A regression analysis of the impact of flooding on life expectancy and economic health in Nigeria

A regression analysis of the impact of flooding on life expectancy and economic health in Nigeria | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article A regression analysis of the impact of flooding on life expectancy and economic health in Nigeria Chinemelum Amarachukwu Eneh, Onyenekenwa Cyprian Eneh This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8980184/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 13 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Heavy rainfall and climate change arise from anthropogenic activities and lead to flooding, which has dire consequences, including wanton destruction of lives and properties, degradation and pollution of the environment, environmental insecurity, hazards, risks and health challenges in Nigeria. This study regressed secondary data (2012–2022) on the incidences of flood disasters and their impacts on life expectancy at birth and economic health in Nigeria. Results showed that for every 1% increase in flood disaster incidence, life expectancy decreased by 0.0000016 and economic health decreased by 0.000008088. The study advocated people action and government policy-making and implementation for ecological conservation, restoration and succession, as well as disturbance ecology and green building, infrastructure and initiative, and disaster risk reduction measures to deal with flood disasters in Nigeria. Environmental security Ecological conservation restoration and succession Disturbance ecology Green building infrastructure and initiative Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction Water-overflow leads to flooding which can submerge dry land, damage the ecosystem and have detrimental effects on agriculture, public health, facilities, and environmental changes and security. A flood disaster can destroy or submerge buildings, bridges, trees, and other structures and properties due to its immense power. It frequently results in significant fatalities and injuries. Floods spread bacteria and pathogens to cause a rise in water-borne and communicable diseases. Flooding also leads to loss of cattle, crops and food supplies and decrease in agricultural productivity. This exacerbates poverty, starvation and death. Homes that are not destroyed may experience persistent moisture, which can lead to the formation of mold and its harmful effects, including respiratory issues (Ahadzie, Mensah & Simpeh, 2022 ). Exposure to mold and moisture invariably causes or increases fungus contamination, which is responsible for current 30–50% rise in respiratory health problems among residents of coastal and wetland areas. Flood-related losses, stress and sadness have an impact on psychosocial integrity. A tsunami in the Indian Ocean claimed 230,000 lives in Indonesia in 2004. China lost 86,000 persons to flooding and 145,000 to the diseases that followed in 1975 (Demain, 2018 ). Flood claimed 100,000 lives in North Vietnam in 1971 (Eneh, 2020 ). Thus, environmental sustainability, particularly in nations where flooding occurs, is a problem, and requires urgent planning, integrated environmental management, and responsive emergency measures. Monitoring and forecasting, statistical analysis of hydraulic models, mapping land use planning and policy regulation, proactive control measures, and observation of flood heights should all be part of sustainable environmental management (Maclean, 2022 ; Eneh, 2020 ). In Nigeria, flooding is a serious ecological problem. Only five of Nigeria's thirty-six states and capital cities are arguably not vulnerable to flooding. Across ten states in Nigeria, flooding claimed 100 lives, prompting four of the state governments involved to declare a state-wide flood disaster emergency. The situation is made worse by inadequate infrastructure and a lack of planning (Ogunwumi & Ihinegbu, 2025 ; Okunola & Olawuni, 2022 ; Ihinegbu, Turay & Akwafuo, 2022 ). In 2022, floods devastated various regions, causing over 1.4 million people to be evacuated, over 603 fatalities, and numerous injuries. Roughly 82,035 dwellings were flood-destroyed, over 1.4 million people were displaced, over 603 persons lost their lives, over 2,400 people were injured, and 332,327 hectares of land were damaged across Nigeria. More than 200,000 residences and 110,000 hectares of agriculture-cultivated stock were among the damaged properties. In 2012, floods killed 363 people and displaced over 2.1 million people in 30 of 36 states, especially Kogi and Benue States. In August 2022, the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) issued a warning that flooding could occur in 32 (out of 36) states and 233 (out of 774) local government areas (LGAs) ( The Punch , 2022). For the 2024 flooding forecast and significance of flood impacts for Nigeria, 148 LGAs (out of 774 or 19%) in thirty-one (31) states and the Federal Capital Territory Abuja fall in the high flood-risk areas. About 31.2% (249 LGAs) fall in moderate flood-risk areas. About 48.7% (377 LGAs) fall in the low flood-risk areas. Already, flood incidents from high rainfall intensity started in April. In July 2024, 21 LGAs (out of 774) in 10 states were submerged by flood. Poor drainage systems and blocked drainages worsened the matter. Increase in rainfall frequency and intensity may worsen cholera outbreak that has already given rise to 2,102 suspected cases and 63 deaths as at 3 July 2024 (Emepu 2024 ). Despite this forecast and others, repeated perennial flooding seems to persist in the country. This major ecological issue yearly catches Nigerians off-guard throughout the nation and inevitably result in the needless and preventable losses of lives and properties, in addition to environmental degradation and the associated environmental hazards, dangers, risks and health challenges. Torrential rain can lead to structural damage resulting in the collapse of reservoir and destruction of critical infrastructure, with the risk of disease outbreaks heightened. Floods trap unprepared people in homes, unsafe and inaccessible locations (Araoz, Marbey, Balogh & Caroll, 2020 ). In the coastal areas,, which are inundated by floods, ravaging floods kill, injure and render victims homeless, in addition to destroying homes, farmlands and other properties in Nigeria, Motorists and travelers are stranded, calling for relief and succour. A journey of 8 hours may take comuters 4 days to wade through the flood mess. Sea level rise flooding poses a threat to the habitability of dwellings, which are inundated by floods that submerge homes. properties and cars (Nkwunonwo, Whitworth & Baily, 2020 ). Lagos came fourth on the list of 173 cities in The Global Liveability Index 2023. The risks and difficulties for citizens’ way of life as touching on culture and environment, stability, education, infrastructure and healthcare were measured. Each factor was rated on tolerability, acceptability, uncomfortability or undesirability levels (Dimensah, Okine & Mireku, 2018 ). Residents are displaced and some of them move in canoes for as long as the flood takes to subside. Padre infrastructure (church and mosque), markets, hospitals and schools are flooded and submerged in flood water. Acres of farms and agricultural produce (cassava, yams, maize, melon, cocoa, rice, vegetables, potatoes, groundnuts, plantain, banana, and others) are submerged in devastating floods, worsening food insecurity, hunger and poverty. Micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) are destroyed and business activities are halted abruptly. Journeys are truncated as floods render roads impassable (Eneh, 2020 ; Alves, Angnuureng, Morand & Almar, 2020 ; Cirella & Iyalomhe, 2018 ; Peduzzi, Dao, Herold & Mouton, 2009 ). Njoku, Efiong and Ayara ( 2020 ) report that, flooding takes various scale yearly in Nigeria because the risk and vulnerability level of communities to flooding varies, owing to susceptibility to factors, such as rainfall intensity, proximity to water bodies, population, slope, and elevation. Communities in Niger delta, Lagos lagoons, Cross River, and Rivers Benue and Niger are most flood-exposed. The level of vulnerability of these communities to flooding, according to Njoku et al. ( 2020 ) and Popoola et al. ( 2022 ), is due to nearness to coastlines, rainfall intensity, and population. Figure 1 shows flood-risk zones in Nigeria, while Fig. 2 shows rainfall intensity in Nigeria (2017), and Fig. 3 shows major water bodies in Nigeria. Gohlke ( 2024 ) reports that flood affects pregnancy and health of foetus. Preterm births are increased by about 3% by flooding globally. Also, about 7% more children in utero have a low birth weight caused by flooding. These are predisposing risk factors for developing diabetes and asthma, which are chronic diseases. Thus, flooding has lifelong impacts and affects life expectancy at birth. Likely factors are disruption, stress and delayed access to healthcare services. Stress may induce early labour, since heat waves are linked to more preterm births, probably due to dehydration resulting from compromised water supplies and traveling long distances on foot to escape from dangerous areas. Farm crops destruction and blocking access to sources of food by flooding imperil people’s food access, predispose pregnant women to undernutrition during pregnancy and giving birth to babies with lower birth weights. Osei, Kunawotor and Appiah-Kunadu ( 2023 ) argue that flood caused destruction of health facilities and spread of diseases, thereby reducing life expectancy and increasing mortality rate in 53 African countries. Echendu ( 2020 ) reports that flooding impacts economic life by being associated with contamination of water sources that lead to water-borne disease outbreaks, such as dysentery, typhoid fever and cholera, which occur often in Nigeria. Economic health is also affected by flooding by losses of life, property, farmland and crops, home, and padre facility, as well as infection and injury. So far, the literature is scanty on reports on the effcts of flooding on life expctancy at birth and economic health in Nigeria.. Therefore, this study was aimed at regrssing scondary data on flooding incidence as it relates to life expctancy at birth and economic health in Nigeria. The outcome of the study will reveal what is at stake, especially as climate change increases flooding. 1.1 Conceptual review The concepts of “health”, “public health”, “economic health”, “flooding and environmental disasters”, “ecological conservation”, “ecological succession”, “ecological restoration”, “common goods”, and “disturbance ecology” are defined briefly below as relevant to the study. 1.1.1 Concept of health Svalastog, Donev, Kristoffersen and Gajović ( 2017 ) reviewed the historical and modern concepts of health. Ancient Greece,. Ancient Indian and Chinese medicine emphasize the physical body dimension of health and the feeling of comfort and absence of pain. In modern concepts, health is not just freedom from or absence of disease or disabilities, but life situation as a whole. It implies individual’s maximum capacity for self-realization and self-fulfilment, that is, the inner feeling of pleasure or dissatisfaction within the environment. Public health and social medicine advocate observing the health of individuals and also that of groups and community (Encyclopedia of Environmental Health, 2019). Zahra, Lee, Sun and Park ( 2015 ) submit that environment is the determinant of health. According to Fugelli & Ingstad ( 2009 , 2001 ), health is characterized by qualities of wholeness, pragmatism, and individualism. Wholeness refers to a holistic phenomenon, as health comprises everyday life, involving working life, family life and community life. Health is a resource and a phenomenon that is total, personal and situation-specific. Pragmatism considers health as a relative phenomenon, experienced and evaluated in the context of people’s reasonable expectation for their age, social situation and medical conditions. Individualism refers to health as a personal phenomenon that addresses being part of a society, close to some other persons, individual values that are unique and need individualized strategies for health improvement. The initial definition of health by World Health Organization (WHO) is “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. Beside physical and mental health, social welfare is an integral part of overall health, as health is linked to the social environment, as well as living and working conditions (Encyclopedia of Environmental Health, 2019). The spiritual dimension to the definition of health involves a sense of fulfilment and satisfaction, values, self-awareness and presence. Also, it involves self-confidence and self-esteem, peacefulness and tranquillity with dynamic emotional balance (both internal and toward the environment). Also involved are selflessness, morality and truthfulness, positive emotions, compassion and willingness to help and support others, responsibility and contribution to the common good, and successful management of everyday life problems and demands as well as social stress (Eneh, 2011 ). 1.1.2 Public health Public health analysis is the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through organized efforts and informed choices of society, public and private organizations, communities and individuals, It is the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces. Public can be a handful of people or a village or an entire city. In the case of a pandemic, it may encompass several continents. Since health encompasses physical, psychological and social well-being, public health is an interdisciplinary field. Environmental health is a part of public health, and is the study of “the interconnections between people and their environment by which human health and a balanced and non-polluted environment are sustained or degraded”. Nigeria has recorded low life expectancy and economic health figures for decades. The situation is exacerbated by flood, which needs to be addressed. Besides, as a developing country, Nigeria is characterized by poor technological development. This explains the absence, paucity, inadequacy and dysfunctionality of advanced technology-supported health system (Centers for Disease Control Foundation, 2017 ; Peduzzi, Dao, Herold & Mouton, 2009 ). 1.1.3 Concept of economic health Economic health refers to analysis of health and healthcare issues based on economic principles and methods to efficiently maximize the health outcomes of patients. Flood affects the efficiency, effectiveness and values of the health system, as well as healthy behaviour (Johnson, Scott, Reed, Lewis & Bewtra, 2019 ). Health economics applies economic principles to analyze how resources are allocated within healthcare systems to maximize patient health outcomes efficiently. It considers benefits, costs, and behaviours of stakeholders to deal with scarcity in healthcare, in order to improve equity and accessibility. The key methods are cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) and cost-utility analysis (CUA). The key aspects are resource allocation and efficiency, economic evaluation, behavioral analysis, and policy and strategy. The key metrics are incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) used to determine if the cost of a new treatment justifies its health gain. As disease burdens and management costs increase due to technological advancements, economic health becomes more critical in its role (Weil, 2014 ). 1.1.4 Flooding and environmental disasters: The linkages The UN General Assembly Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (UN) stipulates that “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.” Individuals ought to have access to human rights of protection from natural disaster, and rights of food, healthcare and shelter, even in situations of the aftermath of environmental disasters. But states frequently fail to respect, uphold and fulfil these domesticated human rights even in flood and other natural disasters (Johnson, Scott, Reed, Lewis & Bewtra, 2019 ; Bonds & Downey, 2012 ). Nigeria is abundantly endowed with naturally occurring rich varied resources of biological or mineral or aesthetic tangible assets that ought to be of material or immaterial benefits to humankind. But, they are poorly managed with a lack of efficient management of exploited renewable natural resources for the overall good of all. Nigeria’s active economic frame relies on mono-economy of petroleum export, with little diversification, predisposing it to external shocks. The development, supply and access of its renewable natural resource endowments for its survival and development is politically suppressed, constraining the country to rely on non-renewable resources with sluggish regenerative capacity. Unlike in developed nations, Nigeria’s natural resources are not exploited for human service such as recreation, transportation, discovery of new species, or beautiful landscape. Nigeria’s other numerous natural resource endowments include surface or ground water, forest and fertile land or the mineral and soil within it (rather than the crop that grows on it), energy resource such as petroleum and natural gas, and heated water (geothermal energy) contained within rock layers. In Nigeria, perennial flood disasters are allowed to destroy both natural and environmental resources amid loss of property and lives (Broberga & Sanob, 2018 ; Alobo & Obaji, 2016 ; Drolet, Dominelli, Alston, Ersing, Mathbor & Wu, 2015 ; Ferris, 2014 ; Bonds & Downey, 2012 ; Davis, 2011 ; Gould, 2009 ; United Nations, 1948 ). Balancing of natural resource exploitation with regenerative capacity has become urgent in Nigeria. Environmental economists support adopting integrated flood management system (IFMS), which embraces green building and infrastructure, and introduces green initiative that requires flood managers to ensure and protect the well-being of the environment which is determined by positive climate change actions and construction and employment of green methods of flood-to-renewable energy. 1.1.5 Ecological restoration: The reverse-flood engineered regulation case Ecological conservation is the process of preventing losses to ecosystems, while ecological restoration and ecological succession are the process of repairing natural sites with degraded, polluted or destroyed biological communities (various species interacting in a common location) in the ecosystem. Ecological restoration involves the construction of climate-smart buildings, roads, drainages and other major infrastructure to lower energy and water consumption, thereby lowering carbon footprints in the home and in the country toward achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 11 and 13 which target zero net carbon footprints by 2030 (Svalastog, Donev, Kristoffersen & Gajović, 2017 ; Donev, 2014 ). Coterminous with this are resolving perennial flood incidence (in Nigeria and elsewhere) and translating flood incidence (in cases where it cannot be obviously prevented) to national advantage. Yet, Nigerian government does little or nothing with regard to IFMS. Consequently, flooding alters human activities and the local native populations of plants and animals in many ecosystems, introduces invasive species and compels natives to convert fundamental natural resources to extractive use in agriculture and mining, and further degrades soil and fouls water resources. Hence, an analysis of the threats and impacts of perennial flooding on the public health of the population in most states in Nigeria has become needful, as physical, psychological and social well-being aspects of health are annually impinged upon by flood disasters in most parts of the country. Preventive, management and control measures are used to tackle flooding for ecological conservation, restoration and succession. People action for flood-control and government enactment and implementation of regulatory policies conserve the environment, reduce flood disasters and address public health distress from flood. These actions and regulations are abysmally absent in most developing countries to protect the non-renewable, renewable, human and natural resources. Ecological restoration framework is weak, lacking, outdated or ignored in most cases. Restoration ecologists apply ecological restoration principles to reverse ecological changes caused by flooding, deforestation or removal of trees and other plants, the displacement of animals, and the changes on land-soil environments exposed to oil spillage and other such disasters. But, there is inaction in this regard in Nigeria. Ecological succession, as an important part of reverse-flood engineering and environmental-flood change restoration process, inspires a long-term positive evolution of the ecosystem’s biological community subsequent upon a disturbance event. These regulations and regulation instruments, such as disturbance ecology, contract the causes and consequences of both natural and anthropogenic disturbances. Ecological conservation, which prevents further losses to ecosystems, in view of the perennial flooding in Nigeria, is thus important and valid for implementation (Drolet, Dominelli, Alston, Ersing, Mathbor & Wu, 2015 ; Ferris, 2014 ; Davis, 2011 ). However, any attempt at restoration process in most under-developed countries, including Nigeria, is either prematurely abandoned, like most development projects, or does not follow the proper process. It does not begin with a thorough examination of the current site conditions and an appraisal of the ecological damage done on the site to establish the need and the potential actions for restoration. The cause of the site degradation is not considered. The likelihood of the reversal or lessening of the degradation and ways to accomplish it are not determined. Resources for planning process (funding, labour, equipment, plant materials, and technical knowledge) are not addressed early enough to ascertain the project feasibility. Local communities are hardly consulted and carried along for the necessary support and participation in the planning and implementation processes and the attendant important ownership and sustainability of the project. Realistic goals established in the restoration planning are driven by personal, tribal, religious and political interests over and above the common good. Pre-disturbance conditions, usually represented by nearby “reference sites” perquisite to be adopted as restoration targets, with modifications where need-be, are relegated to the background. Prevention of further loss of protected populations does not form the motivation for the restoration project. Establishment of the ecological restoration project goals is not followed by outlining objectives and identifying measures to be taken. A regular measuring of progress toward those objectives to provide information for the assessment of success of the project and how and when adjustment of restoration activities should take place is not usually the case. There is no planning for ecological disturbance and attendant damage prevention, response or restoration, nor ecological succession. A travesty may be done. But implementation is a far cry. Inaction colours the whole sphere as though environmental degradation is a desired phenomenon to be anticipated and welcome with cheers and gladness (Davis, 2011 ; Gould, 2009 ; United Nations, 1948 ). 1.1.6 The theory of common goods Elinor Ostrom, an American and co-winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2009, proposed that business, the environment, climate change (evident in flooding and other environmental disasters) are common goods and must be factored into economic governance analysis. The notion of common good designates a collection of stakeholders who all claim ownership, without ever being able to claim exclusive control, and who must agree to consider their activities within the limits that the protection of common goods imposes. The society is made for human beings and not the other way around. It allows them to develop, to realize themselves, beyond what they could do with themselves or to themselves alone. Philosophically, the theory questions the knowledge that the economy is the basis of society and utility is the reason for human relations. Are human beings made for society or is society made for human beings? It declares businesses and the environment a common good, in view of the threats weighing on humanity, biodiversity, and living things in general being raised by climate change and resource depletion of business actions. To save the planet and humanity, the oceans, atmosphere, ice cap and eco-climate are natural common goods but are also intertwined with “social common goods” such as health and education. In adopting this theory, the study recognizes that flooding – a form of climate change – requires a die-hard belief and excellence, otherwise, soon it will be too late to move flood incidence away from daily living as time is running out. Humanity may not “make do with it”, but individuals, government and its institutions must not give up for the common good of the earth. Economic and practical living need to be hinged or anchored on eco-common good (Mashi, Oghenejabor & Inkani, 2019 ; Broberga & Sanob, 2018 ; Combes, Combes-Motel & Schwartz, 2016; United Nations, 1948 ). 1.1.7 Disturbance ecology Disturbance ecology is the study of minor or catastrophic temporary, impactful events, e;g; fire, storm, flood, or human activity, and how they alter habitat structure, disrupt ecosystems, and trigger successional recovery. It studies their intensity, frequency, and spatial extent. These disturbances are intrinsic, essential drivers of nutrient cycling, biodiversity, and landscape heterogeneity. Types of disturbance are natural and anthropogenic, The key components of disturbance ecology are intensity, severity, frequency/return interval, disturbance regimes, and ecological succession. The importance and effects include maintaining biodiversity, resource availability, adaptation, and .resilience and complexity (Burton, Jentsch & Walker, 2020 ). 2. Materials and methods 2.1 Study design The study carried out co-relational analysis of secondary data to ascertain the effect of flooding on public health proxied on life expectancy and economic health of Nigerians. According to Beers ( 2022 ), regression is a statistical model used to capture the relationship among multiple quantities as they change over time. A regression model is able to show whether changes observed in the dependent variable are associated with changes in one or more of the explanatory variables. It does this by essentially fitting a best-fit line and seeing how the data are dispersed around this line. Multiple regression is represented as: Y = a+b 1 X 1 +b 2 X 2 +b 3 X 3 +...+b t X t +u where: Y = The dependent variable X = The explanatory (independent) variable(s) a = The y-intercept b = (beta coefficient) u = The regression residual or error term This research work made use of regression analysis method of estimation because this method is commonly used in flood impact studies to quantify the relationship between flood characteristics (such as flood magnitude, duration, frequency) and various impact variables (such as damage costs, displacement of people, infrastructure damage). The regression model unveils public health susceptibility to flood occurrence, incidence and attack. The study variables of flood disaster incidence deaths (number of human flood deaths), life expectancy at birth (years) (as an indication of the number of years a new-born infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth were to remain the same throughout its life), and economic health (current account balance as a percent of GDP) were adopted in lines with the objectives of the study (Fenglin, Ahmad, Zelenakova, Fenta, Dar, Teka, Belew, Damtie, Berhan & Shafi, 2023; Shrestha, Di, Yu, Kang, Yuan-zheng & Yu-qi, 2017 ; Kim, Seo & Jang, 2012 ; Ikeda, 2007 ; Maidment, 1993 ; Stedinger, Vogel & Foufoula-Georgiou, 1993 ). 2.2 Variable conceptualization and relationship The Regression model was used to estimate the changes associated with flood disaster on public health with respect to economic health, public health and well-being. Flood disaster effect was captured by the number of human flood deaths and economic health was captured by current account balance as a percent of gross domestic product, GDP. This economic health proxy is an indication of the level of international competitiveness of a country via the level of imports and savings rate of citizens. Public health well-being is captured by life expectancy – an indication of the number of years a new-born infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of birth were to remain the same throughout the individual’s life (Peduzzi, Dao, Herold & Mouton, 2009 ). Flood disaster incidence deaths is the independent varioble, while life expectancy at birth and economic health are dependent variobles. Data on flood disaster impact (number of human flood deaths) were sourced from Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (in Umar & Gray, 2022 ). Data on life expectancy at birth (years) were sourced from World Bank ( 2023 ). Economic health data on current account balance as a percent of GDP were sourced from Trading Economics ( 2023 ). The longitudinal data spanned 2012–2022, as shown in Table 1 . Table 1 Deaths from flood disasters, life expectancy and health of economy Flood disaster deaths* Life expectancy** Years Health of economy*** 116279.1 51.357 2011 3.461538 7151163 51.497 2012 4.807692 96899.22 51.707 2013 4.423077 19379.84 51.791 2014 1.538462 174418.6 51.841 2015 -3.07692 58139.53 52.043 2016 1.923077 38759.69 52.305 2017 4.230769 2034884 52.554 2018 2.5 155038.8 52.91 2019 -2.5 271317.8 52.887 2020 -3.46154 *Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (in Umar & Gray, 2022 ), **World Bank ( 2023 ), ***Trading Economics ( 2023 ) 3 Results and discussion Table 2 shows the result of regression of flood disaster impact on life expectancy and economic health. Table 2 Regression of flood disaster impact on life expectancy, economic health VARIABLES Flood disaster Life expectancy -1.642e-06 (1.262e + 06) Economic health -8.088e-06 (4.640e + 06) Constant 3.086e-08* (1.564e + 08) Observations 11 R-squared 0.386 Standard errors in parentheses *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1 For every 1% increase in flood disaster impact, life expectancy decreased by 0.0000016 and economic health decreased by 0.000008088. Gohlke ( 2024 ) reports that flood affects pregnancy and health of foetus. Globally, preterm births were increased by about 3% by flooding, while about 7% more children in utero had a low birth weight caused by flooding. Flooding, following Hurricane Katerina,g caused about a 230% increase in pre-term births. The findings of the present study confirms that flooding negatively impacts life expectancy at birth. The findings agree with earlier reports (Umar & Gray, 2022 ) that environmental degradation and the attendant environment hazards, risks and health challenges are consequences of flooding, which affect economic activities. They concur with earlier findings that there were unresolved issues in managing Nigeria’s environment (Trading Economics, 2023 ; Fenglin, Ahmad, Zelenakova, Fenta, Dar, Teka, Belew, Damtie, Berhan & Shafi, 2023; Kim, Seo & Jang, 2012 ) and that the protection of Nigeria’s environment required critical policy review and more advocacy for way-forward (Eneh & Agbazu3, 2011; Ikeda, 2007 ; Maidment 1993 ; Stedinger, Vogel & Foufoula-Georgiou, 1993 ). Echendu ( 2020 ) had shown that flooding impacts economic life by being associated with contamination of water sources that lead to water-borne disease outbreaks, such as dysentery, typhoid fever and cholera, which occur often in Nigeria. Osei, Kunawotor and Appiah-Kunadu ( 2023 ) argue that flood caused destruction of health facilities and spread of diseases, thereby reducing life expectancy and increasing mortality rate in 53 African countries. Njoku, Efiong and Ayara ( 2020 ) reported that the flood-risk zones of Nigeria are Akwa Ibom, Anambra, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Kwara, Kogi, Lagos, Nasarawa, and Niger States. 4. Conclusion and recommendations The effects of perennial flooding on life expectancy and economic health of Nigerians was investigated. The regression analysis of secondary data on the incidences of flood disasters from 2012 to 2022 showed that for every 1% increase in flood disaster incidence, life expectancy decreased by 0.0000016 and economic health decreased by 0.000008088. The study has quantified the impact of flooding on life expectancy and their relationship in Nigeria. There is the need for people action, government policy-making and implementation for ecological conservation, restoration and succession, disturbance ecology, and green building, infrastructure and initiative, and disaster risk reduction measures to deal with flood disasters in Nigeria. Pregnant women should arrange for emergency evacuation services in the evnt of flooding. Those living in flood-prone areas should arrange for help, even if the house does not flood. 4.1 Development implications Flood disasters annually destroy lives and properties and degrade and pollute the environment with attendant environmental insecurity, hazards, risks and health challenges in Nigeria. The situation reflects neglect of ecological conservation to prevent losses to ecosystems, as well as ecological restoration and ecological succession to repair natural sites with degraded, polluted or destroyed biological communities and ecosystems. As a developing country, Nigeria is characterized by poor technological development. Hence the infrastructure for flood prevention, management and control are inadequate, absent or in poor shapes and conditions. Disturbance ecology that deals with the causes and consequences of both natural and anthropogenic disturbances is also neglected. This explains the perennial problem of flood, which the study investigated. As flood disaster increases, both life expectancy and economic health decrease. The losses, pains and relief materials can be minimized through appropriate and adequate ecological conservation, restoration and succession measures, as well as disturbance ecology actions and green building initiative, in addition to continued enlightenment and advocacy for going-forward. The study recommends these measures as the basis for people action and government policy-making and implementation. 4.2 Delimitatons of the study and suggestions for further studies The study did not accommodate income level, government spending on health and policy, which may be considered as confounding variables that also affect life expectancy and economic health, as may be suggested by the econometric tool used, because they are not applicable to the study, more so, as direct data of the variables were regressed, and data sizes were small. Thus, in line with the objectives of the study, the study adopted direct flood data effects of deaths from flooding, life expectancy and economic health (Araoz, Marbey, Balogh & Caroll, 2020 ). Rather, income level, government spending on health and policy, which can also affect life expectancy and economic health and determine response to flood disaster, are suggested for further studies. Declarations Funding: No funder Competing interests: Authors declare no competing interests. Ethical Approval : Not applicable Availability of data and materials: Datasets used in the report are available on request from the corresponding author on reasonable time. Authors' contributions : CA Eneh designed the methodology, sourced and analyzed the data. OC Enehconceptualized the study and wrote the manuscript text, Both authors peer-reviewed the manuscript. References Ahadzie DK, Mensah H, Simpeh E. (2022). Impact of floods, recovery, and repairs of residential structures in Ghana: Insights from homeowners. GeoJournal. 87(4), 3133–3148. https://doi.org.10.1007/s10708-021-10425-2. Alobo E, Obaji S. Internal displacement in Nigeria and the case of human rights protection of displaced person. J Law Policy Globalization. 2016;51:26–43. Alves B, Angnuureng DB, Morand P, Almar R. 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Climate change and impact on respiratory and allergic disease, 2018. Current Allergy and Asthma Reports, 18(4), 22. https://doi.org.10.1007/s11882-018-0777-7. Dimensah IE, Okine AND, Mireku KK. Influential factors in creating warning systems towards flood disaster management in Ghana: An analysis of 2007 northern flood. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct. 2018;28:318–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/ijdrr.2018.03.012 . Donev D. Toward the fourth dimension of health – the spiritual health. Vox Medici. 2014;23:318–21. Drolet J, Dominelli L, Alston M, Ersing R, Mathbor G, Wu H. Women rebuilding lives post-disaster: innovative community practices for building resilience and promoting sustainable development. Gend Dev. 2015;23:433–48. Echendu AJ. The impact of flooding on Nigeria’s sustainable development goals (SDGs). Ecosyst Health Sustain. 2020;1:1791735. https://doi.org/10.1080/20964129.2020.1791735 . Emepu G. (2024). 21 LGAs in 10 states, Federal capital submerged. Vanguard News (2024, July 5). Vanguard , https://www.vanguardngr.com/2024/07/21-lgas-in-10-states-federal-capital-territory-submerged-in-flood-fg/ Encyclopedia of Environmental Health 2ed. (2019). Environmental Health. Eneh OC. Abuja slums: development, causes, waste-related health challenges, government response and way-forward. Environ Dev Sustain. 2020;1:e045. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-01030-3 . Eneh OC. Development Scientology: Science, Technology, Energy, Natural Resources and Development – Nigeria’s Perspective. Enugu: WIPRO International; 2011. Eneh OC, Agbazue VC. (2011). Protection of Nigeria’s environment: A critical policy review. Journal of Environmental Science and Technology , 2011, 4 (5): 490–497. 10.3923/jest.2011.490.497 Fenglin W, Ahmad I, Zelenakova M, Fenta A, Dar MA, Teka AH, Belew AZ, Damtie M, Berhan M, Shafi SN. (2023). Exploratory regression modelling for flood susceptibility mapping in the GIS environment. Sci Rep., 13(1), 247. https://doi.org.10.1038/s41598-023-27447-0. Ferris E. (2014). How can International Norms protect us from natural disasters? Brookings-LSE Project on international displacement. Fugelli P, Ingstad B. (2009). Helse på norsk. God helse slik folk ser det. Oslo: Gyldendal Akademisk; 2009. Fugelli P, Ingstad B. Helse – slik folk ser det. J Nor Med Assoc. 2001;121:3600–4. Gohlke J. December 10). Flood Disasters Associated With Preterm Births And Low Birth Weights. [email protected] : AGU; 2024. Gould CW. The rights to housing recovery after natural disaster. Harv Hum Rights J. 2009;22:169–83. Ihinegbu C, Turay B, Akwafuo S. Does flooding undermine the management capacities of the COVID-19 pandemic? A study of Lagos State, Nigeria. Cent Eur J Geogr Sustainable Dev. 2022;4(2):50–63. https://doi.org/10.47246/CEJGSD.2022.4.2.3 . Ikeda S. An Integrated Risk Analysis Framework for Emerging Disaster Risks: Toward a better risk management of flood disaster in urban communities. Engineering, Geography: Environmental Science; 2007. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:198990486 . Johnson FR, Scott FI, Reed SD, Lewis JD, Bewtra M. Comparing the noncomparable: The need for equivalence measure that make sense in health economics evaluations. Value Health. 2019;22(6):684–92. 10.1016/j.jval.2019.03.011 . Kim Y, Seo SB, Jang O. (2012). Flood risk assessment using regional regression analysis. Natural Hazards, 63(2). https://doi.org.10.1007/s11069-012-0221-6. Maclean R. ). Nigeria Floods Kill Hundreds and Displace Over a. Million. The New York Times; 2022. Mashi SA, Oghenejabor OD, Inkani AI. Disaster risks and management policies and practices in Nigeria: A critical appraisal of the National Emergency Management Agency Act. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct. 2019;33:253–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2018.10.011 . Maidment DR. Statistical Analysis of Hydrologic Data. In: Maidment DR, editor. Handbook of Hydrology. USA: McGraw-Hill; 1993. Njoku CG, Efiong J, Ayara NN. (2020). A geospatial expose of flood-risk and vulnerable areas in Nigeria. Int J Geospatial Res , 11(3), https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0657-0058. Nkwunonwo UC, Whitworth M, Baily B. A review of the current status of flood modelling for urban flood risk management in the developing countries. Sci Afri. 2020;7:e00269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00269 . Ogunwumi T, Ihinegbu C. Last-mile household preparedness for future disasters: a study of flooding in Kogi State, Nigeria. Afr Geographical Rev. 2025;44(1):661–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/19376812.2025.2476498 . Okunola OB, Olawuni PO. Determinants of household flood resilience strategies in Kaduna Metropolis. Nigeria Urban Clim. 2022;44:101216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2022.101216 . Osei B, Kunawotor ME, Appiah-Kunadu P. Mortality rate and life expectancy in Africa: the role of flood occurrence. Int J Soc Econs. 2023;50(7):910–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-07-2022-0508 . Peduzzi P, Dao H, Herold C, Mouton F. Assessing global exposure and vulnerability towards natural hazards: The Disaster Risk Index. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci. 2009;9(4):1149–59. https://doi.prg/10.5194/nhess-9-1149-2009 . Popoola A, Adeleye B, Adeniji K, Babalola T, Magidimisha-Chipungu H. Indicators for Disaster Vulnerability to the Overflowing of the Niger River in Adjoining Settlements in the Confluence City of Lokoja, Nigeria. Disaster Adv. 2022;15(2):53–65. Shrestha R, Di L, Yu EG, Kang L, Yuan-zheng S, Yu-qi B. Regression model to estimate flood impact on corn yield using MODIS NDVI and USDA cropland data layer. J Integr Agric. 2017;16(2):398–407. Stedinger J, Vogel RM, Foufoula-Georgiou E. Frequency Analysis of Extreme Events. Cornell: Cornell University; 1993. Svalastog AN, Donev D, Kristoffersen NJ, Gajović S. (2017). Concepts and definitions of health and health-related values in the knowledge landscapes of the digital society. Croat Med J , 58(6), 431–435. https://doi.org.10.3325/cmj.2017.58.431. The Punch. (2022, August 3). 233 LGs, 32 states prone to flooding – NEMA. https://punchng.com/233-lgs-32-states-prone-to-flooding-nema/ Trading Economics. (2023). Current account balance as a percent of GDP – Nigeria . Accessed from: https://tradingeconomics.com Umar N, Gray A. Flooding in Nigeria: a review of its occurrence and impacts and approaches to modelling flood data. Int J Environ Stud. 2022. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2022.2081471 . United Nations. United Nations General Assembly Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 217A (HI). UN; 1948. Weil DN. (2014). Handbook of Economic Growth, Volume 2: 623–682. Chapter 3 - Health and Economic Growth. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53540-5.00003-3 World Bank. (2023). Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Nigeria. https://data.worldbank.org Zahra A, Lee EW, Sun LY, Park JH. Perception of lay people regarding determinants of health and factors affecting it: an aggregated analysis from 29 countries. Iran J Public Health. 2015;44:1620–31. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8980184","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":606902947,"identity":"ff15f9f6-aa66-4015-9915-66b4062c5332","order_by":0,"name":"Chinemelum Amarachukwu Eneh","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chinemelum","middleName":"Amarachukwu","lastName":"Eneh","suffix":""},{"id":606902949,"identity":"cd89834b-9d1b-4096-aa97-0ecbe34785ee","order_by":1,"name":"Onyenekenwa Cyprian Eneh","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of Nigeria","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Onyenekenwa","middleName":"Cyprian","lastName":"Eneh","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-26 16:54:51","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8980184/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8980184/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":104838740,"identity":"623c4c9a-7152-4822-9df9-417373088372","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-17 18:34:35","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":105596,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlood-risk zones in Nigeria\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Njoku, Efiong and Ayara (2020)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8980184/v1/649d5bb49b84bb304767cd71.jpg"},{"id":105033733,"identity":"82f672c5-d44c-427e-b4b8-fdb0bc13b32d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-20 07:21:29","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":58133,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRainfall intensity in Nigeria (2017)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Njoku, Efiong and Ayara (2020)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8980184/v1/8be295eccae5c12872e75734.jpg"},{"id":105033892,"identity":"34dcce7e-5e6b-45a1-ae01-bc0aafada454","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-20 07:22:04","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":103439,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMajor water bodies in Nigeria\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSource: Njoku, Efiong and Ayara (2020)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8980184/v1/39f8be3990d34c89be931c39.jpg"},{"id":105036489,"identity":"7f54b71c-1f2e-406f-a573-f522e2bcfa32","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-20 07:33:34","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":993930,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8980184/v1/9f5321c5-ed8b-431e-a4d2-9ebc9e5a4500.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"A regression analysis of the impact of flooding on life expectancy and economic health in Nigeria","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater-overflow leads to flooding which can submerge dry land, damage the ecosystem and have detrimental effects on agriculture, public health, facilities, and environmental changes and security. A flood disaster can destroy or submerge buildings, bridges, trees, and other structures and properties due to its immense power. It frequently results in significant fatalities and injuries. Floods spread bacteria and pathogens to cause a rise in water-borne and communicable diseases. Flooding also leads to loss of cattle, crops and food supplies and decrease in agricultural productivity. This exacerbates poverty, starvation and death. Homes that are not destroyed may experience persistent moisture, which can lead to the formation of mold and its harmful effects, including respiratory issues (Ahadzie, Mensah \u0026amp; Simpeh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Exposure to mold and moisture invariably causes or increases fungus contamination, which is responsible for current 30\u0026ndash;50% rise in respiratory health problems among residents of coastal and wetland areas. Flood-related losses, stress and sadness have an impact on psychosocial integrity. A tsunami in the Indian Ocean claimed 230,000 lives in Indonesia in 2004. China lost 86,000 persons to flooding and 145,000 to the diseases that followed in 1975 (Demain, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Flood claimed 100,000 lives in North Vietnam in 1971 (Eneh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, environmental sustainability, particularly in nations where flooding occurs, is a problem, and requires urgent planning, integrated environmental management, and responsive emergency measures. Monitoring and forecasting, statistical analysis of hydraulic models, mapping land use planning and policy regulation, proactive control measures, and observation of flood heights should all be part of sustainable environmental management (Maclean, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Eneh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Nigeria, flooding is a serious ecological problem. Only five of Nigeria's thirty-six states and capital cities are arguably not vulnerable to flooding. Across ten states in Nigeria, flooding claimed 100 lives, prompting four of the state governments involved to declare a state-wide flood disaster emergency. The situation is made worse by inadequate infrastructure and a lack of planning (Ogunwumi \u0026amp; Ihinegbu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Okunola \u0026amp; Olawuni, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Ihinegbu, Turay \u0026amp; Akwafuo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In 2022, floods devastated various regions, causing over 1.4\u0026nbsp;million people to be evacuated, over 603 fatalities, and numerous injuries. Roughly 82,035 dwellings were flood-destroyed, over 1.4\u0026nbsp;million people were displaced, over 603 persons lost their lives, over 2,400 people were injured, and 332,327 hectares of land were damaged across Nigeria. More than 200,000 residences and 110,000 hectares of agriculture-cultivated stock were among the damaged properties. In 2012, floods killed 363 people and displaced over 2.1\u0026nbsp;million people in 30 of 36 states, especially Kogi and Benue States. In August 2022, the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) issued a warning that flooding could occur in 32 (out of 36) states and 233 (out of 774) local government areas (LGAs) (\u003cem\u003eThe Punch\u003c/em\u003e, 2022). For the 2024 flooding forecast and significance of flood impacts for Nigeria, 148 LGAs (out of 774 or 19%) in thirty-one (31) states and the Federal Capital Territory Abuja fall in the high flood-risk areas. About 31.2% (249 LGAs) fall in moderate flood-risk areas. About 48.7% (377 LGAs) fall in the low flood-risk areas. Already, flood incidents from high rainfall intensity started in April. In July 2024, 21 LGAs (out of 774) in 10 states were submerged by flood.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoor drainage systems and blocked drainages worsened the matter. Increase in rainfall frequency and intensity may worsen cholera outbreak that has already given rise to 2,102 suspected cases and 63 deaths as at 3 July 2024 (Emepu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Despite this forecast and others, repeated perennial flooding seems to persist in the country. This major ecological issue yearly catches Nigerians off-guard throughout the nation and inevitably result in the needless and preventable losses of lives and properties, in addition to environmental degradation and the associated environmental hazards, dangers, risks and health challenges. Torrential rain can lead to structural damage resulting in the collapse of reservoir and destruction of critical infrastructure, with the risk of disease outbreaks heightened. Floods trap unprepared people in homes, unsafe and inaccessible locations (Araoz, Marbey, Balogh \u0026amp; Caroll, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the coastal areas,, which are inundated by floods, ravaging floods kill, injure and render victims homeless, in addition to destroying homes, farmlands and other properties in Nigeria, Motorists and travelers are stranded, calling for relief and succour. A journey of 8 hours may take comuters 4 days to wade through the flood mess. Sea level rise flooding poses a threat to the habitability of dwellings, which are inundated by floods that submerge homes. properties and cars (Nkwunonwo, Whitworth \u0026amp; Baily, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Lagos came fourth on the list of 173 cities in The Global Liveability Index 2023. The risks and difficulties for citizens\u0026rsquo; way of life as touching on culture and environment, stability, education, infrastructure and healthcare were measured. Each factor was rated on tolerability, acceptability, uncomfortability or undesirability levels (Dimensah, Okine \u0026amp; Mireku, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResidents are displaced and some of them move in canoes for as long as the flood takes to subside. Padre infrastructure (church and mosque), markets, hospitals and schools are flooded and submerged in flood water. Acres of farms and agricultural produce (cassava, yams, maize, melon, cocoa, rice, vegetables, potatoes, groundnuts, plantain, banana, and others) are submerged in devastating floods, worsening food insecurity, hunger and poverty. Micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) are destroyed and business activities are halted abruptly. Journeys are truncated as floods render roads impassable (Eneh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Alves, Angnuureng, Morand \u0026amp; Almar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Cirella \u0026amp; Iyalomhe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Peduzzi, Dao, Herold \u0026amp; Mouton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNjoku, Efiong and Ayara (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) report that, flooding takes various scale yearly in Nigeria because the risk and vulnerability level of communities to flooding varies, owing to susceptibility to factors, such as rainfall intensity, proximity to water bodies, population, slope, and elevation. Communities in Niger delta, Lagos lagoons, Cross River, and Rivers Benue and Niger are most flood-exposed. The level of vulnerability of these communities to flooding, according to Njoku et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and Popoola et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), is due to nearness to coastlines, rainfall intensity, and population. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows flood-risk zones in Nigeria, while Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows rainfall intensity in Nigeria (2017), and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows major water bodies in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGohlke (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) reports that flood affects pregnancy and health of foetus. Preterm births are increased by about 3% by flooding globally. Also, about 7% more children in utero have a low birth weight caused by flooding. These are predisposing risk factors for developing diabetes and asthma, which are chronic diseases. Thus, flooding has lifelong impacts and affects life expectancy at birth. Likely factors are disruption, stress and delayed access to healthcare services. Stress may induce early labour, since heat waves are linked to more preterm births, probably due to dehydration resulting from compromised water supplies and traveling long distances on foot to escape from dangerous areas. Farm crops destruction and blocking access to sources of food by flooding imperil people\u0026rsquo;s food access, predispose pregnant women to undernutrition during pregnancy and giving birth to babies with lower birth weights. Osei, Kunawotor and Appiah-Kunadu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) argue that flood caused destruction of health facilities and spread of diseases, thereby reducing life expectancy and increasing mortality rate in 53 African countries. Echendu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) reports that flooding impacts economic life by being associated with contamination of water sources that lead to water-borne disease outbreaks, such as dysentery, typhoid fever and cholera, which occur often in Nigeria. Economic health is also affected by flooding by losses of life, property, farmland and crops, home, and padre facility, as well as infection and injury. So far, the literature is scanty on reports on the effcts of flooding on life expctancy at birth and economic health in Nigeria.. Therefore, this study was aimed at regrssing scondary data on flooding incidence as it relates to life expctancy at birth and economic health in Nigeria. The outcome of the study will reveal what is at stake, especially as climate change increases flooding.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1 Conceptual review\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe concepts of \u0026ldquo;health\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;public health\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;economic health\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;flooding and environmental disasters\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;ecological conservation\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;ecological succession\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;ecological restoration\u0026rdquo;, \u0026ldquo;common goods\u0026rdquo;, and \u0026ldquo;disturbance ecology\u0026rdquo; are defined briefly below as relevant to the study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1.1 Concept of health\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSvalastog, Donev, Kristoffersen and Gajović (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) reviewed the historical and modern concepts of health. Ancient Greece,. Ancient Indian and Chinese medicine emphasize the physical body dimension of health and the feeling of comfort and absence of pain. In modern concepts, health is not just freedom from or absence of disease or disabilities, but life situation as a whole. It implies individual\u0026rsquo;s maximum capacity for self-realization and self-fulfilment, that is, the inner feeling of pleasure or dissatisfaction within the environment. Public health and social medicine advocate observing the health of individuals and also that of groups and community (Encyclopedia of Environmental Health, 2019). Zahra, Lee, Sun and Park (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) submit that environment is the determinant of health. According to Fugelli \u0026amp; Ingstad (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e), health is characterized by qualities of wholeness, pragmatism, and individualism. Wholeness refers to a holistic phenomenon, as health comprises everyday life, involving working life, family life and community life. Health is a resource and a phenomenon that is total, personal and situation-specific. Pragmatism considers health as a relative phenomenon, experienced and evaluated in the context of people\u0026rsquo;s reasonable expectation for their age, social situation and medical conditions. Individualism refers to health as a personal phenomenon that addresses being part of a society, close to some other persons, individual values that are unique and need individualized strategies for health improvement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe initial definition of health by World Health Organization (WHO) is \u0026ldquo;a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity\u0026rdquo;. Beside physical and mental health, social welfare is an integral part of overall health, as health is linked to the social environment, as well as living and working conditions (Encyclopedia of Environmental Health, 2019). The spiritual dimension to the definition of health involves a sense of fulfilment and satisfaction, values, self-awareness and presence. Also, it involves self-confidence and self-esteem, peacefulness and tranquillity with dynamic emotional balance (both internal and toward the environment). Also involved are selflessness, morality and truthfulness, positive emotions, compassion and willingness to help and support others, responsibility and contribution to the common good, and successful management of everyday life problems and demands as well as social stress (Eneh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1.2 Public health\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublic health analysis is the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through organized efforts and informed choices of society, public and private organizations, communities and individuals, It is the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces. Public can be a handful of people or a village or an entire city. In the case of a pandemic, it may encompass several continents. Since health encompasses physical, psychological and social well-being, public health is an interdisciplinary field. Environmental health is a part of public health, and is the study of \u0026ldquo;the interconnections between people and their environment by which human health and a balanced and non-polluted environment are sustained or degraded\u0026rdquo;. Nigeria has recorded low life expectancy and economic health figures for decades. The situation is exacerbated by flood, which needs to be addressed. Besides, as a developing country, Nigeria is characterized by poor technological development. This explains the absence, paucity, inadequacy and dysfunctionality of advanced technology-supported health system (Centers for Disease Control Foundation, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Peduzzi, Dao, Herold \u0026amp; Mouton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1.3 Concept of economic health\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic health refers to analysis of health and healthcare issues based on economic principles and methods to efficiently maximize the health outcomes of patients. Flood affects the efficiency, effectiveness and values of the health system, as well as healthy behaviour (Johnson, Scott, Reed, Lewis \u0026amp; Bewtra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Health economics applies economic principles to analyze how resources are allocated within healthcare systems to maximize patient health outcomes efficiently. It considers benefits, costs, and behaviours of stakeholders to deal with scarcity in healthcare, in order to improve equity and accessibility. The key methods are cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) and cost-utility analysis (CUA). The key aspects are resource allocation and efficiency, economic evaluation, behavioral analysis, and policy and strategy. The key metrics are incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) used to determine if the cost of a new treatment justifies its health gain. As disease burdens and management costs increase due to technological advancements, economic health becomes more critical in its role (Weil, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1.4 Flooding and environmental disasters: The linkages\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe UN General Assembly Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (UN) stipulates that \u0026ldquo;All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.\u0026rdquo; Individuals ought to have access to human rights of protection from natural disaster, and rights of food, healthcare and shelter, even in situations of the aftermath of environmental disasters. But states frequently fail to respect, uphold and fulfil these domesticated human rights even in flood and other natural disasters (Johnson, Scott, Reed, Lewis \u0026amp; Bewtra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Bonds \u0026amp; Downey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Nigeria is abundantly endowed with naturally occurring rich varied resources of biological or mineral or aesthetic tangible assets that ought to be of material or immaterial benefits to humankind. But, they are poorly managed with a lack of efficient management of exploited renewable natural resources for the overall good of all. Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s active economic frame relies on mono-economy of petroleum export, with little diversification, predisposing it to external shocks. The development, supply and access of its renewable natural resource endowments for its survival and development is politically suppressed, constraining the country to rely on non-renewable resources with sluggish regenerative capacity. Unlike in developed nations, Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s natural resources are not exploited for human service such as recreation, transportation, discovery of new species, or beautiful landscape. Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s other numerous natural resource endowments include surface or ground water, forest and fertile land or the mineral and soil within it (rather than the crop that grows on it), energy resource such as petroleum and natural gas, and heated water (geothermal energy) contained within rock layers. In Nigeria, perennial flood disasters are allowed to destroy both natural and environmental resources amid loss of property and lives (Broberga \u0026amp; Sanob, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Alobo \u0026amp; Obaji, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Drolet, Dominelli, Alston, Ersing, Mathbor \u0026amp; Wu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ferris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Bonds \u0026amp; Downey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Davis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Gould, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; United Nations, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1948\u003c/span\u003e). Balancing of natural resource exploitation with regenerative capacity has become urgent in Nigeria. Environmental economists support adopting integrated flood management system (IFMS), which embraces green building and infrastructure, and introduces green initiative that requires flood managers to ensure and protect the well-being of the environment which is determined by positive climate change actions and construction and employment of green methods of flood-to-renewable energy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1.5 Ecological restoration: The reverse-flood engineered regulation case\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEcological conservation is the process of preventing losses to ecosystems, while ecological restoration and ecological succession are the process of repairing natural sites with degraded, polluted or destroyed biological communities (various species interacting in a common location) in the ecosystem. Ecological restoration involves the construction of climate-smart buildings, roads, drainages and other major infrastructure to lower energy and water consumption, thereby lowering carbon footprints in the home and in the country toward achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 11 and 13 which target zero net carbon footprints by 2030 (Svalastog, Donev, Kristoffersen \u0026amp; Gajović, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Donev, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Coterminous with this are resolving perennial flood incidence (in Nigeria and elsewhere) and translating flood incidence (in cases where it cannot be obviously prevented) to national advantage. Yet, Nigerian government does little or nothing with regard to IFMS. Consequently, flooding alters human activities and the local native populations of plants and animals in many ecosystems, introduces invasive species and compels natives to convert fundamental natural resources to extractive use in agriculture and mining, and further degrades soil and fouls water resources. Hence, an analysis of the threats and impacts of perennial flooding on the public health of the population in most states in Nigeria has become needful, as physical, psychological and social well-being aspects of health are annually impinged upon by flood disasters in most parts of the country.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreventive, management and control measures are used to tackle flooding for ecological conservation, restoration and succession. People action for flood-control and government enactment and implementation of regulatory policies conserve the environment, reduce flood disasters and address public health distress from flood. These actions and regulations are abysmally absent in most developing countries to protect the non-renewable, renewable, human and natural resources. Ecological restoration framework is weak, lacking, outdated or ignored in most cases. Restoration ecologists apply ecological restoration principles to reverse ecological changes caused by flooding, deforestation or removal of trees and other plants, the displacement of animals, and the changes on land-soil environments exposed to oil spillage and other such disasters. But, there is inaction in this regard in Nigeria. Ecological succession, as an important part of reverse-flood engineering and environmental-flood change restoration process, inspires a long-term positive evolution of the ecosystem\u0026rsquo;s biological community subsequent upon a disturbance event. These regulations and regulation instruments, such as disturbance ecology, contract the causes and consequences of both natural and anthropogenic disturbances. Ecological conservation, which prevents further losses to ecosystems, in view of the perennial flooding in Nigeria, is thus important and valid for implementation (Drolet, Dominelli, Alston, Ersing, Mathbor \u0026amp; Wu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ferris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Davis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, any attempt at restoration process in most under-developed countries, including Nigeria, is either prematurely abandoned, like most development projects, or does not follow the proper process. It does not begin with a thorough examination of the current site conditions and an appraisal of the ecological damage done on the site to establish the need and the potential actions for restoration. The cause of the site degradation is not considered. The likelihood of the reversal or lessening of the degradation and ways to accomplish it are not determined. Resources for planning process (funding, labour, equipment, plant materials, and technical knowledge) are not addressed early enough to ascertain the project feasibility. Local communities are hardly consulted and carried along for the necessary support and participation in the planning and implementation processes and the attendant important ownership and sustainability of the project. Realistic goals established in the restoration planning are driven by personal, tribal, religious and political interests over and above the common good. Pre-disturbance conditions, usually represented by nearby \u0026ldquo;reference sites\u0026rdquo; perquisite to be adopted as restoration targets, with modifications where need-be, are relegated to the background. Prevention of further loss of protected populations does not form the motivation for the restoration project. Establishment of the ecological restoration project goals is not followed by outlining objectives and identifying measures to be taken. A regular measuring of progress toward those objectives to provide information for the assessment of success of the project and how and when adjustment of restoration activities should take place is not usually the case. There is no planning for ecological disturbance and attendant damage prevention, response or restoration, nor ecological succession. A travesty may be done. But implementation is a far cry. Inaction colours the whole sphere as though environmental degradation is a desired phenomenon to be anticipated and welcome with cheers and gladness (Davis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Gould, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; United Nations, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1948\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1.6 The theory of common goods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eElinor Ostrom, an American and co-winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2009, proposed that business, the environment, climate change (evident in flooding and other environmental disasters) are common goods and must be factored into economic governance analysis. The notion of common good designates a collection of stakeholders who all claim ownership, without ever being able to claim exclusive control, and who must agree to consider their activities within the limits that the protection of common goods imposes. The society is made for human beings and not the other way around. It allows them to develop, to realize themselves, beyond what they could do with themselves or to themselves alone. Philosophically, the theory questions the knowledge that the economy is the basis of society and utility is the reason for human relations. Are human beings made for society or is society made for human beings? It declares businesses and the environment a common good, in view of the threats weighing on humanity, biodiversity, and living things in general being raised by climate change and resource depletion of business actions. To save the planet and humanity, the oceans, atmosphere, ice cap and eco-climate are natural common goods but are also intertwined with \u0026ldquo;social common goods\u0026rdquo; such as health and education. In adopting this theory, the study recognizes that flooding \u0026ndash; a form of climate change \u0026ndash; requires a die-hard belief and excellence, otherwise, soon it will be too late to move flood incidence away from daily living as time is running out. Humanity may not \u0026ldquo;make do with it\u0026rdquo;, but individuals, government and its institutions must not give up for the common good of the earth. Economic and practical living need to be hinged or anchored on eco-common good (Mashi, Oghenejabor \u0026amp; Inkani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Broberga \u0026amp; Sanob, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Combes, Combes-Motel \u0026amp; Schwartz, 2016; United Nations, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1948\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1.7 Disturbance ecology\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisturbance ecology is the study of minor or catastrophic temporary, impactful events, e;g; fire, storm, flood, or human activity, and how they alter habitat structure, disrupt ecosystems, and trigger successional recovery. It studies their intensity, frequency, and spatial extent. These disturbances are intrinsic, essential drivers of nutrient cycling, biodiversity, and landscape heterogeneity. Types of disturbance are natural and anthropogenic, The key components of disturbance ecology are intensity, severity, frequency/return interval, disturbance regimes, and ecological succession. The importance and effects include maintaining biodiversity, resource availability, adaptation, and .resilience and complexity (Burton, Jentsch \u0026amp; Walker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Study design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study carried out co-relational analysis of secondary data to ascertain the effect of flooding on public health proxied on life expectancy and economic health of Nigerians. According to Beers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), regression is a statistical model used to capture the relationship among multiple quantities as they change over time. A regression model is able to show whether changes observed in the dependent variable are associated with changes in one or more of the explanatory variables. It does this by essentially fitting a best-fit line and seeing how the data are dispersed around this line. Multiple regression is represented as:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;a+b\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003eX\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e+b\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eX\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e+b\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eX\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e+...+b\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003eX\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e +u\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;The dependent variable\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eX\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;The explanatory (independent) variable(s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ea\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;The y-intercept\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eb = (beta coefficient)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eu\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;The regression residual or error term\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research work made use of regression analysis method of estimation because this method is commonly used in flood impact studies to quantify the relationship between flood characteristics (such as flood magnitude, duration, frequency) and various impact variables (such as damage costs, displacement of people, infrastructure damage). The regression model unveils public health susceptibility to flood occurrence, incidence and attack. The study variables of flood disaster incidence deaths (number of human flood deaths), life expectancy at birth (years) (as an indication of the number of years a new-born infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth were to remain the same throughout its life), and economic health (current account balance as a percent of GDP) were adopted in lines with the objectives of the study (Fenglin, Ahmad, Zelenakova, Fenta, Dar, Teka, Belew, Damtie, Berhan \u0026amp; Shafi, 2023; Shrestha, Di, Yu, Kang, Yuan-zheng \u0026amp; Yu-qi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Kim, Seo \u0026amp; Jang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Ikeda, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Maidment, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Stedinger, Vogel \u0026amp; Foufoula-Georgiou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Variable conceptualization and relationship\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Regression model was used to estimate the changes associated with flood disaster on public health with respect to economic health, public health and well-being. Flood disaster effect was captured by the number of human flood deaths and economic health was captured by current account balance as a percent of gross domestic product, GDP. This economic health proxy is an indication of the level of international competitiveness of a country via the level of imports and savings rate of citizens. Public health well-being is captured by life expectancy \u0026ndash; an indication of the number of years a new-born infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of birth were to remain the same throughout the individual\u0026rsquo;s life (Peduzzi, Dao, Herold \u0026amp; Mouton, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Flood disaster incidence deaths is the independent varioble, while life expectancy at birth and economic health are dependent variobles. Data on flood disaster impact (number of human flood deaths) were sourced from Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (in Umar \u0026amp; Gray, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Data on life expectancy at birth (years) were sourced from World Bank (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Economic health data on current account balance as a percent of GDP were sourced from Trading Economics (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The longitudinal data spanned 2012\u0026ndash;2022, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeaths from flood disasters, life expectancy and health of economy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlood disaster deaths*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLife expectancy**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYears\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth of economy***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116279.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.357\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2011\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.461538\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7151163\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.497\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2012\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.807692\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96899.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.707\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.423077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19379.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.791\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.538462\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e174418.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.841\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.07692\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58139.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.043\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.923077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38759.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.305\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.230769\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2034884\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.554\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e155038.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e271317.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.887\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-3.46154\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e*Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (in Umar \u0026amp; Gray, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), **World Bank (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), ***Trading Economics (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the result of regression of flood disaster impact on life expectancy and economic health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegression of flood disaster impact on life expectancy, economic health\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVARIABLES\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlood disaster\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLife expectancy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-1.642e-06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.262e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;06)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic health\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-8.088e-06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(4.640e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;06)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.086e-08*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.564e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;08)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eObservations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR-squared\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.386\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003eStandard errors in parentheses\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e*** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01, ** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, * p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor every 1% increase in flood disaster impact, life expectancy decreased by 0.0000016 and economic health decreased by 0.000008088. Gohlke (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) reports that flood affects pregnancy and health of foetus. Globally, preterm births were increased by about 3% by flooding, while about 7% more children in utero had a low birth weight caused by flooding. Flooding, following Hurricane Katerina,g caused about a 230% increase in pre-term births. The findings of the present study confirms that flooding negatively impacts life expectancy at birth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings agree with earlier reports (Umar \u0026amp; Gray, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) that environmental degradation and the attendant environment hazards, risks and health challenges are consequences of flooding, which affect economic activities. They concur with earlier findings that there were unresolved issues in managing Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s environment (Trading Economics, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Fenglin, Ahmad, Zelenakova, Fenta, Dar, Teka, Belew, Damtie, Berhan \u0026amp; Shafi, 2023; Kim, Seo \u0026amp; Jang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) and that the protection of Nigeria\u0026rsquo;s environment required critical policy review and more advocacy for way-forward (Eneh \u0026amp; Agbazu3, 2011; Ikeda, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Maidment \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Stedinger, Vogel \u0026amp; Foufoula-Georgiou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). Echendu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) had shown that flooding impacts economic life by being associated with contamination of water sources that lead to water-borne disease outbreaks, such as dysentery, typhoid fever and cholera, which occur often in Nigeria. Osei, Kunawotor and Appiah-Kunadu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) argue that flood caused destruction of health facilities and spread of diseases, thereby reducing life expectancy and increasing mortality rate in 53 African countries. Njoku, Efiong and Ayara (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) reported that the flood-risk zones of Nigeria are Akwa Ibom, Anambra, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Kwara, Kogi, Lagos, Nasarawa, and Niger States.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion and recommendations","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe effects of perennial flooding on life expectancy and economic health of Nigerians was investigated. The regression analysis of secondary data on the incidences of flood disasters from 2012 to 2022 showed that for every 1% increase in flood disaster incidence, life expectancy decreased by 0.0000016 and economic health decreased by 0.000008088. The study has quantified the impact of flooding on life expectancy and their relationship in Nigeria. There is the need for people action, government policy-making and implementation for ecological conservation, restoration and succession, disturbance ecology, and green building, infrastructure and initiative, and disaster risk reduction measures to deal with flood disasters in Nigeria. Pregnant women should arrange for emergency evacuation services in the evnt of flooding. Those living in flood-prone areas should arrange for help, even if the house does not flood.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Development implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlood disasters annually destroy lives and properties and degrade and pollute the environment with attendant environmental insecurity, hazards, risks and health challenges in Nigeria. The situation reflects neglect of ecological conservation to prevent losses to ecosystems, as well as ecological restoration and ecological succession to repair natural sites with degraded, polluted or destroyed biological communities and ecosystems. As a developing country, Nigeria is characterized by poor technological development. Hence the infrastructure for flood prevention, management and control are inadequate, absent or in poor shapes and conditions. Disturbance ecology that deals with the causes and consequences of both natural and anthropogenic disturbances is also neglected. This explains the perennial problem of flood, which the study investigated. As flood disaster increases, both life expectancy and economic health decrease. The losses, pains and relief materials can be minimized through appropriate and adequate ecological conservation, restoration and succession measures, as well as disturbance ecology actions and green building initiative, in addition to continued enlightenment and advocacy for going-forward. The study recommends these measures as the basis for people action and government policy-making and implementation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Delimitatons of the study and suggestions for further studies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study did not accommodate income level, government spending on health and policy, which may be considered as confounding variables that also affect life expectancy and economic health, as may be suggested by the econometric tool used, because they are not applicable to the study, more so, as direct data of the variables were regressed, and data sizes were small. Thus, in line with the objectives of the study, the study adopted direct flood data effects of deaths from flooding, life expectancy and economic health (Araoz, Marbey, Balogh \u0026amp; Caroll, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Rather, income level, government spending on health and policy, which can also affect life expectancy and economic health and determine response to flood disaster, are suggested for further studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNo funder\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAuthors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/strong\u003e: Not applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eDatasets used in the report are available on request from the corresponding author on reasonable time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions\u003c/strong\u003e: CA Eneh designed the methodology, sourced and analyzed the data. OC Enehconceptualized the study and wrote the manuscript text, Both authors peer-reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhadzie DK, Mensah H, Simpeh E. (2022). Impact of floods, recovery, and repairs of residential structures in Ghana: Insights from homeowners. GeoJournal. 87(4), 3133\u0026ndash;3148. https://doi.org.10.1007/s10708-021-10425-2.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlobo E, Obaji S. Internal displacement in Nigeria and the case of human rights protection of displaced person. J Law Policy Globalization. 2016;51:26\u0026ndash;43.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlves B, Angnuureng DB, Morand P, Almar R. A review on coastal erosion and flooding risks and best management practices in West Africa: What has been done and should be done. 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Iran J Public Health. 2015;44:1620\u0026ndash;31.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-health-population-and-nutrition","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"johp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition](http://jhpn.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"41043","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/41043/3","title":"Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition","twitterHandle":"@BioMedCentral","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Environmental security, Ecological conservation, restoration and succession, Disturbance ecology, Green building, infrastructure and initiative","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8980184/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8980184/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eHeavy rainfall and climate change arise from anthropogenic activities and lead to flooding, which has dire consequences, including wanton destruction of lives and properties, degradation and pollution of the environment, environmental insecurity, hazards, risks and health challenges in Nigeria. This study regressed secondary data (2012\u0026ndash;2022) on the incidences of flood disasters and their impacts on life expectancy at birth and economic health in Nigeria. Results showed that for every 1% increase in flood disaster incidence, life expectancy decreased by 0.0000016 and economic health decreased by 0.000008088. The study advocated people action and government policy-making and implementation for ecological conservation, restoration and succession, as well as disturbance ecology and green building, infrastructure and initiative, and disaster risk reduction measures to deal with flood disasters in Nigeria.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"A regression analysis of the impact of flooding on life expectancy and economic health in Nigeria","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-17 18:34:30","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8980184/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-28T18:46:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-26T13:40:39+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"48050526814273870631940726868671733867","date":"2026-03-20T23:17:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"208538668001527687617729541750927002011","date":"2026-03-19T08:11:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-17T15:13:31+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"53780889286203768428680288883076227470","date":"2026-03-16T11:18:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-16T10:21:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"39647787941075884144847349414512026557","date":"2026-03-16T09:55:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"160470748836146581124734253994458731427","date":"2026-03-16T08:15:20+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-03-15T20:38:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-03-02T14:59:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-03-02T14:58:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition","date":"2026-02-26T16:38:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-health-population-and-nutrition","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"johp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition](http://jhpn.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"41043","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/41043/3","title":"Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition","twitterHandle":"@BioMedCentral","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3bdc1976-dc97-42d0-b92e-c222de1c0535","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 17th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-28T18:53:56+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-17 18:34:30","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8980184","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8980184","identity":"rs-8980184","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}