolidation method is regarded by academia as the beginning of the "physicochemical combination" idea. Its advantages lie in transparency, light weight and a certain degree of reversibility, but its effect is mainly limited to surface support, with poor efficacy for severely pulverized and carbonized fabrics, and it also requires a long time for preliminary preparation. Nevertheless, it laid a foundation for the subsequent exploration of transparent, lightweight and compatible materials and occupies an important position in the history of Chinese silk textile conservation. This method relies on manual net weaving and time-consuming preliminary preparation, and has poor adaptability to severely pulverized and carbonized fabrics, making it difficult to become a universal solution. From the 1980s to the 1990s, the application of polymer materials was further deepened. Eric F. Hansen attempted to use Parylene C coating in 1989, which achieved a significant effect in improving the breaking strength of fragile silk textiles 3 . Chinese scholars carried out vacuum consolidation experiments with Parylene N around 2010, and the results showed that the fabric was improved in water resistance, acid and alkali resistance and mechanical properties. However, the complex process, high equipment requirements, as well as yellowing and embrittlement under long-term photoaging conditions limited its practical popularization. In the same period, new resins such as silicone-modified acrylic resin (SA-6) 4 and Paraloid B72 5 were systematically used for the consolidation of fragile silk textiles. These materials improved the elongation at break and stiffness, but problems such as large color difference and irreversibility still existed. The research focus of this period was on the selection and modification of polymers, yet no fundamental breakthroughs were made in terms of compatibility and reversibility. Entering the 21st century, the research and development of silk textile conservation have gradually shifted to the application of homologous and biomaterials. In 2008, the China National Silk Museum and Zhejiang Sci-Tech University developed the crepe silk covering method 6 , covering the surface of cultural relics with ultra-transparent thin silk to present the original appearance clearly. However, secondary damage is inevitably caused due to the need for needle and thread sewing. Around 2010, silk fibroin combined with crosslinking agents such as glutaraldehyde and ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether (EGDE) was used to consolidate aged silk textiles, showing good compatibility and strength enhancement effects 7 . At the same time, bacterial cellulose dry films were applied to the consolidation experiment of Liao Dynasty silk textiles due to their high crystallinity and mechanical strength, exhibiting a good mechanical supporting effect, but the application concentration and degradation conditions remain to be verified. Research by the University of Science and Technology of China restored the mechanical properties significantly by generating biopolymers in the micro-pores of aged silk textiles. Nevertheless, these methods still face limitations such as irreversible crosslinking, complex processes or unclear long-term stability. In recent years, with the advancement of detection and analysis technologies and materials science, research on silk textile conservation has shown a new trend of interdisciplinary integration. Detection methods such as scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and high-performance liquid chromatography have enabled researchers to accurately evaluate the degradation mechanism of fabrics and the effect of consolidation, providing a scientific basis for scheme design. On this basis, nanomaterials and bionic technologies have been gradually introduced into the field of cultural heritage conservation. Among them, electrospinning technology can prepare nanofiber membranes at room temperature, which are thin, transparent, uniformly and controllably structured, with good flexibility and potential reversible peeling properties. Compared with traditional sewing or polymer spraying, it can better conform to the surface of silk textiles and achieve chemical coordination through material compatibility. This study is the first to introduce electrospinning technology into the field of silk textile cultural relic conservation, proposing its application prospects in consolidation and reversibility, and providing new ideas for the improvement of traditional consolidation methods. In summary, the development history of silk textile conservation in China clearly shows a continuous evolution from physical fixation to chemical spraying, then to physicochemical combination and the introduction of biomaterials. Although many existing methods have made progress in enhancing mechanical properties and improving exhibition effects, there are still great deficiencies in terms of reversibility, compatibility and long-term stability. Against this background, this study attempts to introduce electrospun nanofiber membranes, using silk fibroin (SF) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as the main materials, combined with glycerol modification to optimize flexibility, and evaluate its feasibility and performance in the consolidation of aged silk textiles through experiments. This study aims to explore a new technical system that meets the principles of minimum intervention, reversibility and compatibility, providing theoretical reference and empirical support for the conservation of silk textile cultural relics. 2 Methods To improve the practical efficacy of silk textile conservation technologies, our research team conducted a systematic series of simulated experiments to investigate the performance of electrospinning technology for silk textile conservation. The experimental materials, instruments, and procedures are described in detail below. 2.1 Experimental Materials Pure silk fabrics (100% mulberry silk) with a grammage of 30 g/m² were used as the substrate material in all experiments. The key chemical reagents employed are summarized in Table 1 . Table 1 Experimental Chemical Reagents Reagent Specification Source Silk peptide powder ≥ 99% purity Hefei Bomei Biotechnology Co., Ltd. Gelatin Analytical Reagent (AR) China National Pharmaceutical Group Co., Ltd. Polyvinyl alcohol 1788 Alcoholysis degree 87.0–89.0% Shanghai Aladdin Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd. Ethanol 99.7% purity China National Pharmaceutical Group Co., Ltd. Glycerol Analytical Reagent (AR) China National Pharmaceutical Group Co., Ltd. Citric acid Analytical Reagent (AR) China National Pharmaceutical Group Co., Ltd. 2.2 Experimental Instruments and Apparatus The main instruments and equipment used in the experiments are listed in Table 2 . Additional electrospinning accessories included silicone oil paper, tin foil, stainless steel dispensing needles (15G/1.86 mm, 18G/0.86 mm, 21G/0.5 mm), 10 mL dispensing syringes, and PTFE insulating hoses with PP Luer connectors. Table 2 Experimental Instruments and Apparatus Instrument Model Manufacturer Benchtop electrospinning machine — TONG LI TECH Benchtop scanning electron microscope (SEM) Phenom XL (11166-L) Phenom-World B.V. (Shanghai Funa Scientific Instruments Co., Ltd.) Universal testing machine Instron 3367 Instron (Shanghai) Test Equipment Trading Co., Ltd. Rotational viscometer DVNXL VCJG 2.1.6-9 Brookfield Engineering Laboratories, Inc. QUV ultraviolet aging chamber UVA340 Q-LAB Corporation, USA Digital micrometer thickness gauge BK-3281 Shanghai Niuhui Industrial Co., Ltd. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer NICOLET IS10 Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA (Note: Additional electrospinning accessories: silicone oil paper; tin foil; stainless steel dispensing needles (15G/1.35 mm, 18G/0.86 mm, 21G/0.5 mm); 10 mL dispensing syringes; PTFE insulating hoses with PP Luer connectors.) 2.3 Experimental Procedures 2.3.1 Electrospinning of Silk Fibroin-Based Composites A benchtop electrospinning machine was used to screen and optimize the spinning dope formulations and processing parameters, aiming to obtain stable electrospinning conditions and uniform composite nanofiber membranes. (1) Spinning Dope Formulation and Optimization Silk fibroin (SF), as a natural homologous component of silk fabrics, exhibits excellent compatibility with silk relic substrates. However, preliminary experiments confirmed that electrospinning of pure aqueous SF solutions yields incomplete, low-strength membranes with poor spinnability. Therefore, SF was blended with biocompatible or low-toxicity additives to prepare aqueous spinning dopes for improved electrospinnability. Two primary composite systems were investigated: ① Glycerol (GT)-SF composite dopes: prepared by dissolving SF and GT in an organic acid aqueous solution with heating and continuous stirring. ② Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-SF composite dopes: prepared by swelling PVA in aqueous SF solution, followed by stirring to achieve complete dissolution and static defoaming before electrospinning. The microtopography of the resulting composite electrospun membranes was characterized via SEM to screen for optimal dope compositions. Key formulation parameters including total solid content, SF concentration, and additive dosage were systematically varied, and the effects of different additives and their concentrations on membrane formation were closely evaluated. (2) Optimization of Electrospinning Parameters Following the selection of optimal dope compositions, electrospinning process parameters were further optimized using a single-variable approach, where the flow rate, applied voltage, and tip-to-collector distance were adjusted individually while other parameters were kept constant. The collector roller was fixed, and the spinning needle was translated horizontally at a constant speed over a 10 cm range to produce composite membranes of sufficient area for subsequent characterization and testing. 2.3.2 Performance Characterization of PVA/SF Composite Electrospun Membranes The PVA/SF composite electrospun membranes with the optimal spinning performance obtained in the aforementioned experiments were subjected to comprehensive performance testing and characterization. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to observe the fiber morphology, and the average fiber diameter and diameter distribution were calculated to evaluate the suitability of the spinning composition and electrospinning conditions. Uniaxial tensile testing was performed to obtain stress-strain curves to compare the fiber structure and the membrane's mechanical strength. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was employed to illustrate the chemical composition, molecular structure, and potential chemical changes of the fibers. Collectively, these characterization data were used to comprehensively assess the performance and stability of the nanofiber membranes and screen out the optimal composite membrane that meets the requirements for silk textile relic conservation. 2.3.3 Application of PVA/SF Composite Electrospun Membranes Based on Electrospinning Equipment Membrane fabrication was carried out using the optimized spinning dope composition and process parameters explored with the benchtop electrospinning machine. At room temperature, the spinning dope was electrospun to form membranes with a constant flow rate, applied voltage, and tip-to-collector distance, using artificially aged silk fabrics as the collector substrate. The bonding strength between the electrospun membrane and the aged silk substrate was measured to explore the application potential of the electrospun membrane in the consolidation of cultural relics. 2.4 Preparation of Spinning Dopess 2.4.1 SF/GT Spinning Dope Gelatin exhibits a temperature-induced phase transition and solidifies below 40°C, thus its dissolution requires heating to a temperature of at least 60°C. Citric acid was used to adjust the pH value to maintain the fluidity of the spinning dope at room temperature and ensure a steady solution extrusion from the needle during electrospinning. A certain amount of citric acid was dissolved in 10 mL deionized water, and SF/GT composite spinning dopes with different mass ratios were prepared by adding SF and GT to the solution at predetermined proportions. The mixture was stirred uniformly, sealed, and heated at 60°C for 1.5 h to obtain homogeneous SF/GT spinning dopes. 2.4.2 PVA/SF Spinning Dope Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is a commonly used macromolecular polymer with good biocompatibility and low toxicity. Due to its high molecular weight, PVA requires sufficient time for swelling, followed by stirring and defoaming to remove air bubbles from the solution. The PVA/SF spinning dope was prepared as follows: a predetermined mass of SF was first dissolved in 15 mL deionized water. PVA particles were then added to the SF aqueous solution and allowed to swell at room temperature for 4 h, followed by thorough stirring to form a uniform mixture. The PVA/SF mixture was heated at 60°C for 30 min to achieve complete defoaming. Subsequently, the selected additives were incorporated into the mixture and stirred uniformly to obtain the final spinning dope. 2.5 Preparation of Composite Electrospun Membranes The prepared spinning dopes were allowed to stand for further defoaming before electrospinning. The dope was loaded into a 10 mL plastic syringe fitted with a stainless steel dispensing needle, and all air bubbles were removed from the syringe and the connecting tubing to ensure a continuous solution flow. Electrospinning was conducted at room temperature, with a rotating roller covered with silicone oil paper used as the collector. The key electrospinning parameters were controlled within the following ranges: flow rate 0.3–1.0 mL/h, applied voltage 16–20 kV, and tip-to-collector distance 11–13 cm, with the applied voltage strictly limited to below 20 kV. 2.6 Preparation of Artificially Aged Silk Samples A standard QUV sample rack can hold six specimens with dimensions of 150 mm × 150 mm. Silk fabrics were cut to the specified size and mounted on the sample rack for accelerated aging. The aging conditions were set as follows: aging duration 165 h, UVA-430 lamps (365 nm), irradiance 1.5 W/m². The aging chamber was not opened during the experiment, and the aged silk samples were removed upon completion for subsequent characterization and testing. 2.7 Performance Characterization and Testing 2.7.1 Viscosity Measurement The viscosity of the spinning dopes was measured using a rotational viscometer at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The viscometer was first leveled, and the appropriate rotor was installed and adjusted to immerse slowly into the spinning dope. The torque gap was calibrated, and the viscometer was operated until the measured values stabilized; the steady-state viscosity values were then recorded for analysis. 2.7.2 Morphological Observation and Fiber Diameter Measurement The morphology of the electrospun fibers was characterized using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). A small amount of the membrane sample was mounted on a SEM stub with conductive adhesive, and the sample was dusted to remove loose particles before being loaded into the SEM chamber. The SEM operating parameters were set as follows: tungsten filament (1500 h lifetime), accelerating voltage 5 kV, resolution better than 25 nm, and vacuum pumping time less than 15 s. The focal length was adjusted manually, and all samples were imaged at the same magnification to ensure comparability. Micrographs were captured when the fiber morphology was clearly resolved. For the samples with optimal electrospinning performance, ImageJ software was used to measure the fiber diameter. A calibration scale was set according to the SEM micrograph magnification, and the diameters of 50 randomly selected fibers were measured manually. The average fiber diameter and the corresponding standard deviation were calculated from the measured data. 2.7.3 Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy FTIR spectroscopy was performed to analyze the functional groups of the electrospun composite membranes using an FTIR spectrometer. The spectral scanning range was set from 4000 to 500 cm⁻¹, with the spectrometer operating at a maximum power of 130 W and a DC voltage of 12 kV. 2.7.4 Tensile Strength Testing The electrospun membranes were cut into dumbbell-shaped specimens, and five parallel specimens were prepared for each membrane formulation. The thickness of each specimen was measured using a digital micrometer, and the average thickness was calculated for subsequent stress calculation. Tensile tests were conducted on a universal testing machine with a specimen width of 2 mm and a gauge length of 10 mm. The crosshead speed was set at 10 mm/min, and the stress-strain curves of the membranes were obtained from the test data for mechanical performance analysis. 2.7.5 Peel Strength Testing Aged silk fabrics were affixed flatly to tin foil (used as the collector substrate), and PVA/SF composite membranes were electrospun directly onto the aged silk surfaces with electrospinning durations of 1 h and 3 h, respectively. Peel strength tests were performed on a universal testing machine: the composite sample (membrane-silk fabric) was clamped in the lower grip, and the peeled silk fabric was clamped in the upper grip. The force values during the peeling process were recorded in real time using the testing machine software, and peel force curves were plotted for quantitative analysis. 3 Results 3.1 Preparation and Electrospinning Parameters of Silk Fibroin-Based Composite Electrospun Membranes 3.1.1 Preparation of SF/GT Composite Electrospun Membranes (1) Spinning Dope Formulation Preliminary experiments confirmed the spinnability of SF/GT composite systems. The electrospinning performance of SF/GT dopes with different component ratios was systematically investigated, and the results are summarized in Table 3 . Table 3 Electrospinning Results of SF/GT Dopes with Different Component Ratios (w/v%) Sample ID SF (%) GT (%) Citric acid (%) Deionized water (mL) Electrospinning Performance 1-SF-1 18 9 30 10 Transparent membrane with microdroplets and numerous voids 1-SF-2 15 12 30 10 Relatively intact transparent membrane 1-SF-3 13.5 13.5 30 10 Transparent membrane with excessive droplets and poor mechanical stability 1-GT-1 12 15 30 10 White membrane with shrinkage and delamination upon standing 1-GT-2 9 18 30 10 White membrane with severe shrinkage and solution dripping 2-GT-1 18 9 20 10 Frequent needle clogging during electrospinning 2-GT-2 18 9 40 10 Hard and brittle transparent membrane SEM characterization (Figs. 1 and 2 ) revealed that Sample 1-SF-2 exhibited uniform and stable fiber formation, but the resultant membrane showed poor inter-fiber adhesion, characterized by short fibers at the microscale and brittle mechanical behavior at the macroscale. For SF/GT composite dopes, higher SF contents yielded electrospun fibers with clear and uniform structures. With the decrease in SF content and increase in GT content, fiber definition decreased, inter-fiber boundaries became blurred, and the number of connecting points increased. When GT was the dominant component, the fibrous structure became indistinct, with a cotton-like or particulate morphology observed, accompanied by a significant decrease in membrane stability and severe macroscale shrinkage. Additionally, the citric acid concentration was found to exert a notable influence on the quality of SF/GT electrospun membranes. Comprehensive analysis of SEM micrographs and electrospinning process performance identified Sample 1-SF-1 as the optimal formulation for SF/GT dopes under the investigated conditions. However, the membrane prepared from this formulation still lacked sufficient mechanical strength for subsequent mechanical testing. (2) Optimization of Electrospinning Parameters The effects of applied voltage, solution flow rate, and tip-to-collector distance on the electrospinning performance of the optimal SF/GT dope (Sample 1-SF-2) were investigated, and the results are presented in Table 4 . Table 4 Effects of Electrospinning Parameters on the Performance of SF/GT Composite Dopes Sample ID Applied voltage (kV) Flow rate (mL/h) Tip-to-collector distance (cm) Electrospinning Performance 3-SF-1 20 0.5 10 Stable spinning, intact membrane formation 3-SF-2 17.5 0.5 10 Relatively stable spinning with minor droplet formation 3-SF-3 15 0.5 10 Unstable spinning, droplet-induced surface defects 3-SF-4 20 0.3 10 Prolonged needle dry-out periods 3-SF-5 20 0.8 10 Minor droplet formation 3-SF-6 20 0.5 8 Severe fiber adhesion 3-SF-7 20 0.5 12 Unstable spinning with increased fiber breakage Note: All tests were based on the formulation of Sample 1-SF-2. Despite the optimization of electrospinning parameters, the SF/GT composite system still exhibited inherent limitations, including incomplete membrane surfaces and unsatisfactory mechanical strength. These results indicated the need for dope formulation modification, and subsequent studies therefore focused on the PVA/SF composite system. 3.1.2 Preparation of PVA/SF Composite Electrospun Membranes (1) Spinning Dope Formulation Preliminary trials confirmed that incorporating PVA into SF dopes significantly improved electrospinnability and enabled stable fiber formation. The effects of SF/PVA mass ratios on the morphology of electrospun fibers were further investigated via SEM, with the electrospinning performance of different formulations summarized in Table 5 and the corresponding SEM micrographs presented in Fig. 3 . Table 5 Electrospinning Results of SF/PVA Dopes with Different Component Ratios (w/v%) Sample ID SF (%) PVA (%) Deionized water (mL) Electrospinning Performance 4-PVA-2 6 14 10 Intact membrane, high fiber yield, and moderate mechanical strength 4-PVA-3 7 13 10 Intact membrane, high fiber yield, and poor mechanical strength 4-PVA-4 8 12 10 Intact membrane, low fiber yield, flexible but non-load-bearing 4-PVA-5 10 10 10 Low fiber yield, frequent gel splattering and needle clogging Note: Electrospinning parameters: 20 kV applied voltage, 0.5 mL/h flow rate, 12 cm tip-to-collector distance. SEM analysis (Fig. 3 ) demonstrated that Sample 4-PVA-2 (SF:PVA = 3:7) yielded the best comprehensive performance, with electrospun nanofibers exhibiting a fine, uniformly distributed, and smooth morphology. Sample 4-PVA-4 also showed clear fiber formation but exhibited hollow fiber structures and poor macroscale mechanical stability. Tensile testing further confirmed that Sample 4-PVA-2 displayed a higher elongation at break. In contrast, formulations with either excessively high or low PVA contents exhibited various morphological defects. Sample 4-PVA-2 was therefore selected as the base formulation for subsequent parameter optimization. (2) Effect of Total Solid Content The effect of PVA concentration (at a fixed SF content of 6 wt%) on the morphology of PVA/SF electrospun membranes was investigated, with the results summarized in Table 6 . Table 6 Effects of PVA Concentration on the Electrospinning Performance of PVA/SF Dopes (w/v%) Sample ID SF (%) PVA (%) Total solid content (%) Electrospinning Performance 5-PVA-1 6 8 14 Incomplete membrane, low fiber yield, uniform spinning with minor voids 5-PVA-2 6 10 16 Intact membrane, low fiber yield, and flexible texture 5-PVA-3 6 12 18 Intact membrane, high fiber yield, flexible but non-load-bearing 5-PVA-4 6 14 20 Intact membrane, high fiber yield, and moderate mechanical strength 5-PVA-5 6 16 22 Incomplete membrane and frequent needle clogging Note: Deionized water was used as the sole solvent. SEM characterization and electrospinning performance analysis indicated that a total solid content of 18 wt% enabled intact membrane formation, and increasing the PVA concentration to 14 wt% (20 wt% total solid content) further promoted the formation of a dense and intact fibrous structure. Sample 5-PVA-4 was identified as the optimal formulation with the highest electrospinning efficiency. (3) Effect of Co-Solvent Addition Based on the optimized water-based dope formulation (Sample 5-PVA-4), ethanol was introduced as a co-solvent to accelerate solvent evaporation during electrospinning. The effects of different ethanol addition amounts on the electrospinning performance of PVA/SF dopes (PVA:SF = 7:3) were investigated, with the results summarized in Table 7 and the SEM micrograph of the optimal sample presented in Fig. 4 . Table 7 Effects of Ethanol Addition on the Electrospinning Performance of PVA/SF Dopes Sample ID PVA:SF Ethanol (mL) Viscosity (cP) Electrospinning Performance EA-PVA-1 7:3 2 1029 Minor droplet formation, intact membrane EA-PVA-2 7:3 3 922 Slight droplet formation, intact membrane EA-PVA-3 7:3 4 894 Slight droplet formation, intact membrane Note: Electrospinning parameters: 20 kV applied voltage, 0.5 mL/h flow rate, 12 cm tip-to-collector distance. Electrospinning experiments demonstrated that ethanol addition effectively improved the anti-droplet performance of PVA/SF dopes. Ethanol addition optimized dope fluidity, facilitating the formation of uniform and continuous nanofibers, and improved fiber morphology (e.g., enhanced diameter uniformity). However, macroscale evaluation revealed that ethanol addition exceeding 4 mL led to excessively low dope viscosity, resulting in severe droplet formation and failure to form intact membranes. These results identified 2 mL as the optimal ethanol addition amount for the PVA/SF composite system. (4) Optimization of Electrospinning Parameters Effect of Applied Voltage: For heritage conservation applications, the applied voltage was strictly limited to below 20 kV to avoid potential damage to silk textiles. The effect of applied voltage on the electrospinning performance of the optimized PVA/SF dope (Sample 5-PVA-4, PVA:SF = 7:3) was investigated, with the results summarized in Table 8 . Table 8 Effects of Applied Voltage on the Electrospinning Performance of PVA/SF Dopes Sample ID Applied voltage (kV) Electrospinning Performance U-PVA-1 19 Minor droplet formation, high fiber yield U-PVA-2 16 Slight droplet formation, non-uniform fiber formation U-PVA-3 13 Slight droplet formation, low fiber yield Note: Electrospinning parameters: 0.5 mL/h flow rate, 12 cm tip-to-collector distance, PVA:SF = 7:3. The results indicated that an applied voltage of 19 kV yielded the best performance, with electrospun fibers exhibiting high definition and uniformity, no large-area shadowing, a high effective fiber yield, and sufficient fiber stretching. Effect of Flow Rate: The performance of electrospun membranes prepared at different solution flow rates was evaluated, with the results presented in Table 9 . Table 9 Effects of Flow Rate on the Electrospinning Performance of PVA/SF Dopes Sample ID Flow rate (mL/h) Electrospinning Performance V-PVA-1 0.3 Prolonged needle dry-out periods V-PVA-2 0.5 Clear and uniform fiber formation V-PVA-3 0.7 Slight droplet formation Note: Electrospinning parameters: 20 kV applied voltage, 12 cm tip-to-collector distance, PVA:SF = 7:3. A flow rate below 0.5 mL/h led to non-uniform fiber diameters and low electrospinning efficiency. A flow rate close to 0.7 mL/h caused the dope to drip onto the collector before sufficient stretching, leading to the presence of thick fiber segments. Based on these results, a flow rate of 0.5 mL/h was selected as optimal. Effect of Needle Gauge: The effect of needle inner diameter on the morphology and diameter of PVA/SF electrospun fibers was investigated, with the results summarized in Table 10 . Table 10 Effects of Needle Gauge on the Diameter of PVA/SF Electrospun Fibers Sample ID Needle inner diameter (mm) Average fiber diameter (µm) Standard deviation (µm) C-PVA-1 21G/0.5 0.2617 ± 0.0592 C-PVA-2 18G/0.86 0.3398 ± 0.0841 C-PVA-3 15G/1.36 0.3026 ± 0.1047 Fiber diameter analysis revealed that the 18G needle yielded the thickest fibers with a relatively small standard deviation. Smaller needle inner diameters produced finer fibers. Additionally, larger needle inner diameters generated a stronger electric field, enabling the polymer jet to be stretched further and finer. 3.2 Performance of PVA/SF Composite Electrospun Membranes under Optimized Parameters 3.2.1 Modification of Composite Electrospun Membranes by Spinning Additives Solution viscosity is a key factor in electrospinning. After glycerol was added, the viscosity of the spinning dope decreased with increasing glycerol content (Table 11 ). The electrospinning performance of the different formulations is summarized in Table 12 . Table 11 Viscosity of Spinning Dopes with Different Glycerol Additions Sample ID Viscosity (cP) Torque (%) Glycerol-PVA-1 1487 38.5 Glycerol-PVA-2 1356 39.4 Glycerol-PVA-3 1232 40.2 Table 12 Additive Types and Proportions in Spinning Dopes Sample ID Basic Formulation Glycerol Addition Electrospinning Performance SF-PVA-1 SF:PVA = 3:7 None Relatively uniform and stable spinning with minor droplet formation Glycerol-PVA-1 SF:PVA = 3:7 3 mL Uneven membrane surface with moderate mechanical strength Glycerol-PVA-2 SF:PVA = 3:7 2 mL Intact and uniform membrane formation Glycerol-PVA-3 SF:PVA = 3:7 1 mL Intact membrane with slight droplet formation SEM images showed that glycerol addition altered the fibre morphology of the electrospun membranes (Fig. 5 a–c). The number of branches on individual fibres increased after glycerol modification. Among the three formulations, Glycerol-PVA-2 produced the most uniform and intact membrane, whereas Glycerol-PVA-1 showed an uneven surface and Glycerol-PVA-3 showed slight droplet formation. These results indicate that a moderate amount of glycerol improved the spinnability of the SF/PVA system. Mechanical testing further showed that glycerol modification increased both the maximum stress and elongation at break relative to the non-modified sample. Considering viscosity, membrane morphology and spinning stability together, Glycerol-PVA-2 gave the best overall performance and was selected as the optimal formulation. 3.2.2 Performance Characterization of the Optimized PVA/SF Composite Electrospun Membrane Based on the above analysis, Glycerol-PVA-2 was selected as the optimal formulation, and its performance was characterized in detail as follows. (1) Surface Morphology and Fiber Diameter Analysis The optimal formulation had an average fiber diameter of 0.4219 µm with a standard deviation of ± 0.1169 µm, and a coefficient of variation (CV) of 27.7%. For comparison, the CV values of each group were as follows: Glycerol-PVA-1: 29.7%, Glycerol-PVA-2: 27.7%, Glycerol-PVA-3: 44.8%, SF-PVA-1: 67.4%. The average fiber diameter and standard deviation of each group are shown in Table 13 . Table 13 Statistical Analysis of Fiber Diameter for Different Formulations Sample ID Average Fiber Diameter (µm) Standard Deviation (µm) Glycerol-PVA-1 0.3374 ± 0.1002 Glycerol-PVA-2 0.4219 ± 0.1169 Glycerol-PVA-3 0.3502 ± 0.1569 SF-PVA-1 0.3037 ± 0.2046 (2) FTIR Spectroscopy Analysis FTIR spectroscopy was performed on the electrospun membranes before and after glycerol addition, and the results are shown in Fig. 6 . The characteristic FTIR absorption peaks appeared at the following positions: amide I band near 1640 cm⁻¹, amide II band near 1541 cm⁻¹, amide III band at approximately 1270 cm⁻¹, and O–H stretching vibration in the range of 3400–3200 cm⁻¹. After adding glycerol during the preparation of the spinning dope, the intensity of the amide I band was significantly enhanced, and the intensity of the O–H stretching vibration band was also obviously increased. The addition of ethanol as a co-solvent during the spinning dope preparation further enhanced the intensity of the amide III band. (3)Tensile Strength Testing of Electrospun Membranes Tensile tests were conducted on five parallel membrane specimens, and the test data were processed and plotted, as shown in Fig. 7 . After glycerol addition, glycerol had no significant effect on the elongation at break, but the tensile strength of the membrane specimens was significantly improved. 3.3 Application Testing of PVA/SF Composite Electrospun Membranes 3.3.1Peel Strength Testing Peel strength tests were conducted immediately after electrospun membrane coating on aged silk (simulated cultural relic samples). The monitoring results of 3-hour electrospinning (Fig. 8 ) showed that the maximum bonding force between the composite membrane and silk was no more than 0.3 N. 3.3.2.Tensile Strength Testing Mechanical property comparison tests were conducted on aged silk and normal silk, as shown in Fig. 9 . The results showed a significant reduction in the tensile strength of the aged samples. Tensile tests were conducted on aged silk samples with different coating durations, as shown in Fig. 10 . The coating was prepared under the spinning parameters of 19 kV voltage, 0.5 mL/h flow rate, 12 cm tip-to-collector distance, and PVA/SF ratio of 7:3, with coating durations of 1 h and 3 h, respectively. The test results showed that both the tensile strength and elongation at break of the coated aged silk samples were significantly higher than those of the uncoated samples, with the 3-hour coated sample showing the maximum improvement. 4 Discussion and Implications The systematic optimization of SF/GT and PVA/SF composite systems revealed distinct differences in electrospinnability and fiber morphology, which are closely related to the physicochemical properties of the component polymers. For the SF/GT system, higher SF content favored the formation of clear and uniform fibers, whereas increasing GT content led to blurred inter-fiber boundaries and reduced structural definition. This trend can be attributed to the different molecular structures and chain flexibility of the two proteins: SF tends to form stable β-sheet structures that provide mechanical integrity, while GT, derived from collagen, possesses higher hydrophilicity and chain mobility, which may disrupt jet stability during electrospinning. The observed cotton-like or particulate morphology at high GT ratios suggests that the dope transitioned from a spinnable polymer solution to a regime dominated by droplet formation, consistent with the classical understanding of electrospinnability limits where chain entanglement density is insufficient to support continuous fiber formation. The inability of the SF/GT system to achieve sufficient mechanical strength, even after parameter optimization, highlights the importance of selecting a complementary synthetic polymer to enhance processability. The introduction of PVA proved effective, as PVA not only increased dope viscosity but also promoted stable fiber formation across a wider range of compositions. The optimal SF:PVA ratio of 3:7 (Sample 4-PVA-2) balanced fiber uniformity with membrane integrity, which is consistent with previous reports on PVA-based blends where PVA acts as a carrier polymer to improve spinnability of natural polymers 8 . The hollow fiber structures observed in Sample 4-PVA-4 may be attributed to phase separation during rapid solvent evaporation, a phenomenon often encountered in polymer blends with differing solubility parameters. Ethanol addition as a co-solvent was found to improve anti-droplet performance and fiber uniformity, which can be explained by its higher volatility compared to water. Faster solvent evaporation reduces the time available for the jet to undergo Rayleigh instability, thereby suppressing bead formation. However, excessive ethanol (> 4 mL) led to a sharp drop in viscosity (from 1029 cP to 894 cP), pushing the system below the spinnable viscosity window and causing droplet formation. This demonstrates that co-solvent effects must be carefully balanced against rheological properties. Parameter optimization for the PVA/SF system revealed that applied voltage, flow rate, and needle gauge each exert predictable influences on fiber morphology. The choice of 19 kV (below the 20 kV safety limit for heritage applications) provided sufficient electric field strength for jet stretching without causing electrical discharge. The flow rate of 0.5 mL/h ensured a steady Taylor cone formation, avoiding the intermittent jetting observed at 0.3 mL/h and the dripping at 0.7 mL/h 9 . Needle gauge selection further influenced fiber diameter, with smaller inner diameters (21G) producing finer fibers due to higher surface charge density and stronger jet elongation. Interestingly, the 18G needle yielded the thickest fibers with relatively low standard deviation, suggesting that for this specific dope, a moderate needle diameter provided optimal balance between throughput and fiber uniformity. Our findings are consistent with recent PVA-based composite electrospinning studies, which demonstrated that synergistic optimization of polymer blending ratio, applied voltage, and flow rate is essential for fabricating bead-free nanofibers with uniform morphology 10 . Glycerol addition as a plasticizer significantly altered fiber morphology and mechanical properties. The increased branching observed in SEM micrographs suggests that glycerol may modify the jet breakup dynamics, possibly through its effect on solution surface tension and conductivity. The substantial improvement in tensile strength without compromising elongation at break is noteworthy: typically, plasticizers increase flexibility at the expense of strength, but here glycerol appeared to enhance both. This may be attributed to hydrogen bonding interactions between glycerol and the SF/PVA matrix, which could promote more uniform stress distribution across the fiber network. The optimal glycerol concentration (2 mL, Glycerol-PVA-2) corresponded to a moderate viscosity of 1356 cP, indicating that excessive plasticizer (3 mL, 1487 cP) led to uneven membranes due to reduced chain mobility, while insufficient plasticizer (1 mL, 1232 cP) resulted in incomplete plasticization and residual droplet formation. FTIR analysis provided critical evidence for the chemical compatibility of the composite system with silk substrates. The enhanced intensity of the amide I band after glycerol addition indicates increased ordering of the SF secondary structure, likely due to glycerol-induced hydrogen bonding that stabilizes β-sheet conformations. The intensified O–H stretching vibration in the 3400–3200 cm⁻¹ region reflects the formation of additional hydrogen bonds between glycerol, PVA, and SF 11 . Importantly, no new peaks or significant peak shifts were observed, confirming that no chemical reactions occurred between components, which is essential for the reversibility and long-term stability required in cultural heritage conservation. Application tests on aged silk demonstrated that the electrospun membrane effectively enhanced mechanical stability while maintaining reversibility. An appropriate bonding strength between the coating membrane and the relic surface is important for effective protection while preserving reversibility 12 . The peel strength of ≤ 0.3 N after 3 h of coating meets the conservation principle of reversibility, as the membrane can be gently peeled off without damaging the substrate. This low adhesion force is likely due to the physical entanglement between the electrospun nanofibers and the silk surface rather than chemical bonding, which is consistent with the FTIR results showing no chemical interaction. The tensile strength improvement after coating (with 3 h coating showing maximum enhancement) suggests that the membrane provides both surface consolidation and load-bearing reinforcement. The coating duration-dependent reinforcement effect may be attributed to increased membrane thickness and improved interfacial contact over time. Despite these promising results, several limitations should be acknowledged. The study was conducted on artificially aged silk samples, which may not fully replicate the complex degradation states of excavated archaeological silk, including the presence of soil residues, biological degradation products, and heterogeneous aging patterns. The long-term stability of the composite membrane under museum storage conditions (e.g., light, humidity fluctuations, temperature variations) remains to be evaluated. Additionally, the reversibility test was performed immediately after coating; the reversibility after extended aging periods has not been assessed. Compared with conventional consolidation methods (e.g., resin impregnation or adhesive spraying), the electrospun nanofiber approach offers distinct advantages: minimal intervention (only surface application), reversibility (mechanical peel-off), and material compatibility (SF as a homologous material). The incorporation of PVA and glycerol improves processability while maintaining chemical compatibility, as confirmed by FTIR. The successful development of this system suggests that electrospinning can serve as a platform technology for textile conservation, enabling tailored membrane properties through composition and parameter control. The relevant findings of this study have obtained a national technical patent 13 , which indicates that this technical route has a good application prospect in the consolidation of ancient silk textiles, and also lays a practical foundation for the in-depth integration of nanomaterials and spectroscopic techniques in cultural relic conservation. Future research should focus on several directions. First, long-term aging studies under simulated museum conditions are needed to assess the stability of the composite membrane and its reversibility over time. Second, the application to real archaeological silk samples should be performed to validate the findings under authentic conservation scenarios. Third, advanced spectroscopic techniques such as micro-FTIR imaging and Raman spectroscopy could be employed to map the distribution of the membrane components and to monitor degradation processes at the micro-scale. Fourth, the development of a spectral evaluation and digital archive system, combining FTIR, multispectral imaging, and mechanical testing, would provide a comprehensive tool for conservation assessment. Such an integrated approach would not only facilitate quality control during application but also enable long-term monitoring of conservation interventions, representing a step toward data-driven cultural heritage conservation. In summary, this study demonstrates that SF/PVA/glycerol composite electrospun membranes, prepared under optimized conditions, offer a promising solution for the consolidation of silk textile relics, combining material compatibility, reversibility, and measurable mechanical reinforcement. The findings also highlight the value of systematic parameter optimization and spectroscopic characterization in the development of conservation materials. Declarations Data availability The datasets analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to licensing restrictions, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Discipline Development Support Project of the Key Laboratory of Scientific Archaeology and Cultural Heritage Protection, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, entitled "Protection and Interpretation of Ancient Chinese Unearthed Textiles" (Grant No. S20250311). Author Contributions Y.G. conceived the study, conducted the experiments, and wrote the original manuscript. D.L. supervised the project, secured funding, and revised the manuscript. R.Z. carried out formal analysis, prepared figures, and contributed to manuscript revision. S.Y. was responsible for manuscript formatting, translation, and reference management. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Additional information Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Rui Zhao. Reprints and permissions information is available at http://www.nature.com/reprints. References Ma, H. Embroidered Fragments Excavated from the Wuluchong Tomb of the Han Dynasty. Cultural Relics Reference Materials 1958, (9). Wang, Y. Wang Yin and Textile Archaeology. Beijing: Yishatang Dress Publishing, 2001: 125–131. Gong, D.C.; Xi, S.C.; Wang, M. Study on the Application of Polyvinyl Formal Film-Forming Technology in the Conservation of Cultural Relics and Books. Cultural Relics Protection and Archaeometry 1996, (1): 29–34. Zhang, X.M. Application of a New Silicone-Modified Acrylic Resin in the Consolidation of Deteriorated Silk Textiles. Cultural Relics Protection and Archaeometry 2003, (2). Yang, L.; Zhang, J.N.; Huang, J.H. Analysis of the Darkening Mechanism of Paraloid B72 on Cultural Relics and Its Application. Western Archaeology 2021, (1): 315–321. Kang, X.J. Discussion on the “Needle-And-Thread” Consolidation Method for Textile Cultural Heritage. China Cultural Relics Science Research 2023, (4): 49–55. Zheng, H.L.; Hu, Z.W.; Zhao, F.; et al. Study on the Process Conditions of Silkworm Silk Protein/Glutaraldehyde Consolidation of Fragile Silk Fabrics. Science of Sericulture 2009, (3): 576–582. Safari, P., Rahimabadi, E.Z., Vaezi, M.R. et al. Development of ZnO-NPs reinforced chitosan nanofiber mats with improved antibacterial and biocompatibility properties. Sci Rep 15, 16567 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-01669-w . Fatahian, R., Erfani, R. Surrogate modeling of electrospun PVA/PLA nanofibers using artificial neural network for biomedical applications. Sci Rep 15, 12886 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-94608-8 . Kaur, H., Singh, S., Rode, S. et al. Fabrication and characterization of polyvinyl alcohol-chitosan composite nanofibers for carboxylesterase immobilization to enhance the stability of the enzyme. Sci Rep 14 , 19615 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-67913-x . Retko, K., Legan, L., Kosel, J. et al. Identification of iron gall inks, logwood inks, and their mixtures using Raman spectroscopy, supplemented by reflection and transmission infrared spectroscopy. Herit Sci 12 , 212 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-024-01323-0 . Zhou, Y. Chemical Consolidation of Fragile Silk Cultural Relics. Hangzhou: Zhejiang Sci-Tech University Press, 2009. Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Polymer Electrospinning Solution and Consolidation Method for Ancient Silk Textiles. Chinese Patent 202411144794.9, 2024-12-06. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 10 Apr, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 Apr, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 28 Mar, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 28 Mar, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 28 Mar, 2026 First submitted to journal 24 Mar, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9206830","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":615480392,"identity":"05225476-4155-4d73-ad96-b0b0a415226f","order_by":0,"name":"Yushan Gu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Beijing Institute of Fashion Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yushan","middleName":"","lastName":"Gu","suffix":""},{"id":615480393,"identity":"7c3ed558-bdfd-49ae-9be9-aeaca92419c4","order_by":1,"name":"Dawei Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chinese Academy of Social Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dawei","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":615480394,"identity":"172cd921-5152-4243-bcbd-6e8faa5a16f3","order_by":2,"name":"Rui Zhao","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAApElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJCCgx8qLMAMCaK1HJY4I0GiFgbeNlK0yM8+Y3hAcp6EvcEB5oO3eYjRwtiXY3CgcJtE4oYDbMnWRGlh5uExOCC5TSLB4ACPmTRRWthAWnjngBzG/404LTxgLQ0SjBsO8LARp0WCh63gsMQxicSZh9mMLecQo0W+h3nzxw81NvZ8x5sf3nhDjBYEYCZN+SgYBaNgFIwCfAAA2zUpbuf9ITwAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Louisiana State University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rui","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhao","suffix":""},{"id":615480395,"identity":"500adf2a-691b-4feb-87db-ad04be5666fe","order_by":3,"name":"Suyu Yuan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Suyu","middleName":"","lastName":"Yuan","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-24 05:08:45","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9206830/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9206830/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106099567,"identity":"5f131c2d-7dd4-4c38-95f2-6d2109787804","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 12:18:05","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":700468,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEM Characterization\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(Notes: (a) Sample 1-SF-1; (b) Sample 1-SF-2; (c) Sample 1-SF-3; (d) Sample 1-GT-1; (e) Sample 1-GT-2.)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9206830/v1/32085f15755cf7b5bea8bdac.png"},{"id":106402038,"identity":"8c62f733-feff-4214-b73b-40ebc0c5beb4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:10:46","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":348760,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEM Characterization\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(Notes: (a) Sample 2-GT-1; (b) Sample 2-GT-2.)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9206830/v1/4df9cfa9fee0e6b00d9b29eb.png"},{"id":106099569,"identity":"500ea676-bf78-4dd0-8714-4e51c12dbe5c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 12:18:05","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":647048,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEM micrographs of SF/PVA composite electrospun membranes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(Notes: (a) Sample 4-PVA-1; (b) Sample 4-PVA-2; (c) Sample 4-PVA-3; (d) Sample 4-PVA-4; (e) Sample 4-PVA-5.)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9206830/v1/3707f091487f9b79e26fb61b.png"},{"id":106401803,"identity":"94f54cbb-5e6d-4660-9000-2fcde3136412","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:09:44","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":444004,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEM micrograph of PVA/SF composite electrospun membrane with 2 mL ethanol addition (EA-PVA-1)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9206830/v1/4324133b4b3184c71d205ea3.png"},{"id":106402079,"identity":"01b489ab-6d3e-4210-8331-cbc464e40c73","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:10:57","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":357211,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSEM Characterization of Glycerol-Modified Electrospun Membranes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotes: (a) Glycerol-PVA-1; (b) Glycerol-PVA-2; (c) Glycerol-PVA-3.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9206830/v1/c75a11f6075a9fc2210082c3.png"},{"id":106414777,"identity":"61b6d67a-0976-4f58-bca0-4e4de7e8b5e1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 10:24:09","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":68827,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChanges in FTIR Spectra Before and After Glycerol Addition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9206830/v1/7d1b3448843352f2aa9e892c.jpg"},{"id":106099571,"identity":"6cdad27f-a2cd-404e-a8a4-741b661f3b75","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 12:18:05","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":36994,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMechanical Performance Tests of Electrospun Membranes with Different Component Ratios\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9206830/v1/46c7622484f6fffa2bf62fe5.jpg"},{"id":106099572,"identity":"f9094839-edf8-49c0-8617-d82ef218384d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-03 12:18:05","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":36552,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePeeling Test Results after 3 Hours of Electrospun Coating\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9206830/v1/312d1c2f0fb4730a7476e66c.jpg"},{"id":106401930,"identity":"9f833408-7bda-4456-9ad2-aecf4c5dc035","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:10:15","extension":"jpg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27572,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComparison of Tensile Strength between Aged Silk and Normal Silk\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotes: Electrospinning parameters—voltage: 20 kV; flow rate: 0.5 mL/h; collector distance: 12 cm; spinning solution ratio: PVA/SF = 7/3; glycerol addition: 2 mL.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9206830/v1/00664c6b2b1ac96601bea4ba.jpg"},{"id":106401856,"identity":"c76fa753-4274-459e-8c21-8c2f9e192604","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:10:02","extension":"jpg","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":36863,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComparison of Tensile Strength between Aged Silk and Coated Silk with Different Coating Durations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotes: Electrospinning parameters—voltage: 20 kV; flow rate: 0.5 mL/h; collector distance: 12 cm; spinning solution ratio: PVA/SF = 7/3; glycerol addition: 2 mL.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9206830/v1/4eda7a3647d001caca9eaffd.jpg"},{"id":106416939,"identity":"6d3958dd-2bfa-4865-8cb1-bdc6dd85b857","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 10:48:25","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4994615,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9206830/v1/67c23c85-95a1-49cd-b581-fc0ad469da9f.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Experimental Study on the Application of Electrospinning Technology in the Conservation of Ancient Silk Textiles","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSilk textiles, as important carriers of ancient Chinese material culture, embody the technological level of ancient textile craftsmanship and bear abundant historical information and cultural value. However, as silk textiles are essentially organic materials composed of proteins or cellulose, they are highly susceptible to erosion by environmental changes. Prolonged burial leads to fiber degradation, strength attenuation and structural pulverization; after excavation, their fragility is further exacerbated due to abrupt changes in temperature and humidity as well as microbial activity. Whether at archaeological excavation sites, in long-term museum preservation or exhibition environments, silk textiles are among the most difficult cultural relics to conserve. Under the fundamental principles of \"minimum intervention, compatibility and reversibility\" in cultural heritage conservation, achieving effective consolidation without altering the original appearance of cultural relics has always been a core technical challenge in the field of textile conservation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe development of silk textile conservation in China can be divided into several stages, including physical methods, chemical methods, physicochemical combined methods, and the exploration of interdisciplinary approaches and new materials since the 21st century. In the 1930s, Ma Heng first adopted the glass clamping method on embroidered fragments unearthed from the Wuluchong Tomb, retarding fabric deterioration by isolating them from the external environment\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e. This method marked the beginning of the systematic conservation of unearthed silk textiles, yet its application was limited to sheet-like cultural relics. In the 1950s, the Palace Museum drew on the mounting techniques of calligraphy and painting works, carrying out splicing and exhibition of Liao Dynasty textiles via backing with silk fabric, which achieved remarkable consolidation effects. Nevertheless, it obscured the information on the back of the fabrics, restricted craft research, and lacked reversibility. Such methods represented the limitations of early consolidation ideas: they emphasized stability and exhibition but often sacrificed the integrity of the intrinsic information of cultural relics and failed to meet the contemporary conservation concept of \"reversibility and minimal intervention\".\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the 1950s to the 1970s, with the development of the chemical industry, polymer spraying and coating technologies were gradually applied to silk textile conservation. In 1958, cultural heritage conservation practitioners sprayed polymethyl methacrylate on textiles unearthed from the Dingling Mausoleum to enhance strength and fix pulverized fibers; in 1972, casein was used for spray consolidation of painted fabrics unearthed from the Mawangdui Han Tomb. Although such methods could improve breaking strength in the short term, the poor compatibility between the materials and silk fibroin often caused fabric hardening, loss of elasticity, and irreversible treatment, which could not meet the requirements of long-term preservation. Such chemical spraying methods \"focused on reinforcement\" had advantages in improving short-term mechanical properties, but they generally suffered from drawbacks such as poor compatibility, material irreversibility and aging embrittlement, whose limitations remain a consensus in the industry to this day.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the 1970s, the landmark silk mesh consolidation method emerged. The Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences first applied this method in the restoration project of the \"Albanian Parchment Manuscripts\", weaving single silk filaments into transparent plain silk mesh with a net winding machine, and adhering it to the surface of fragile book pages via alcohol dissolution or hot melting with polyvinyl butyral (PVB) solution, thus achieving effective support for the overall structure. Subsequently, the inventors extended this method to the conservation of unearthed silk textiles, using silk mesh with a diameter of only 3\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;12 \u0026micro;m to consolidate damaged fabrics\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. The silk mesh is barely visible to the naked eye, and while enhancing the overall strength, it well preserves the original appearance and structural information of cultural relics. The silk mesh consolidation method is regarded by academia as the beginning of the \"physicochemical combination\" idea. Its advantages lie in transparency, light weight and a certain degree of reversibility, but its effect is mainly limited to surface support, with poor efficacy for severely pulverized and carbonized fabrics, and it also requires a long time for preliminary preparation. Nevertheless, it laid a foundation for the subsequent exploration of transparent, lightweight and compatible materials and occupies an important position in the history of Chinese silk textile conservation. This method relies on manual net weaving and time-consuming preliminary preparation, and has poor adaptability to severely pulverized and carbonized fabrics, making it difficult to become a universal solution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the 1980s to the 1990s, the application of polymer materials was further deepened. Eric F. Hansen attempted to use Parylene C coating in 1989, which achieved a significant effect in improving the breaking strength of fragile silk textiles\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e. Chinese scholars carried out vacuum consolidation experiments with Parylene N around 2010, and the results showed that the fabric was improved in water resistance, acid and alkali resistance and mechanical properties. However, the complex process, high equipment requirements, as well as yellowing and embrittlement under long-term photoaging conditions limited its practical popularization. In the same period, new resins such as silicone-modified acrylic resin (SA-6) \u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003eand Paraloid B72\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e were systematically used for the consolidation of fragile silk textiles. These materials improved the elongation at break and stiffness, but problems such as large color difference and irreversibility still existed. The research focus of this period was on the selection and modification of polymers, yet no fundamental breakthroughs were made in terms of compatibility and reversibility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEntering the 21st century, the research and development of silk textile conservation have gradually shifted to the application of homologous and biomaterials. In 2008, the China National Silk Museum and Zhejiang Sci-Tech University developed the crepe silk covering method\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e, covering the surface of cultural relics with ultra-transparent thin silk to present the original appearance clearly. However, secondary damage is inevitably caused due to the need for needle and thread sewing. Around 2010, silk fibroin combined with crosslinking agents such as glutaraldehyde and ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether (EGDE) was used to consolidate aged silk textiles, showing good compatibility and strength enhancement effects\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e. At the same time, bacterial cellulose dry films were applied to the consolidation experiment of Liao Dynasty silk textiles due to their high crystallinity and mechanical strength, exhibiting a good mechanical supporting effect, but the application concentration and degradation conditions remain to be verified. Research by the University of Science and Technology of China restored the mechanical properties significantly by generating biopolymers in the micro-pores of aged silk textiles. Nevertheless, these methods still face limitations such as irreversible crosslinking, complex processes or unclear long-term stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn recent years, with the advancement of detection and analysis technologies and materials science, research on silk textile conservation has shown a new trend of interdisciplinary integration. Detection methods such as scanning electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and high-performance liquid chromatography have enabled researchers to accurately evaluate the degradation mechanism of fabrics and the effect of consolidation, providing a scientific basis for scheme design. On this basis, nanomaterials and bionic technologies have been gradually introduced into the field of cultural heritage conservation. Among them, electrospinning technology can prepare nanofiber membranes at room temperature, which are thin, transparent, uniformly and controllably structured, with good flexibility and potential reversible peeling properties. Compared with traditional sewing or polymer spraying, it can better conform to the surface of silk textiles and achieve chemical coordination through material compatibility. This study is the first to introduce electrospinning technology into the field of silk textile cultural relic conservation, proposing its application prospects in consolidation and reversibility, and providing new ideas for the improvement of traditional consolidation methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, the development history of silk textile conservation in China clearly shows a continuous evolution from physical fixation to chemical spraying, then to physicochemical combination and the introduction of biomaterials. Although many existing methods have made progress in enhancing mechanical properties and improving exhibition effects, there are still great deficiencies in terms of reversibility, compatibility and long-term stability. Against this background, this study attempts to introduce electrospun nanofiber membranes, using silk fibroin (SF) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as the main materials, combined with glycerol modification to optimize flexibility, and evaluate its feasibility and performance in the consolidation of aged silk textiles through experiments. This study aims to explore a new technical system that meets the principles of minimum intervention, reversibility and compatibility, providing theoretical reference and empirical support for the conservation of silk textile cultural relics.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo improve the practical efficacy of silk textile conservation technologies, our research team conducted a systematic series of simulated experiments to investigate the performance of electrospinning technology for silk textile conservation. The experimental materials, instruments, and procedures are described in detail below.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Experimental Materials\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePure silk fabrics (100% mulberry silk) with a grammage of 30 g/m\u0026sup2; were used as the substrate material in all experiments. The key chemical reagents employed are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental Chemical Reagents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReagent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilk peptide powder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;99% purity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHefei Bomei Biotechnology Co., Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGelatin\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalytical Reagent (AR)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina National Pharmaceutical Group Co., Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolyvinyl alcohol 1788\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlcoholysis degree 87.0\u0026ndash;89.0%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShanghai Aladdin Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthanol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.7% purity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina National Pharmaceutical Group Co., Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlycerol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalytical Reagent (AR)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina National Pharmaceutical Group Co., Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCitric acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalytical Reagent (AR)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina National Pharmaceutical Group Co., Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Experimental Instruments and Apparatus\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main instruments and equipment used in the experiments are listed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Additional electrospinning accessories included silicone oil paper, tin foil, stainless steel dispensing needles (15G/1.86 mm, 18G/0.86 mm, 21G/0.5 mm), 10 mL dispensing syringes, and PTFE insulating hoses with PP Luer connectors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental Instruments and Apparatus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstrument\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManufacturer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBenchtop electrospinning machine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTONG LI TECH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBenchtop scanning electron microscope (SEM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenom XL (11166-L)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhenom-World B.V. (Shanghai Funa Scientific Instruments Co., Ltd.)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUniversal testing machine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstron 3367\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstron (Shanghai) Test Equipment Trading Co., Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRotational viscometer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDVNXL VCJG 2.1.6-9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrookfield Engineering Laboratories, Inc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQUV ultraviolet aging chamber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUVA340\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQ-LAB Corporation, USA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital micrometer thickness gauge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBK-3281\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShanghai Niuhui Industrial Co., Ltd.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNICOLET IS10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThermo Fisher Scientific, USA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003e(Note: Additional electrospinning accessories: silicone oil paper; tin foil; stainless steel dispensing needles (15G/1.35 mm, 18G/0.86 mm, 21G/0.5 mm); 10 mL dispensing syringes; PTFE insulating hoses with PP Luer connectors.)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Experimental Procedures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1 Electrospinning of Silk Fibroin-Based Composites\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA benchtop electrospinning machine was used to screen and optimize the spinning dope formulations and processing parameters, aiming to obtain stable electrospinning conditions and uniform composite nanofiber membranes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e(1) Spinning Dope Formulation and Optimization\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilk fibroin (SF), as a natural homologous component of silk fabrics, exhibits excellent compatibility with silk relic substrates. However, preliminary experiments confirmed that electrospinning of pure aqueous SF solutions yields incomplete, low-strength membranes with poor spinnability. Therefore, SF was blended with biocompatible or low-toxicity additives to prepare aqueous spinning dopes for improved electrospinnability. Two primary composite systems were investigated:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e① Glycerol (GT)-SF composite dopes: prepared by dissolving SF and GT in an organic acid aqueous solution with heating and continuous stirring.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e② Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-SF composite dopes: prepared by swelling PVA in aqueous SF solution, followed by stirring to achieve complete dissolution and static defoaming before electrospinning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe microtopography of the resulting composite electrospun membranes was characterized via SEM to screen for optimal dope compositions. Key formulation parameters including total solid content, SF concentration, and additive dosage were systematically varied, and the effects of different additives and their concentrations on membrane formation were closely evaluated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e(2) Optimization of Electrospinning Parameters\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing the selection of optimal dope compositions, electrospinning process parameters were further optimized using a single-variable approach, where the flow rate, applied voltage, and tip-to-collector distance were adjusted individually while other parameters were kept constant. The collector roller was fixed, and the spinning needle was translated horizontally at a constant speed over a 10 cm range to produce composite membranes of sufficient area for subsequent characterization and testing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2 Performance Characterization of PVA/SF Composite Electrospun Membranes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe PVA/SF composite electrospun membranes with the optimal spinning performance obtained in the aforementioned experiments were subjected to comprehensive performance testing and characterization. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to observe the fiber morphology, and the average fiber diameter and diameter distribution were calculated to evaluate the suitability of the spinning composition and electrospinning conditions. Uniaxial tensile testing was performed to obtain stress-strain curves to compare the fiber structure and the membrane's mechanical strength. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was employed to illustrate the chemical composition, molecular structure, and potential chemical changes of the fibers. Collectively, these characterization data were used to comprehensively assess the performance and stability of the nanofiber membranes and screen out the optimal composite membrane that meets the requirements for silk textile relic conservation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3.3 Application of PVA/SF Composite Electrospun Membranes Based on Electrospinning Equipment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMembrane fabrication was carried out using the optimized spinning dope composition and process parameters explored with the benchtop electrospinning machine. At room temperature, the spinning dope was electrospun to form membranes with a constant flow rate, applied voltage, and tip-to-collector distance, using artificially aged silk fabrics as the collector substrate. The bonding strength between the electrospun membrane and the aged silk substrate was measured to explore the application potential of the electrospun membrane in the consolidation of cultural relics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Preparation of Spinning Dopess\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.1 SF/GT Spinning Dope\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGelatin exhibits a temperature-induced phase transition and solidifies below 40\u0026deg;C, thus its dissolution requires heating to a temperature of at least 60\u0026deg;C. Citric acid was used to adjust the pH value to maintain the fluidity of the spinning dope at room temperature and ensure a steady solution extrusion from the needle during electrospinning. A certain amount of citric acid was dissolved in 10 mL deionized water, and SF/GT composite spinning dopes with different mass ratios were prepared by adding SF and GT to the solution at predetermined proportions. The mixture was stirred uniformly, sealed, and heated at 60\u0026deg;C for 1.5 h to obtain homogeneous SF/GT spinning dopes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.2 PVA/SF Spinning Dope\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is a commonly used macromolecular polymer with good biocompatibility and low toxicity. Due to its high molecular weight, PVA requires sufficient time for swelling, followed by stirring and defoaming to remove air bubbles from the solution. The PVA/SF spinning dope was prepared as follows: a predetermined mass of SF was first dissolved in 15 mL deionized water. PVA particles were then added to the SF aqueous solution and allowed to swell at room temperature for 4 h, followed by thorough stirring to form a uniform mixture. The PVA/SF mixture was heated at 60\u0026deg;C for 30 min to achieve complete defoaming. Subsequently, the selected additives were incorporated into the mixture and stirred uniformly to obtain the final spinning dope.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Preparation of Composite Electrospun Membranes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe prepared spinning dopes were allowed to stand for further defoaming before electrospinning. The dope was loaded into a 10 mL plastic syringe fitted with a stainless steel dispensing needle, and all air bubbles were removed from the syringe and the connecting tubing to ensure a continuous solution flow. Electrospinning was conducted at room temperature, with a rotating roller covered with silicone oil paper used as the collector. The key electrospinning parameters were controlled within the following ranges: flow rate 0.3\u0026ndash;1.0 mL/h, applied voltage 16\u0026ndash;20 kV, and tip-to-collector distance 11\u0026ndash;13 cm, with the applied voltage strictly limited to below 20 kV.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6 Preparation of Artificially Aged Silk Samples\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA standard QUV sample rack can hold six specimens with dimensions of 150 mm \u0026times; 150 mm. Silk fabrics were cut to the specified size and mounted on the sample rack for accelerated aging. The aging conditions were set as follows: aging duration 165 h, UVA-430 lamps (365 nm), irradiance 1.5 W/m\u0026sup2;. The aging chamber was not opened during the experiment, and the aged silk samples were removed upon completion for subsequent characterization and testing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7 Performance Characterization and Testing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7.1 Viscosity Measurement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe viscosity of the spinning dopes was measured using a rotational viscometer at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The viscometer was first leveled, and the appropriate rotor was installed and adjusted to immerse slowly into the spinning dope. The torque gap was calibrated, and the viscometer was operated until the measured values stabilized; the steady-state viscosity values were then recorded for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7.2 Morphological Observation and Fiber Diameter Measurement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe morphology of the electrospun fibers was characterized using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). A small amount of the membrane sample was mounted on a SEM stub with conductive adhesive, and the sample was dusted to remove loose particles before being loaded into the SEM chamber. The SEM operating parameters were set as follows: tungsten filament (1500 h lifetime), accelerating voltage 5 kV, resolution better than 25 nm, and vacuum pumping time less than 15 s. The focal length was adjusted manually, and all samples were imaged at the same magnification to ensure comparability. Micrographs were captured when the fiber morphology was clearly resolved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the samples with optimal electrospinning performance, ImageJ software was used to measure the fiber diameter. A calibration scale was set according to the SEM micrograph magnification, and the diameters of 50 randomly selected fibers were measured manually. The average fiber diameter and the corresponding standard deviation were calculated from the measured data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7.3 Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFTIR spectroscopy was performed to analyze the functional groups of the electrospun composite membranes using an FTIR spectrometer. The spectral scanning range was set from 4000 to 500 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, with the spectrometer operating at a maximum power of 130 W and a DC voltage of 12 kV.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7.4 Tensile Strength Testing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe electrospun membranes were cut into dumbbell-shaped specimens, and five parallel specimens were prepared for each membrane formulation. The thickness of each specimen was measured using a digital micrometer, and the average thickness was calculated for subsequent stress calculation. Tensile tests were conducted on a universal testing machine with a specimen width of 2 mm and a gauge length of 10 mm. The crosshead speed was set at 10 mm/min, and the stress-strain curves of the membranes were obtained from the test data for mechanical performance analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7.5 Peel Strength Testing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAged silk fabrics were affixed flatly to tin foil (used as the collector substrate), and PVA/SF composite membranes were electrospun directly onto the aged silk surfaces with electrospinning durations of 1 h and 3 h, respectively. Peel strength tests were performed on a universal testing machine: the composite sample (membrane-silk fabric) was clamped in the lower grip, and the peeled silk fabric was clamped in the upper grip. The force values during the peeling process were recorded in real time using the testing machine software, and peel force curves were plotted for quantitative analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Preparation and Electrospinning Parameters of Silk Fibroin-Based Composite Electrospun Membranes\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.1.1 Preparation of SF/GT Composite Electrospun Membranes\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(1) Spinning Dope Formulation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePreliminary experiments confirmed the spinnability of SF/GT composite systems. The electrospinning performance of SF/GT dopes with different component ratios was systematically investigated, and the results are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eElectrospinning Results of SF/GT Dopes with Different Component Ratios (w/v%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSF (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGT (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCitric acid (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeionized water (mL)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElectrospinning Performance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1-SF-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTransparent membrane with microdroplets and numerous voids\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1-SF-2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRelatively intact transparent membrane\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1-SF-3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTransparent membrane with excessive droplets and poor mechanical stability\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1-GT-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhite membrane with shrinkage and delamination upon standing\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1-GT-2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhite membrane with severe shrinkage and solution dripping\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2-GT-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrequent needle clogging during electrospinning\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2-GT-2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHard and brittle transparent membrane\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSEM characterization (Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that Sample 1-SF-2 exhibited uniform and stable fiber formation, but the resultant membrane showed poor inter-fiber adhesion, characterized by short fibers at the microscale and brittle mechanical behavior at the macroscale. For SF/GT composite dopes, higher SF contents yielded electrospun fibers with clear and uniform structures. With the decrease in SF content and increase in GT content, fiber definition decreased, inter-fiber boundaries became blurred, and the number of connecting points increased. When GT was the dominant component, the fibrous structure became indistinct, with a cotton-like or particulate morphology observed, accompanied by a significant decrease in membrane stability and severe macroscale shrinkage. Additionally, the citric acid concentration was found to exert a notable influence on the quality of SF/GT electrospun membranes. Comprehensive analysis of SEM micrographs and electrospinning process performance identified Sample 1-SF-1 as the optimal formulation for SF/GT dopes under the investigated conditions. However, the membrane prepared from this formulation still lacked sufficient mechanical strength for subsequent mechanical testing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(2) Optimization of Electrospinning Parameters\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe effects of applied voltage, solution flow rate, and tip-to-collector distance on the electrospinning performance of the optimal SF/GT dope (Sample 1-SF-2) were investigated, and the results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffects of Electrospinning Parameters on the Performance of SF/GT Composite Dopes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApplied voltage (kV)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFlow rate (mL/h)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTip-to-collector distance (cm)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElectrospinning Performance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3-SF-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStable spinning, intact membrane formation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3-SF-2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRelatively stable spinning with minor droplet formation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3-SF-3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnstable spinning, droplet-induced surface defects\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3-SF-4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eProlonged needle dry-out periods\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3-SF-5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMinor droplet formation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3-SF-6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSevere fiber adhesion\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3-SF-7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnstable spinning with increased fiber breakage\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eNote: All tests were based on the formulation of Sample 1-SF-2.\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the optimization of electrospinning parameters, the SF/GT composite system still exhibited inherent limitations, including incomplete membrane surfaces and unsatisfactory mechanical strength. These results indicated the need for dope formulation modification, and subsequent studies therefore focused on the PVA/SF composite system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.1.2 Preparation of PVA/SF Composite Electrospun Membranes\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(1) Spinning Dope Formulation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePreliminary trials confirmed that incorporating PVA into SF dopes significantly improved electrospinnability and enabled stable fiber formation. The effects of SF/PVA mass ratios on the morphology of electrospun fibers were further investigated via SEM, with the electrospinning performance of different formulations summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e and the corresponding SEM micrographs presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElectrospinning Results of SF/PVA Dopes with Different Component Ratios (w/v%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSF (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePVA (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeionized water (mL)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElectrospinning Performance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4-PVA-2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntact membrane, high fiber yield, and moderate mechanical strength\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4-PVA-3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntact membrane, high fiber yield, and poor mechanical strength\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4-PVA-4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntact membrane, low fiber yield, flexible but non-load-bearing\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4-PVA-5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLow fiber yield, frequent gel splattering and needle clogging\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eNote: Electrospinning parameters: 20 kV applied voltage, 0.5 mL/h flow rate, 12 cm tip-to-collector distance.\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSEM analysis (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrated that Sample 4-PVA-2 (SF:PVA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3:7) yielded the best comprehensive performance, with electrospun nanofibers exhibiting a fine, uniformly distributed, and smooth morphology. Sample 4-PVA-4 also showed clear fiber formation but exhibited hollow fiber structures and poor macroscale mechanical stability. Tensile testing further confirmed that Sample 4-PVA-2 displayed a higher elongation at break. In contrast, formulations with either excessively high or low PVA contents exhibited various morphological defects. Sample 4-PVA-2 was therefore selected as the base formulation for subsequent parameter optimization.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(2) Effect of Total Solid Content\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe effect of PVA concentration (at a fixed SF content of 6 wt%) on the morphology of PVA/SF electrospun membranes was investigated, with the results summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffects of PVA Concentration on the Electrospinning Performance of PVA/SF Dopes (w/v%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSF (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePVA (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal solid content (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElectrospinning Performance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5-PVA-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIncomplete membrane, low fiber yield, uniform spinning with minor voids\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5-PVA-2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntact membrane, low fiber yield, and flexible texture\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5-PVA-3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntact membrane, high fiber yield, flexible but non-load-bearing\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5-PVA-4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntact membrane, high fiber yield, and moderate mechanical strength\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5-PVA-5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIncomplete membrane and frequent needle clogging\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eNote: Deionized water was used as the sole solvent.\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSEM characterization and electrospinning performance analysis indicated that a total solid content of 18 wt% enabled intact membrane formation, and increasing the PVA concentration to 14 wt% (20 wt% total solid content) further promoted the formation of a dense and intact fibrous structure. Sample 5-PVA-4 was identified as the optimal formulation with the highest electrospinning efficiency.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(3) Effect of Co-Solvent Addition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the optimized water-based dope formulation (Sample 5-PVA-4), ethanol was introduced as a co-solvent to accelerate solvent evaporation during electrospinning. The effects of different ethanol addition amounts on the electrospinning performance of PVA/SF dopes (PVA:SF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7:3) were investigated, with the results summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e and the SEM micrograph of the optimal sample presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffects of Ethanol Addition on the Electrospinning Performance of PVA/SF Dopes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePVA:SF\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthanol (mL)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eViscosity (cP)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElectrospinning Performance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEA-PVA-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7:3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1029\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMinor droplet formation, intact membrane\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEA-PVA-2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7:3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e922\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSlight droplet formation, intact membrane\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEA-PVA-3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7:3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e894\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSlight droplet formation, intact membrane\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eNote: Electrospinning parameters: 20 kV applied voltage, 0.5 mL/h flow rate, 12 cm tip-to-collector distance.\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElectrospinning experiments demonstrated that ethanol addition effectively improved the anti-droplet performance of PVA/SF dopes. Ethanol addition optimized dope fluidity, facilitating the formation of uniform and continuous nanofibers, and improved fiber morphology (e.g., enhanced diameter uniformity). However, macroscale evaluation revealed that ethanol addition exceeding 4 mL led to excessively low dope viscosity, resulting in severe droplet formation and failure to form intact membranes. These results identified 2 mL as the optimal ethanol addition amount for the PVA/SF composite system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(4) Optimization of Electrospinning Parameters\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffect of Applied Voltage: For heritage conservation applications, the applied voltage was strictly limited to below 20 kV to avoid potential damage to silk textiles. The effect of applied voltage on the electrospinning performance of the optimized PVA/SF dope (Sample 5-PVA-4, PVA:SF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7:3) was investigated, with the results summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab8\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 8\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffects of Applied Voltage on the Electrospinning Performance of PVA/SF Dopes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eApplied voltage (kV)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElectrospinning Performance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eU-PVA-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMinor droplet formation, high fiber yield\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eU-PVA-2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSlight droplet formation, non-uniform fiber formation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eU-PVA-3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSlight droplet formation, low fiber yield\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eNote: Electrospinning parameters: 0.5 mL/h flow rate, 12 cm tip-to-collector distance, PVA:SF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7:3.\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results indicated that an applied voltage of 19 kV yielded the best performance, with electrospun fibers exhibiting high definition and uniformity, no large-area shadowing, a high effective fiber yield, and sufficient fiber stretching.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffect of Flow Rate: The performance of electrospun membranes prepared at different solution flow rates was evaluated, with the results presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab9\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 9\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffects of Flow Rate on the Electrospinning Performance of PVA/SF Dopes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFlow rate (mL/h)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElectrospinning Performance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eV-PVA-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eProlonged needle dry-out periods\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eV-PVA-2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClear and uniform fiber formation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eV-PVA-3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSlight droplet formation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eNote: Electrospinning parameters: 20 kV applied voltage, 12 cm tip-to-collector distance, PVA:SF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7:3.\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA flow rate below 0.5 mL/h led to non-uniform fiber diameters and low electrospinning efficiency. A flow rate close to 0.7 mL/h caused the dope to drip onto the collector before sufficient stretching, leading to the presence of thick fiber segments. Based on these results, a flow rate of 0.5 mL/h was selected as optimal.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffect of Needle Gauge: The effect of needle inner diameter on the morphology and diameter of PVA/SF electrospun fibers was investigated, with the results summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"char\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab10\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 10\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEffects of Needle Gauge on the Diameter of PVA/SF Electrospun Fibers\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNeedle inner diameter (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAverage fiber diameter (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStandard deviation (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eC-PVA-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e21G/0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.2617\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0592\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eC-PVA-2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18G/0.86\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.3398\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0841\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eC-PVA-3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15G/1.36\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.3026\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1047\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFiber diameter analysis revealed that the 18G needle yielded the thickest fibers with a relatively small standard deviation. Smaller needle inner diameters produced finer fibers. Additionally, larger needle inner diameters generated a stronger electric field, enabling the polymer jet to be stretched further and finer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Performance of PVA/SF Composite Electrospun Membranes under Optimized Parameters\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Modification of Composite Electrospun Membranes by Spinning Additives\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSolution viscosity is a key factor in electrospinning. After glycerol was added, the viscosity of the spinning dope decreased with increasing glycerol content (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). The electrospinning performance of the different formulations is summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"char\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab11\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 11\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eViscosity of Spinning Dopes with Different Glycerol Additions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eViscosity (cP)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTorque (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGlycerol-PVA-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1487\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e38.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGlycerol-PVA-2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1356\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e39.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGlycerol-PVA-3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1232\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e40.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab12\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 12\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditive Types and Proportions in Spinning Dopes\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBasic Formulation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGlycerol Addition\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElectrospinning Performance\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSF-PVA-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSF:PVA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3:7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRelatively uniform and stable spinning with minor droplet formation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGlycerol-PVA-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSF:PVA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3:7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3 mL\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUneven membrane surface with moderate mechanical strength\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGlycerol-PVA-2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSF:PVA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3:7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2 mL\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntact and uniform membrane formation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGlycerol-PVA-3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSF:PVA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3:7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1 mL\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntact membrane with slight droplet formation\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSEM images showed that glycerol addition altered the fibre morphology of the electrospun membranes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003ea\u0026ndash;c). The number of branches on individual fibres increased after glycerol modification. Among the three formulations, Glycerol-PVA-2 produced the most uniform and intact membrane, whereas Glycerol-PVA-1 showed an uneven surface and Glycerol-PVA-3 showed slight droplet formation. These results indicate that a moderate amount of glycerol improved the spinnability of the SF/PVA system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMechanical testing further showed that glycerol modification increased both the maximum stress and elongation at break relative to the non-modified sample. Considering viscosity, membrane morphology and spinning stability together, Glycerol-PVA-2 gave the best overall performance and was selected as the optimal formulation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.2.2 Performance Characterization of the Optimized PVA/SF Composite Electrospun Membrane\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the above analysis, Glycerol-PVA-2 was selected as the optimal formulation, and its performance was characterized in detail as follows.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(1) Surface Morphology and Fiber Diameter Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe optimal formulation had an average fiber diameter of 0.4219 \u0026micro;m with a standard deviation of \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1169 \u0026micro;m, and a coefficient of variation (CV) of 27.7%. For comparison, the CV values of each group were as follows: Glycerol-PVA-1: 29.7%, Glycerol-PVA-2: 27.7%, Glycerol-PVA-3: 44.8%, SF-PVA-1: 67.4%. The average fiber diameter and standard deviation of each group are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab13\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 13\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStatistical Analysis of Fiber Diameter for Different Formulations\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample ID\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAverage Fiber Diameter (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStandard Deviation (\u0026micro;m)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGlycerol-PVA-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.3374\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1002\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGlycerol-PVA-2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.4219\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1169\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGlycerol-PVA-3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.3502\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1569\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSF-PVA-1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.3037\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2046\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(2) FTIR Spectroscopy Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFTIR spectroscopy was performed on the electrospun membranes before and after glycerol addition, and the results are shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e. The characteristic FTIR absorption peaks appeared at the following positions: amide I band near 1640 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, amide II band near 1541 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, amide III band at approximately 1270 cm⁻\u0026sup1;, and O\u0026ndash;H stretching vibration in the range of 3400\u0026ndash;3200 cm⁻\u0026sup1;. After adding glycerol during the preparation of the spinning dope, the intensity of the amide I band was significantly enhanced, and the intensity of the O\u0026ndash;H stretching vibration band was also obviously increased. The addition of ethanol as a co-solvent during the spinning dope preparation further enhanced the intensity of the amide III band.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(3)Tensile Strength Testing of Electrospun Membranes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTensile tests were conducted on five parallel membrane specimens, and the test data were processed and plotted, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e. After glycerol addition, glycerol had no significant effect on the elongation at break, but the tensile strength of the membrane specimens was significantly improved.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Application Testing of PVA/SF Composite Electrospun Membranes\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.3.1Peel Strength Testing\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeel strength tests were conducted immediately after electrospun membrane coating on aged silk (simulated cultural relic samples). The monitoring results of 3-hour electrospinning (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e) showed that the maximum bonding force between the composite membrane and silk was no more than 0.3 N.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e3.3.2.Tensile Strength Testing\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMechanical property comparison tests were conducted on aged silk and normal silk, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e. The results showed a significant reduction in the tensile strength of the aged samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTensile tests were conducted on aged silk samples with different coating durations, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e. The coating was prepared under the spinning parameters of 19 kV voltage, 0.5 mL/h flow rate, 12 cm tip-to-collector distance, and PVA/SF ratio of 7:3, with coating durations of 1 h and 3 h, respectively. The test results showed that both the tensile strength and elongation at break of the coated aged silk samples were significantly higher than those of the uncoated samples, with the 3-hour coated sample showing the maximum improvement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Discussion and Implications","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe systematic optimization of SF/GT and PVA/SF composite systems revealed distinct differences in electrospinnability and fiber morphology, which are closely related to the physicochemical properties of the component polymers. For the SF/GT system, higher SF content favored the formation of clear and uniform fibers, whereas increasing GT content led to blurred inter-fiber boundaries and reduced structural definition. This trend can be attributed to the different molecular structures and chain flexibility of the two proteins: SF tends to form stable β-sheet structures that provide mechanical integrity, while GT, derived from collagen, possesses higher hydrophilicity and chain mobility, which may disrupt jet stability during electrospinning. The observed cotton-like or particulate morphology at high GT ratios suggests that the dope transitioned from a spinnable polymer solution to a regime dominated by droplet formation, consistent with the classical understanding of electrospinnability limits where chain entanglement density is insufficient to support continuous fiber formation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe inability of the SF/GT system to achieve sufficient mechanical strength, even after parameter optimization, highlights the importance of selecting a complementary synthetic polymer to enhance processability. The introduction of PVA proved effective, as PVA not only increased dope viscosity but also promoted stable fiber formation across a wider range of compositions. The optimal SF:PVA ratio of 3:7 (Sample 4-PVA-2) balanced fiber uniformity with membrane integrity, which is consistent with previous reports on PVA-based blends where PVA acts as a carrier polymer to improve spinnability of natural polymers\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003e. The hollow fiber structures observed in Sample 4-PVA-4 may be attributed to phase separation during rapid solvent evaporation, a phenomenon often encountered in polymer blends with differing solubility parameters. Ethanol addition as a co-solvent was found to improve anti-droplet performance and fiber uniformity, which can be explained by its higher volatility compared to water. Faster solvent evaporation reduces the time available for the jet to undergo Rayleigh instability, thereby suppressing bead formation. However, excessive ethanol (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4 mL) led to a sharp drop in viscosity (from 1029 cP to 894 cP), pushing the system below the spinnable viscosity window and causing droplet formation. This demonstrates that co-solvent effects must be carefully balanced against rheological properties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter optimization for the PVA/SF system revealed that applied voltage, flow rate, and needle gauge each exert predictable influences on fiber morphology. The choice of 19 kV (below the 20 kV safety limit for heritage applications) provided sufficient electric field strength for jet stretching without causing electrical discharge. The flow rate of 0.5 mL/h ensured a steady Taylor cone formation, avoiding the intermittent jetting observed at 0.3 mL/h and the dripping at 0.7 mL/h\u003csup\u003e9\u003c/sup\u003e. Needle gauge selection further influenced fiber diameter, with smaller inner diameters (21G) producing finer fibers due to higher surface charge density and stronger jet elongation. Interestingly, the 18G needle yielded the thickest fibers with relatively low standard deviation, suggesting that for this specific dope, a moderate needle diameter provided optimal balance between throughput and fiber uniformity. Our findings are consistent with recent PVA-based composite electrospinning studies, which demonstrated that synergistic optimization of polymer blending ratio, applied voltage, and flow rate is essential for fabricating bead-free nanofibers with uniform morphology\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlycerol addition as a plasticizer significantly altered fiber morphology and mechanical properties. The increased branching observed in SEM micrographs suggests that glycerol may modify the jet breakup dynamics, possibly through its effect on solution surface tension and conductivity. The substantial improvement in tensile strength without compromising elongation at break is noteworthy: typically, plasticizers increase flexibility at the expense of strength, but here glycerol appeared to enhance both. This may be attributed to hydrogen bonding interactions between glycerol and the SF/PVA matrix, which could promote more uniform stress distribution across the fiber network. The optimal glycerol concentration (2 mL, Glycerol-PVA-2) corresponded to a moderate viscosity of 1356 cP, indicating that excessive plasticizer (3 mL, 1487 cP) led to uneven membranes due to reduced chain mobility, while insufficient plasticizer (1 mL, 1232 cP) resulted in incomplete plasticization and residual droplet formation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFTIR analysis provided critical evidence for the chemical compatibility of the composite system with silk substrates. The enhanced intensity of the amide I band after glycerol addition indicates increased ordering of the SF secondary structure, likely due to glycerol-induced hydrogen bonding that stabilizes β-sheet conformations. The intensified O\u0026ndash;H stretching vibration in the 3400\u0026ndash;3200 cm⁻\u0026sup1; region reflects the formation of additional hydrogen bonds between glycerol, PVA, and SF\u003csup\u003e11\u003c/sup\u003e. Importantly, no new peaks or significant peak shifts were observed, confirming that no chemical reactions occurred between components, which is essential for the reversibility and long-term stability required in cultural heritage conservation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eApplication tests on aged silk demonstrated that the electrospun membrane effectively enhanced mechanical stability while maintaining reversibility. An appropriate bonding strength between the coating membrane and the relic surface is important for effective protection while preserving reversibility\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e. The peel strength of \u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.3 N after 3 h of coating meets the conservation principle of reversibility, as the membrane can be gently peeled off without damaging the substrate. This low adhesion force is likely due to the physical entanglement between the electrospun nanofibers and the silk surface rather than chemical bonding, which is consistent with the FTIR results showing no chemical interaction. The tensile strength improvement after coating (with 3 h coating showing maximum enhancement) suggests that the membrane provides both surface consolidation and load-bearing reinforcement. The coating duration-dependent reinforcement effect may be attributed to increased membrane thickness and improved interfacial contact over time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these promising results, several limitations should be acknowledged. The study was conducted on artificially aged silk samples, which may not fully replicate the complex degradation states of excavated archaeological silk, including the presence of soil residues, biological degradation products, and heterogeneous aging patterns. The long-term stability of the composite membrane under museum storage conditions (e.g., light, humidity fluctuations, temperature variations) remains to be evaluated. Additionally, the reversibility test was performed immediately after coating; the reversibility after extended aging periods has not been assessed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCompared with conventional consolidation methods (e.g., resin impregnation or adhesive spraying), the electrospun nanofiber approach offers distinct advantages: minimal intervention (only surface application), reversibility (mechanical peel-off), and material compatibility (SF as a homologous material). The incorporation of PVA and glycerol improves processability while maintaining chemical compatibility, as confirmed by FTIR. The successful development of this system suggests that electrospinning can serve as a platform technology for textile conservation, enabling tailored membrane properties through composition and parameter control. The relevant findings of this study have obtained a national technical patent\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003e, which indicates that this technical route has a good application prospect in the consolidation of ancient silk textiles, and also lays a practical foundation for the in-depth integration of nanomaterials and spectroscopic techniques in cultural relic conservation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research should focus on several directions. First, long-term aging studies under simulated museum conditions are needed to assess the stability of the composite membrane and its reversibility over time. Second, the application to real archaeological silk samples should be performed to validate the findings under authentic conservation scenarios. Third, advanced spectroscopic techniques such as micro-FTIR imaging and Raman spectroscopy could be employed to map the distribution of the membrane components and to monitor degradation processes at the micro-scale. Fourth, the development of a spectral evaluation and digital archive system, combining FTIR, multispectral imaging, and mechanical testing, would provide a comprehensive tool for conservation assessment. Such an integrated approach would not only facilitate quality control during application but also enable long-term monitoring of conservation interventions, representing a step toward data-driven cultural heritage conservation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn summary, this study demonstrates that SF/PVA/glycerol composite electrospun membranes, prepared under optimized conditions, offer a promising solution for the consolidation of silk textile relics, combining material compatibility, reversibility, and measurable mechanical reinforcement. The findings also highlight the value of systematic parameter optimization and spectroscopic characterization in the development of conservation materials.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to licensing restrictions, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the Discipline Development Support Project of the Key Laboratory of Scientific Archaeology and Cultural Heritage Protection, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, entitled \"Protection and Interpretation of Ancient Chinese Unearthed Textiles\" (Grant No. S20250311).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eY.G. conceived the study, conducted the experiments, and wrote the original manuscript. D.L. supervised the project, secured funding, and revised the manuscript. R.Z. carried out formal analysis, prepared figures, and contributed to manuscript revision. S.Y. was responsible for manuscript formatting, translation, and reference management. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAdditional information\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrespondence\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eand requests for materials should be addressed to Rui Zhao.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReprints and permissions information\u003c/strong\u003e is available at http://www.nature.com/reprints.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;Ma, H. Embroidered Fragments Excavated from the Wuluchong Tomb of the Han Dynasty. \u003cem\u003eCultural Relics Reference Materials\u003c/em\u003e 1958, (9).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;Wang, Y. Wang Yin and Textile Archaeology. Beijing: Yishatang Dress Publishing, 2001: 125\u0026ndash;131.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;Gong, D.C.; Xi, S.C.; Wang, M. Study on the Application of Polyvinyl Formal Film-Forming Technology in the Conservation of Cultural Relics and Books. \u003cem\u003eCultural Relics Protection and Archaeometry\u003c/em\u003e 1996, (1): 29\u0026ndash;34.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;Zhang, X.M. Application of a New Silicone-Modified Acrylic Resin in the Consolidation of Deteriorated Silk Textiles. \u003cem\u003eCultural Relics Protection and Archaeometry\u003c/em\u003e 2003, (2).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;Yang, L.; Zhang, J.N.; Huang, J.H. Analysis of the Darkening Mechanism of Paraloid B72 on Cultural Relics and Its Application. \u003cem\u003eWestern Archaeology\u003c/em\u003e 2021, (1): 315\u0026ndash;321.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;Kang, X.J. Discussion on the \u0026ldquo;Needle-And-Thread\u0026rdquo; Consolidation Method for Textile Cultural Heritage. \u003cem\u003eChina Cultural Relics Science Research\u003c/em\u003e 2023, (4): 49\u0026ndash;55.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;Zheng, H.L.; Hu, Z.W.; Zhao, F.; et al. Study on the Process Conditions of Silkworm Silk Protein/Glutaraldehyde Consolidation of Fragile Silk Fabrics. \u003cem\u003eScience of Sericulture\u003c/em\u003e 2009, (3): 576\u0026ndash;582.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;Safari, P., Rahimabadi, E.Z., Vaezi, M.R. et al. Development of ZnO-NPs reinforced chitosan nanofiber mats with improved antibacterial and biocompatibility properties. Sci Rep 15, 16567 (2025). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-01669-w\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;Fatahian, R., Erfani, R. Surrogate modeling of electrospun PVA/PLA nanofibers using artificial neural network for biomedical applications. Sci Rep 15, 12886 (2025). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-94608-8\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;Kaur, H., Singh, S., Rode, S. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Fabrication and characterization of polyvinyl alcohol-chitosan composite nanofibers for carboxylesterase immobilization to enhance the stability of the enzyme. \u003cem\u003eSci Rep\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e14\u003c/strong\u003e, 19615 (2024). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-67913-x\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;Retko, K., Legan, L., Kosel, J. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Identification of iron gall inks, logwood inks, and their mixtures using Raman spectroscopy, supplemented by reflection and transmission infrared spectroscopy. \u003cem\u003eHerit Sci\u003c/em\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e12\u003c/strong\u003e, 212 (2024). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-024-01323-0\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;Zhou, Y. Chemical Consolidation of Fragile Silk Cultural Relics. Hangzhou: Zhejiang Sci-Tech University Press, 2009.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u0026nbsp;Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Polymer Electrospinning Solution and Consolidation Method for Ancient Silk Textiles. Chinese Patent 202411144794.9, 2024-12-06.\u003c/span\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Par125\" class=\"Para\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-heritage-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"hsci","sideBox":"Learn more about [Heritage Science](http://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"40494","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40494/3","title":"npj Heritage Science","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Silk textile relics, electrospinning, nanofiber membrane, silk fibroin, reversible reinforcement, conservation technology","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9206830/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9206830/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eExcavated silk textiles are highly deteriorated protein-based artifacts, with consolidation facing long-standing challenges of poor compatibility and insufficient reversibility. To develop a mild and characterizable consolidation system, this study introduced electrospinning technology to prepare silk fibroin (SF)/polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) composite nanofiber membranes, optimized via glycerol modification. The optimal formulation (SF:PVA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3:7, 2 mL glycerol, appropriate ethanol) and process parameters (20 kV voltage, 0.5 mL/h flow rate, 12 cm tip-to-collector distance) yielded dense, uniformly distributed nanofibers. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed good fiber continuity without bead defects, while Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy verified intact silk fibroin structure and enhanced hydrogen bonding (no adverse functional groups). Tensile tests showed significantly improved breaking strength and elongation of aged silk after coating, with the 3-hour deposition sample exhibiting the greatest enhancement. Peel tests revealed a maximum peel force\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.3 N, enabling gentle whole-membrane removal. This glycerol-modified SF/PVA electrospun membrane achieves effective surface consolidation with minimal intervention, good compatibility, and reversibility, providing a feasible paradigm for silk textile relic conservation and laying a methodological foundation for spectroscopic evaluation systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFragile silk relics often suffer from poor compatibility and irreversible damage when using traditional consolidation methods. We developed a new reversible method using electrospinning technology to prepare SF/PVA composite nanofiber membranes with glycerol modification. The thin, transparent membrane significantly improves the mechanical strength of aged silk while maintaining its flexibility. Importantly, it can be gently peeled off from the relic surface without causing damage (maximum peel force\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.3 N), meeting the \"minimum intervention\" principle of cultural heritage conservation. This study offers a safe and effective solution for protecting fragile silk textiles, with potential application in the conservation of other organic cultural relics.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Experimental Study on the Application of Electrospinning Technology in the Conservation of Ancient Silk Textiles","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-03 12:17:54","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9206830/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"160002901289874499791413152042755105772","date":"2026-04-10T09:58:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"257818662555220705572012686337943296232","date":"2026-04-10T03:31:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-28T14:27:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-03-28T07:17:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-28T07:17:19+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"npj Heritage Science","date":"2026-03-24T05:00:11+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-heritage-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"hsci","sideBox":"Learn more about [Heritage Science](http://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"40494","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40494/3","title":"npj Heritage Science","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"63a087ec-0a38-458f-9f0a-79ddf366bbb0","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 3rd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-03T12:17:55+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-03 12:17:54","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9206830","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9206830","identity":"rs-9206830","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}