Tribological Performance Enhancement of Shock Absorber Oil using CuO Nanoparticles Additives

Tribological Performance Enhancement of Shock Absorber Oil using CuO Nanoparticles Additives | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Tribological Performance Enhancement of Shock Absorber Oil using CuO Nanoparticles Additives Akshay Pawar, Kuldip A Patil, Dadaso D Mohite This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4388782/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 19 Aug, 2024 Read the published version in Discover Nano → Version 1 posted 18 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study investigates the potential of copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles as additives to enhance the tribological properties of shock absorber oil, focusing on their impact on viscosity and vibration damping performance. Shock absorbers play a critical role in vehicle safety and handling by mitigating vibrations from road irregularities. However, their effectiveness deteriorates over time. To address this, CuO nanoparticles were explored for their ability to improve lubricant performance. Nano-lubricants were prepared by dispersing CuO nanoparticles at varying concentrations of 0.25 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 1 wt%, and 1.5 wt% in a base oil using ultrasonication. The viscosity of these nano-lubricants increased significantly, particularly at lower temperatures, indicating improved load-carrying capacity and potential friction reduction. Vibration damping performance was evaluated using a dedicated shock absorber test rig. While the nano-lubricants exhibited reduced overall vibration acceleration compared to plain oil, the transmissibility ratio, a key damping metric, did not show significant variation. This suggests that traditional shock absorber designs might require modifications to fully leverage the benefits of CuO nanoparticles. These findings demonstrate the potential of CuO nanoparticles to enhance the viscosity of shock absorber oil, potentially leading to improved performance at lower temperatures. Nano-lubricant Copper-oxide Shock absorber Nanoparticles Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 INTRODUCTION The substantial growth of the automobile industry in recent years has spurred progress in related industries, including lubricant production (Gupta & A.P., 2018). Lubricants are crucial for the proper functioning of shock absorbers, as they provide lubrication and cooling (Choi et al., 2009a ). Using low-quality oil can significantly reduce the quality and lifespan of shock absorbers and their components. Efforts have been made to enhance the quality and efficiency of oils, including the addition of nano-sized particles to pure oils, known as nanoparticles (Guzman Borda et al., 2018 ). Nano-oils exhibit unique rheological properties compared to base oils, and nanotechnology has found successful applications in various fields (Mohite et al., 2024 ; Padgurskas et al., 2013 ). Numerous studies have explored the effects of nanoparticles as oil additives, demonstrating their effectiveness in reducing friction and wear, even at concentrations below 1% wt. Metallic or metallic oxide nanoparticles, in particular, have received significant attention for their remarkable results (Padgurskas et al., 2013 ; Tarasov et al., 2002 ). In mechanical systems, energy and material conservation are critical concerns, with friction and wear being major sources of energy loss and material degradation (Kong et al., 2017 ). Using suitable lubricants, with or without additives, can mitigate these issues to some extent. The performance of lubricants depends on the base oil, additives, and formulation. Nanoparticles, as lubricant additives, are gaining attention for their ability to reduce friction and wear and improve load-carrying capacity (Gupta & A.P., 2018; Li et al., 2011 ). The use of nanoparticle-based lubricants is effective in reducing wear and friction in mechanical systems, making nanotechnology one of the most revolutionary technologies of the 21st century (Choi et al., 2009b ; Kole & Dey, 2013 ). Therefore, the development and study of Nano-lubricants and their properties for application in shock absorbers are crucial for further advancements in this field. Shock absorbers play a critical role in vehicle safety and performance. By mitigating shock and vibration from road irregularities, they ensure optimal tire-to-road contact, enabling safe and controlled driving (Bongfa et al., 2016 ; Mohite et al., 2021 ). However, wear and tear can gradually diminish the effectiveness of shock absorbers, compromising handling and overall vehicle stability (Cheaburu-Yilmaz et al., 2019 ). Lubricant oil plays a vital role in maintaining their functionality. Traditional lubricants rely solely on their inherent properties to achieve this function (Acanfora et al., 2021 ; Ruhela et al., 2023 ). However, the constant demand for improved vehicle performance and efficiency necessitates further enhancements. This research explores the potential of nanoparticles as lubricant additives to enhance the tribological properties of shock absorber oil, specifically focusing on CuO nanoparticles. Previous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of CuO nanoparticles in improving lubricant performance, particularly in terms of wear resistance and high-pressure tolerance. The impact of CuO nanoparticles on the tribological characteristics of shock absorber oil is investigated here. This study examines how these nanoparticles influence oil viscosity and vibration damping performance, with the aim of identifying their potential to extend shock absorber lifespan and enhance vehicle safety. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study employed HP MILCY TURBO 15W 40 as the base lubricant to create nano-lubricants with targeted weight percentages (wt%) of CuO nanoparticles. The CuO nanoparticles possessed a specified purity and particle size. To achieve homogeneous dispersion of the nanoparticles within the oil, a pre-determined concentration of oleic acid solution in deionized water was utilized as a dispersing agent. The nano-lubricant preparation involved a meticulous multi-step process. Precise quantities of base oil, dispersing agent, and CuO nanoparticles were measured using a digital weigh balance and measuring cylinders. Each mixture then underwent ultra-sonication within a bath sonicator for a defined duration at a controlled temperature. This process was repeated multiple times to ensure uniform nanoparticle distribution throughout the oil. The kinematic and dynamic viscosity of the prepared nano-lubricants were subsequently evaluated using a Redwood viscometer at various temperatures maintained within a constant temperature bath. Finally, a dedicated shock absorber damper test setup was employed to assess the vibration damping performance of the nano-lubricants relative to the plain base oil. The details and data acquisition methods for this specific test setup will be presented elsewhere. PREPARATION OF NANO-LUBRICANT Achieving a uniform and stable dispersion of nanoparticles within lubricating oils remains a critical hurdle in the widespread adoption of nano-additives. As you have accurately identified, the stability of these nano-fluids is heavily influenced by the selected preparation methodologies. The primary factor responsible for instability is the inherent tendency of nanoparticles to aggregate due to strong van der Waals attractive forces. These aggregates can precipitate from the suspension, negating the effectiveness of the nano-lubricant. Several established strategies exist to mitigate this challenge. These strategies encompass the incorporation of dispersants, surface modification of the nanoparticles, and the application of ultrasonic dispersion (Peña-Parás et al., 2015 ). The specific type of nanoparticle employed also plays a significant role. Various nanoparticles, such as metallic and metallic oxides, have been investigated for their ability to enhance the anti-wear properties, reduce friction, and improve the load-carrying capacity of nano-fluids (Yang et al., 2012 ). There are two primary approaches for the preparation of nano-fluids (Das, 2008 ; Ingole et al., 2013 ): a. Single-Step Method: This method combines the production of nanoparticles with the simultaneous creation of the nano-fluid (Das, 2008 ). b. Two-Step Method: This method involves separate procedures. The first step focuses on synthesizing the nanomaterial, typically resulting in a dry powder. The second step then disperses the nanomaterial within a base liquid such as water, ethanol, or ethylene glycol (Das, 2008 ). Ultrasonic dispersion is another method for preparing nano-emulsions with precise control over their characteristics. This technique can be employed to directly generate a nano-emulsion or to reduce the size of a pre-existing emulsion. When ultrasound waves propagate through the emulsion, they induce a phenomenon known as cavitation (Viesca et al., 2011 ). Cavitation involves the formation, growth, and implosive collapse of microscopic bubbles within the medium. These momentary collapses generate localized hot spots with incredibly high temperatures (up to 5000K) and pressures (up to 1000 bar). Such intense conditions can trigger the desired physical transformations during the emulsification process. Ultrasound-based emulsification occurs through two mechanisms. The first mechanism involves the generation of droplets directly within the acoustic field. The second mechanism relies on the creation of intense turbulence and microjets during the asymmetric collapse of cavities, which fractures and disperses existing droplets within the continuous phase (Viesca et al., 2011 ). Numerous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of ultrasound in producing nano-emulsions with droplet sizes below 100 nm. Smaller droplet sizes correlate with enhanced long-term stability for the emulsions. Therefore, ultrasound offers a powerful tool for controlling particle size distribution and improving emulsion stability. Surfactants are molecules that function as wetting agents. They reduce the surface tension of a liquid, promoting increased spreading ability. Surfactant molecules typically possess a structure with both hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails and hydrophilic (water-loving) heads. This dual nature allows them to interact with both water (polar) and oils (non-polar). When a group of surfactant molecules aggregate, they form a structure called a micelle, which is a sphere with the hydrophobic tails facing inwards and the hydrophilic heads facing outwards. Oils and fats can be encapsulated within the micelle sphere. In the context of nano-lubricants, surfactants can play a vital role in promoting nanoparticle dispersion and enhancing the overall stability of the nano-fluid. EXPERIMENTATION The experiment involved the preparation of nano-lubricants using ultrasonic dispersion and subsequent viscosity measurements. A. Nano-lubricant preparation In the nano-lubricant preparation phase, meticulous attention was paid to accurately measuring the requisite quantities of base oil, oleic acid (surfactant), and CuO nanoparticles as outlined in Table 1 . Table 1 Amount of Mixture Preparation. Sample Base Oil (ml) Oleic Acid (ml) CuO Nanoparticles (%) CuO Nanoparticles (g) 1 100 5 0.25 0.229 2 100 5 0.5 0.458 3 100 5 1 0.9161 4 100 5 1.5 1.3741 Table 1 presented a series of formulations with varying CuO concentrations ranging from 0.25–1.50%. Employing a digital weighing balance and calibrated measuring cylinders, the solution and CuO nanoparticles were meticulously combined according to the pre-determined ratios. To achieve a uniform and well-dispersed nano-lubricant, each concoction underwent ultrasonic treatment within the ultrasonicator ( Fig. 2 ) for 5 minutes at a controlled temperature of 45°C. This sonication process was iterated four times for each solution to ensure optimal nanoparticle dispersion throughout the base oil. B. Viscosity Testing The subsequent phase focused on characterizing the viscosity of the prepared nano-lubricants using a Redwood viscometer. Prior to commencing the measurements, the oil cup and orifice jet of the viscometer were meticulously cleaned with a suitable solvent, such as carbon tetrachloride, to eliminate any contaminants and ensure complete desiccation. For stability during the experiment, the water bath was set up and the oil cup was securely mounted on a tripod stand ( Fig. 3 ). Following the addition of a designated level of water to the bath, the prepared nano-lubricant sample or base oil was carefully poured into the oil cup, reaching the gauge point, before being capped with the lid. A clean and dry 50 ml flask was strategically positioned beneath the orifice jet to capture the efflux of oil. The experiment commenced by initiating the flow of the sample through the orifice upon lifting the ball valve, while a stopwatch concurrently measured the time required for 50 ml of oil to traverse the orifice. To minimize the formation of air bubbles, the position of the flask was strategically adjusted during the measurement. This experiment was meticulously repeated at various elevated temperatures for each sample. The collected data pertaining to the time taken for the oil to flow through the orifice was documented in Table 2 . Table 2 Readings of Viscometer. Sample Sr. No. Temperature (°C) Time (sec) Weight of Empty Flask (g) Weight of Flask + Oil (g) Base Oil 1 60 150 32 76.4 2 55 175 32 76.4 3 50 220 32 76.4 4 45 259 32 76.4 5 40 323 32 76.4 6 35 381 32 76.4 0.25% CuO 1 60 225 32.2 78.76 2 55 258 32.2 78.76 3 50 286 32.2 78.76 4 45 376 32.2 78.76 5 40 479 32.2 78.76 6 35 669 32.2 78.76 0.5% CuO 1 60 214 32.1 78.78 2 55 247 32.1 78.78 3 50 295 32.1 78.78 4 45 328 32.1 78.78 5 40 445 32.1 78.78 6 35 691 32.1 78.78 1% CuO 1 60 155 32 78.9 2 55 174 32 78.9 3 50 266 32 78.9 4 45 293 32 78.9 5 40 396 32 78.9 6 35 523 32 78.9 1.5% CuO 1 60 164 32.2 79.33 2 55 194 32.2 79.33 3 50 235 32.2 79.33 4 45 340 32.2 79.33 5 40 405 32.2 79.33 6 35 561 32.2 79.33 Figure 6 shows the base oil (unmodified lubricant) in one beaker. The other beakers contain the nano-lubricant preparations at different concentrations mentioned in Table 1 . These preparations would be a mix of the base oil, oleic acid (surfactant), and CuO nanoparticles, although they may appear visually similar to the base oil. TESTING OF SHOCK ABSORBER A crucial aspect of this investigation involved the utilization of a precisely calibrated shock absorber test rig to evaluate the damping characteristics of the specimens. This rig employed a 3 HP electric motor as its primary source of driving force. A reduction gearbox was then incorporated to meticulously regulate the motor's rotational speed, allowing for the establishment of a desired testing regime. To effectively simulate the compression and expansion cycles experienced by a shock absorber in real-world driving conditions, an eccentric mechanism was employed. This mechanism served to convert the rotary motion of the motor shaft into a reciprocating action. The simulated shaking motion was subsequently transferred to the shock absorber under test via a dedicated reciprocating connecting rod securely attached to specialized fixtures. The test rig was further equipped with a comprehensive control panel designed to facilitate the monitoring of critical parameters throughout the testing process. This panel housed a peak hold indicator, which provided researchers with direct readings of the maximum compression and tension forces encountered by the shock absorber during operation. Additionally, an rotational speed (RPM) indicator displayed the speed of motor, which directly corresponded to the frequency of the simulated bumps experienced by the test specimen. Finally, a counter kept track of the total number of cycles undergone by the shock absorber. By meticulously analyzing the data acquired from these instruments, researchers were able to calculate transmissibility, a key metric that quantifies the efficiency with which the shock absorber dampens vibrations. The ability of this test rig to simulate diverse driving conditions and precisely measure the response of the shock absorber proved instrumental in achieving a comprehensive and quantitative evaluation of the investigated performance of damper. The performance shock absorber with the prepared nano-lubricant was assessed through a meticulously designed testing procedure. Initially, the motor was activated and its RPM precisely controlled using a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) to simulate various driving conditions. The impressed force exerted on the shock absorber was then calculated based on established formulas. Subsequently, the transmitted force experienced by the shock absorber was measured by a load cell positioned at its uppermost point and meticulously documented. To quantify the efficiency in dampening vibrations, transmissibility of shock absorber was calculated as the ratio of transmitted force to impressed force. All measured parameters, including RPM, impressed force, transmitted force, and transmissibility, were meticulously recorded. To investigate the effect of varying speeds on the performance of shock absorber the motor RPM was systematically increased, and the entire testing procedure was meticulously repeated at each new speed setting. Furthermore, the experiment could be extended to evaluate the influence of different shock absorber stroke lengths by adjusting this parameter and repeating the aforementioned measurements. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Viscosity Test Table 3 presents the kinematic and dynamic viscosity measurements obtained for the experiment. The tested lubricants include the base oil and nano-lubricants formulated with varying CuO nanoparticle concentrations (0.25 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 1.0 wt%, and 1.5 wt%). The viscosity testing method involved measuring the flow time of a fixed oil volume at various temperatures. This data, along with the oil weight, was then used to calculate the kinematic viscosity, density, and dynamic viscosity of each lubricant. It is noteworthy that the incorporation of CuO nanoparticles resulted in a proportional increase in density. Table 3 Results of Viscosity Test Sample Sr. No. Temperature of the oil ( 0 C) Density of oil in (kg/m 3 ) Kinematic Viscosity (cSt) Kinematic Viscosity (m 2 /s) Dynamic Viscosity (Pa/s) 1 Base Oil 1 60 888 36.6167 0.0000366 0.03252 2 55 888 42.8536 0.0000429 0.03805 3 50 888 54.0445 0.0000540 0.04799 4 45 888 63.7220 0.0000637 0.05659 5 40 888 79.5798 0.0000796 0.07067 6 35 888 93.9364 0.0000939 0.08342 2 0.25% CuO 1 60 931.2 55.2861 0.0000553 0.05148 2 55 931.2 63.4741 0.0000635 0.05911 3 50 931.2 70.4147 0.0000704 0.06557 4 45 931.2 92.6991 0.0000927 0.08632 5 40 931.2 118.1773 0.0001182 0.11005 6 35 931.2 165.1458 0.0001651 0.15378 3 0.5% CuO 1 60 933.6 52.55.43 0.0000526 0.04906 2 55 933.6 60.7458 0.0000607 0.05671 3 50 933.6 72.6447 0.0000726 0.06782 4 45 933.6 80.8178 0.0000808 0.07545 5 40 933.6 109.7689 0.0001098 0.10248 6 35 933.6 170.5829 0.0001706 0.15926 4 1.0% CuO 1 60 938 37.8656 0.0000379 0.03552 2 55 938 42.6044 0.0000426 0.03996 3 50 938 65.4576 0.0000655 0.06140 4 45 938 72.1492 0.0000721 0.06768 5 40 938 97.6489 0.0000976 0.09159 6 35 938 129.0567 0.0001291 0.12106 5 1.5% CuO 1 60 942.6 40.1170 0.0000401 0.03781 2 55 942.6 47.5829 0.0000476 0.04485 3 50 942.6 57.7684 0.0000578 0.05445 4 45 942.6 83.7888 0.0000838 0.07898 5 40 942.6 99.8745 0.0000999 0.09414 6 35 942.6 138.4511 0.0001385 0.13050 Figure 6(a) presents the kinematic viscosity measurements obtained from the viscometer test. The graph depicts the kinematic viscosity of the formulated nano-lubricants containing varying concentrations of CuO nanoparticles, alongside the base oil for comparison. Consistent with established tribological principles, all lubricants exhibit a decreasing trend in kinematic viscosity with increasing temperature (Yang et al., 2013 ). This behavior reflects the inherent thinning of lubricants at higher temperatures, facilitating easier flow. Notably, at all investigated temperatures, the CuO-nanoparticle lubricants demonstrate a statistically significant (p < 0.05) increase in kinematic viscosity compared to the base oil. This observation suggests that the presence of CuO nanoparticles effectively hinders the internal fluid flow within the lubricant. Furthermore, a concentration-dependent effect is evident, with increasing CuO nanoparticle concentration leading to a more pronounced enhancement in viscosity. For instance, at 35°C, the 1.5 wt% CuO nano-lubricant exhibits a nearly four-fold increase in kinematic viscosity compared to the base oil (138.45 cSt vs. 36.62 cSt). Consistent with the behavior observed for kinematic viscosity, all lubricants in Fig. 6(b) exhibit a decreasing trend in dynamic viscosity with increasing temperature. This aligns with the established principle that lubricants become less resistant to flow at higher temperatures. This finding suggests that the presence of CuO nanoparticles effectively hinders the internal movement of the fluid molecules of lubricant, resulting in greater resistance to flow. Table 3 reveals that at 35°C, the 1.5 wt% CuO nano-lubricant exhibits a dynamic viscosity of 0.1305 Pa•s, which is nearly four times higher compared to the base oil (0.0325 Pa•s). This statistically significant difference reinforces the conclusion that CuO nanoparticles significantly elevate the dynamic viscosity of the lubricant. A key finding is the significant increase in both kinematic and dynamic viscosity of CuO-nanoparticle lubricants compared to the base oil, especially at lower temperatures. This indicates that CuO nanoparticles have a more substantial influence on the lubricant's viscosity under colder operating conditions. This characteristic holds significant promise for shock absorbers. These components experience significant shearing forces during operation and require adequate viscosity, particularly during cold starts or in low-temperature environments. The enhanced viscosity at lower temperatures suggests potential benefits for shock absorbers in two ways: improved load-carrying capacity and potentially reduced friction. This could translate to better damping performance, potentially mitigating vibrations and enhancing ride quality under these critical conditions. 6.2 Damper Test A damper performance test evaluated the ability of CuO-nanoparticle lubricants to reduce vibrations. Lubricant samples (base oil and various CuO concentrations) were tested at a constant RPM within a setup simulating an unbalanced system. The test measured vibration parameters - acceleration, displacement, and velocity - to assess the dampening effect of each lubricant with and without a damper present. The results presented in Table 4 reveal a pronounced trend of improved vibration control attributable to the synergistic effects of CuO nanoparticle inclusion and damper utilization. Table 4 Results of Damper Test Sample Damper (Y/N) Speed (rpm) Acceleration (g) Displacement (mm) Velocity (mm/s) RMS Max RMS Max RMS Max - N 300 0.9 4.675 1.54 5.72 61.822 242.596 - N 350 1.024 5.337 2.423 13.8 96.548 426.258 - N 400 1.128 5.077 2.136 7.457 100.547 377.506 1 Base oil Y 300 0.782 2.578 0.954 10.887 24.694 229.813 Y 353 0.793 2.55 0.592 1.71 27.327 102.695 Y 400 0.944 4.045 1.201 3.595 60.719 185.367 2 0.25% CuO Y 305 0.783 2.156 0.566 5.281 21.361 142.769 Y 356 0.815 2.821 0.816 6.483 33.644 163.296 Y 400 0.863 3.46 0.983 6.864 39.324 167.382 3 0.5% CuO Y 299 0.79 2.231 0.512 3.07 23.834 103.295 Y 350 0.811 3.208 0.748 4.981 32.288 146.051 Y 396 0.998 3.896 1.508 4.115 74.375 221.87 4 1% CuO Y 304 0.792 2.093 0.495 2.028 19.872 112.631 Y 353 0.806 2.507 0.665 2.026 28.59 113.644 Y 404 0.956 3.658 1.303 4.783 62.705 235.283 5 1.5% CuO Y 300 0.826 2.737 0.936 4.595 38.198 161.242 Y 349 0.803 2.512 1.106 10.207 34.289 223.311 Y 406 1.081 4.169 1.894 6.164 90.588 322.373 Figure 7 visually depicts the influence of lubricant type (base oil vs. CuO-nanoparticle lubricants) and damper presence (damper vs. no damper) on the RMS acceleration experienced by the unbalanced system at various RPM. As expected, all lubricants exhibit a trend of increasing RMS acceleration with increasing speed. This aligns with the principle that unbalanced systems experience greater centrifugal forces at higher RPM, leading to more pronounced vibrations. A critical observation from Fig. 7 is the significant reduction in RMS acceleration for lubricants used in conjunction with a damper compared to those without. This stark difference underscores the effectiveness of dampers in mitigating vibrations by absorbing a substantial portion of the generated accelerations. Notably, even CuO-nanoparticle lubricants exhibit lower RMS acceleration compared to the base oil, particularly at lower speeds. This suggests that CuO nanoparticles potentially contribute to improved damping characteristics, even in the absence of a dedicated damper. Figure 8 focuses on the RMS velocity of the unbalanced system across different speeds and lubricant conditions. Similar to the trends observed in Fig. 7 , all lubricants exhibit a general increase in RMS velocity with increasing speed. This reflects the intensified vibration experienced by the system at higher rotational speeds. A key takeaway from Fig. 8 is the clear distinction between lubricants with and without dampers. The presence of a damper significantly reduces the RMS velocity across all speeds and lubricant types. This reinforces the crucial role of dampers in attenuating vibration-induced velocity. CuO-nanoparticle lubricants again demonstrate a potential benefit, exhibiting lower RMS velocity compared to the base oil, particularly at lower speeds. Figure 9 explores the influence of speed and lubricant type on the RMS displacement of the unbalanced system. Consistent with the previous observations, all lubricants exhibit a trend of increasing RMS displacement with increasing speed, indicating more pronounced vibration-induced movements at higher rotational speeds. The most striking observation from Fig. 9 is the substantial reduction in RMS displacement for lubricants used with a damper compared to those without. This again highlights the effectiveness of dampers in mitigating vibration by minimizing the overall displacement experienced by the system. While CuO-nanoparticle lubricants generally show lower RMS displacement compared to the base oil, particularly at lower speeds. 6.3 Shock-Absorber Test The effectiveness of various lubricants, including those formulated with CuO nanoparticles, in mitigating shock and vibration within a shock absorber setup was assessed, and represented in Table 5 . The testing methodology involved subjecting each lubricant sample to a fixed RPM and measuring key parameters: torque, transmitted force (F 2 ), and impressed force (F 1 ). The transmissibility ratio (TR), calculated as F 2 divided by F 1 , served as a metric for vibration transmission through the system. The results reveal a general trend of decreasing torque with increasing speed across all lubricants, potentially due to reduced friction at higher speeds. Additionally, the data suggests a slight decrease in shock absorber effectiveness (increasing TR) at higher speeds. While some CuO-nanoparticle formulations exhibit lower TR values at specific speeds compared to the base oil, a definitive conclusion regarding their overall impact on performance requires further analysis, potentially incorporating statistical comparisons or visualizations of the data. Table 5 Results of Shock-Absorber Test Sample Sr. No. RPM Torque Force F 1 (N) Force F 2 (N) TR = F 2 /F 1 1 Base Oil 1 10 2137.133 85485.30 68.67 0.000803 2 20 1068.566 42742.65 68.67 0.001607 3 30 712.378 28495.10 58.86 0.002066 4 40 534.283 21371.33 58.86 0.002754 5 50 427.427 17097.06 58.86 0.003443 2 0.25% CuO 6 10 2137.133 85485.30 68.67 0.000803 7 20 1068.566 42742.65 68.67 0.001607 8 30 712.3780 28495.10 58.86 0.002066 9 40 534.283 21371.33 58.86 0.002754 10 50 427.427 17097.06 58.86 0.003443 3 0.5% CuO 11 10 2137.133 85485.30 76.33 0.000893 12 20 1068.566 42742.65 73.00 0.001708 13 30 712.378 28495.10 67.67 0.002374 14 40 534.283 21371.33 62.67 0.002932 15 50 427.427 17097.06 55.33 0.003236 16 60 356.189 14247.55 55.00 0.003860 4 1% CuO 17 10 2137.133 85485.30 75.03 0.000878 18 20 1068.566 42742.65 72.33 0.001692 19 30 712.378 28495.10 69.88 0.002452 20 40 534.283 21371.33 67.08 0.003139 21 50 427.427 17097.06 64.35 0.003764 22 60 356.189 14247.55 59.93 0.004206 5 1.5% CuO 23 10 2137.133 85485.3 74.93 0.000877 24 20 1068.566 42742.65 73.58 0.001722 25 30 712.378 28495.10 70.40 0.002471 26 40 534.283 21371.33 68.30 0.003196 27 50 427.427 17097.06 63.83 0.003733 28 60 356.189 14247.55 58.90 0.004134 Figure 10 delves deeper into the shock absorber performance evaluation by presenting the relationship between transmission ratio and RPM. The key observation from Fig. 10 is the general uptrend in transmission ratio across all lubricants as RPM increases. This suggests that the efficiency of torque transmission through the shock absorber setup diminishes slightly at higher speeds. While a definitive conclusion regarding impact of CuO nanoparticles is challenging based solely on this graph, there is a hint of potential benefit at lower speeds (around 300 RPM). Here, some CuO-nanoparticle formulations appear to exhibit marginally lower transmission ratios compared to the base oil. CONCLUSION Shock absorber performance is critical for vehicle stability and ride quality, particularly under cold operating conditions. This study investigated the potential of nanoparticles CuO as a lubricant additive to enhance the tribological properties of shock absorber oil. The findings reveal a significant increase in oil viscosity due to CuO nanoparticle inclusion, especially at lower temperatures. This improved viscosity holds promise for mitigating the challenges faced by shock absorbers during cold starts. The thicker lubricant film created by CuO nanoparticles could translate to enhanced load-carrying capacity and potentially reduced friction, leading to improved vibration damping and overall shock absorber performance. Furthermore, the increased viscosity might provide a protective layer on the components, reducing wear and tear. While these results are promising, further research is warranted to explore the long-term effects of CuO nanoparticles on shock absorber durability and to elucidate the tribological mechanisms underlying the observed performance improvements. Overall, this study suggests CuO nanoparticles as a promising lubricant additive for shock absorbers, potentially paving the way for advancements in ride quality and vehicle control, especially in cold climates. Declarations Conflicts of interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Data Availability: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Funding: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Author contributions: Investigation, Data curation, Writing - original draft preparation: Akshay Pawar; Supervision, conceptualization, methodology: Kuldip A Patil; Writing- reviewing and editing, Conceptualization, Methodology: Dadaso D Mohite. References Acanfora, V., Saputo, S., Russo, A., & Riccio, A. (2021). A feasibility study on additive manufactured hybrid metal/composite shock absorbers. 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Current Applied Physics , 9 (2), e124–e127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cap.2008.12.050 Das, S. K. (Ed.). (2008). Nanofluids: Science and technology . Wiley-Interscience. Gupta, R. N., & A.P., H. (2018). Tribological study of castor oil with surface-modified CuO nanoparticles in boundary lubrication. Industrial Lubrication and Tribology , 70 (4), 700–710. https://doi.org/10.1108/ILT-02-2017-0030 Guzman Borda, F. L., Ribeiro De Oliveira, S. J., Seabra Monteiro Lazaro, L. M., & Kalab Leiróz, A. J. (2018). Experimental investigation of the tribological behavior of lubricants with additive containing copper nanoparticles. Tribology International , 117 , 52–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2017.08.012 Ingole, S., Charanpahari, A., Kakade, A., Umare, S. S., Bhatt, D. V., & Menghani, J. (2013). Tribological behavior of nano TiO2 as an additive in base oil. Wear , 301 (1–2), 776–785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2013.01.037 Kole, M., & Dey, T. K. (2013). Enhanced thermophysical properties of copper nanoparticles dispersed in gear oil. Applied Thermal Engineering , 56 (1–2), 45–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.03.022 Kong, L., Sun, J., & Bao, Y. (2017). Preparation, characterization and tribological mechanism of nanofluids. RSC Advances , 7 (21), 12599–12609. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6RA28243A Li, D., Xie, W., & Fang, W. (2011). Preparation and properties of copper-oil-based nanofluids. Nanoscale Research Letters , 6 (1), 373. https://doi.org/10.1186/1556-276X-6-373 Mohite, D. D., Chaturvedi, V., De, S., & Jadhav, V. S. (2021). Nanomaterials in Automotive Applications: A Review and its Technical Aspects. International Journal of Contemporary Architecture “The New ARCH,” 8 (2), 1450–1460. Mohite, D. D., Goyal, A., Singh, A. S., Ansari, M. I., Patil, K. A., Yadav, P. D., Patil, M. J., & Londhe, P. V. (2024). Improvement of thermal performance through nanofluids in industrial applications: A review on technical aspects. Materials Today: Proceedings , S2214785324002712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2024.04.083 Padgurskas, J., Rukuiza, R., Prosyčevas, I., & Kreivaitis, R. (2013). Tribological properties of lubricant additives of Fe, Cu and Co nanoparticles. Tribology International , 60 , 224–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2012.10.024 Peña-Parás, L., Taha-Tijerina, J., Garza, L., Maldonado-Cortés, D., Michalczewski, R., & Lapray, C. (2015). Effect of CuO and Al 2 O 3 nanoparticle additives on the tribological behavior of fully formulated oils. Wear , 332–333 , 1256–1261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2015.02.038 Ruhela, V., Ansari, Mohd. I., Jadhav, P. V., Mohite, D. D., Patil, M. J., Dixit, P. A., Yadav, P. D., Mahajan, R. G., & Harale, A. A. (2023). An experimental investigation of photo chemical machining process for stainless-steel material by using different etchants. Materials Today: Proceedings , S2214785323013706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.324 Tarasov, S., Kolubaev, A., Belyaev, S., Lerner, M., & Tepper, F. (2002). Study of friction reduction by nanocopper additives to motor oil. Wear , 252 (1–2), 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1648(01)00860-2 Viesca, J. L., Hernández Battez, A., González, R., Chou, R., & Cabello, J. J. (2011). Antiwear properties of carbon-coated copper nanoparticles used as an additive to a polyalphaolefin. Tribology International , 44 (7–8), 829–833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2011.02.006 Yang, G., Chai, S., Xiong, X., Zhang, S., Yu, L., & Zhang, P. (2012). Preparation and tribological properties of surface modified Cu nanoparticles. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China , 22 (2), 366–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(11)61185-0 Yang, G., Zhang, Z., Zhang, S., Yu, L., Zhang, P., & Hou, Y. (2013). Preparation and characterization of copper nanoparticles surface‐capped by alkanethiols. Surface and Interface Analysis , 45 (11–12), 1695–1701. https://doi.org/10.1002/sia.5309 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 19 Aug, 2024 Read the published version in Discover Nano → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 22 Jul, 2024 Reviews received at journal 09 Jul, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 08 Jul, 2024 Reviews received at journal 08 Jul, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 08 Jul, 2024 Reviews received at journal 07 Jul, 2024 Reviews received at journal 04 Jul, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 04 Jul, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Jul, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Jul, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Jul, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Jul, 2024 Reviews received at journal 24 May, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 21 May, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 21 May, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 20 May, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 20 May, 2024 First submitted to journal 08 May, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4388782","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":306848950,"identity":"3f0cfb87-a532-4648-b412-6a102a528d59","order_by":0,"name":"Akshay Pawar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University) College of Engineering, Pune","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Akshay","middleName":"","lastName":"Pawar","suffix":""},{"id":306848951,"identity":"fe3463f7-1e3a-4dd4-be5d-c006be24fac4","order_by":1,"name":"Kuldip A Patil","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University) College of Engineering, Pune","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kuldip","middleName":"A","lastName":"Patil","suffix":""},{"id":306848952,"identity":"007cea19-3130-4be0-a3ea-bfd82069a70d","order_by":2,"name":"Dadaso D Mohite","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA60lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCAwwGYNqAGUh8AGI2duK1MDMwzgBpYSZaCwMzAzMPiEVIC9/xwxs//qjYJmfOzn/wsc2vbfJ8QNs+fMzBrUXyTFqxNM+Z28aWzczMxrl9tw3bgLZJztyGW4vBgRwDaca224kbDjOzSef23GYEamFj5sWn5fwb458/IVrYf1v23LYnrOVGjpkEL9QWZoYftxMJapG88azMGuQXg8PMxpK9DbeT25gZm/H6he988uabPypuyxmcP/jww48/t23ntzcf/PARjxZUwNgGJhuIVQ8Cf0hRPApGwSgYBSMFAABTQFMvCgsEuwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University) College of Engineering, Pune","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dadaso","middleName":"D","lastName":"Mohite","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-05-08 11:05:13","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4388782/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4388782/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-024-04080-y","type":"published","date":"2024-08-19T15:57:05+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":57487947,"identity":"66bc00e1-11e2-4176-8ff4-94ef9f4dde1a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-31 10:41:01","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65957,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlow Chart for preparation of Nano-lubricant\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4388782/v1/9dd417287b1235e55d8723d1.jpeg"},{"id":57488579,"identity":"1ce33ee3-62cc-4ac2-a929-b8da2787dc72","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-31 10:57:01","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":813509,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(a)\u003c/strong\u003e Setup for Nano-Lubricant preparation\u003cstrong\u003e; (b) \u003c/strong\u003eUltra-sonicator.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4388782/v1/db49e493b707926dcaeec070.png"},{"id":57487948,"identity":"c98f3f47-ccfc-4049-bbf7-91a839ea9484","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-31 10:41:01","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":556769,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRedwood viscometer apparatus and setup for viscosity testing.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4388782/v1/05e43f374a6bf911d7a357a4.png"},{"id":57487951,"identity":"e9f5069e-40bf-4623-8185-8bbf5ddf57e9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-31 10:41:01","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":541092,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBase Oil and Samples of Nano- Lubricants.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4388782/v1/223f91552d507659194b2f40.png"},{"id":57487950,"identity":"36790fab-e354-4a01-9e80-2585b7ae9ae9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-31 10:41:01","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":788067,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(a) \u003c/strong\u003eUse of Nano-Lubricant in actual shock absorber, (b) Experimental Setup of Shock absorber Test-Rig.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4388782/v1/b066d090f856ef65f16f690f.png"},{"id":57488283,"identity":"485a4c48-203a-4d5b-b11c-17fbd6a35efc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-31 10:49:01","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":338603,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResult Graphs of Viscometer (a) Temperature vs Kinematic Viscosity (b) Temperature vs Dynamic Viscosity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4388782/v1/37ec1c156414be8483111051.png"},{"id":57487956,"identity":"87bcc64f-0666-4145-beef-7e780a6bdf71","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-31 10:41:01","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":178830,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResult Graph of Damping Test – Speed vs RMS Acceleration\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4388782/v1/8eef7f3c4ad028da76b3ce45.png"},{"id":57488285,"identity":"f9f93083-2e76-46ea-ae2c-cef6194f0d37","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-31 10:49:01","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":439401,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResult Graph of Damping Test – Speed vs RMS Velocity\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4388782/v1/e8156865dc4ab5390e1fe45d.png"},{"id":57487954,"identity":"436b6afd-35c3-4735-8439-33f1b82c297e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-31 10:41:01","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":168627,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResult Graph of Damping Test – Speed vs RMS Displacement\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4388782/v1/4417278cc2e81951d80402c1.png"},{"id":57487952,"identity":"e7ca9875-0975-4e54-893e-3af3b626c248","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-31 10:41:01","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":95754,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResult Graph for Transmission Ratio vs RPM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4388782/v1/6365cf29ecede89f3adc1229.png"},{"id":63300064,"identity":"366541c2-65fa-43b8-9ab1-12fd17e9313e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-26 16:10:44","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":7517993,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4388782/v1/81a9f5c6-9f02-4dc3-8b8e-209641f3df32.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Tribological Performance Enhancement of Shock Absorber Oil using CuO Nanoparticles Additives","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe substantial growth of the automobile industry in recent years has spurred progress in related industries, including lubricant production (Gupta \u0026amp; A.P., 2018). Lubricants are crucial for the proper functioning of shock absorbers, as they provide lubrication and cooling (Choi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009a\u003c/span\u003e). Using low-quality oil can significantly reduce the quality and lifespan of shock absorbers and their components. Efforts have been made to enhance the quality and efficiency of oils, including the addition of nano-sized particles to pure oils, known as nanoparticles (Guzman Borda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Nano-oils exhibit unique rheological properties compared to base oils, and nanotechnology has found successful applications in various fields (Mohite et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Padgurskas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Numerous studies have explored the effects of nanoparticles as oil additives, demonstrating their effectiveness in reducing friction and wear, even at concentrations below 1% wt. Metallic or metallic oxide nanoparticles, in particular, have received significant attention for their remarkable results (Padgurskas et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Tarasov et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn mechanical systems, energy and material conservation are critical concerns, with friction and wear being major sources of energy loss and material degradation (Kong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Using suitable lubricants, with or without additives, can mitigate these issues to some extent. The performance of lubricants depends on the base oil, additives, and formulation. Nanoparticles, as lubricant additives, are gaining attention for their ability to reduce friction and wear and improve load-carrying capacity (Gupta \u0026amp; A.P., 2018; Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The use of nanoparticle-based lubricants is effective in reducing wear and friction in mechanical systems, making nanotechnology one of the most revolutionary technologies of the 21st century (Choi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009b\u003c/span\u003e; Kole \u0026amp; Dey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the development and study of Nano-lubricants and their properties for application in shock absorbers are crucial for further advancements in this field.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eShock absorbers play a critical role in vehicle safety and performance. By mitigating shock and vibration from road irregularities, they ensure optimal tire-to-road contact, enabling safe and controlled driving (Bongfa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Mohite et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, wear and tear can gradually diminish the effectiveness of shock absorbers, compromising handling and overall vehicle stability (Cheaburu-Yilmaz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Lubricant oil plays a vital role in maintaining their functionality. Traditional lubricants rely solely on their inherent properties to achieve this function (Acanfora et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ruhela et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, the constant demand for improved vehicle performance and efficiency necessitates further enhancements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research explores the potential of nanoparticles as lubricant additives to enhance the tribological properties of shock absorber oil, specifically focusing on CuO nanoparticles. Previous studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of CuO nanoparticles in improving lubricant performance, particularly in terms of wear resistance and high-pressure tolerance. The impact of CuO nanoparticles on the tribological characteristics of shock absorber oil is investigated here. This study examines how these nanoparticles influence oil viscosity and vibration damping performance, with the aim of identifying their potential to extend shock absorber lifespan and enhance vehicle safety.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study employed HP MILCY TURBO 15W 40 as the base lubricant to create nano-lubricants with targeted weight percentages (wt%) of CuO nanoparticles. The CuO nanoparticles possessed a specified purity and particle size. To achieve homogeneous dispersion of the nanoparticles within the oil, a pre-determined concentration of oleic acid solution in deionized water was utilized as a dispersing agent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe nano-lubricant preparation involved a meticulous multi-step process. Precise quantities of base oil, dispersing agent, and CuO nanoparticles were measured using a digital weigh balance and measuring cylinders. Each mixture then underwent ultra-sonication within a bath sonicator for a defined duration at a controlled temperature. This process was repeated multiple times to ensure uniform nanoparticle distribution throughout the oil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe kinematic and dynamic viscosity of the prepared nano-lubricants were subsequently evaluated using a Redwood viscometer at various temperatures maintained within a constant temperature bath. Finally, a dedicated shock absorber damper test setup was employed to assess the vibration damping performance of the nano-lubricants relative to the plain base oil. The details and data acquisition methods for this specific test setup will be presented elsewhere.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePREPARATION OF NANO-LUBRICANT\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAchieving a uniform and stable dispersion of nanoparticles within lubricating oils remains a critical hurdle in the widespread adoption of nano-additives. As you have accurately identified, the stability of these nano-fluids is heavily influenced by the selected preparation methodologies. The primary factor responsible for instability is the inherent tendency of nanoparticles to aggregate due to strong van der Waals attractive forces. These aggregates can precipitate from the suspension, negating the effectiveness of the nano-lubricant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral established strategies exist to mitigate this challenge. These strategies encompass the incorporation of dispersants, surface modification of the nanoparticles, and the application of ultrasonic dispersion (Pe\u0026ntilde;a-Par\u0026aacute;s et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The specific type of nanoparticle employed also plays a significant role. Various nanoparticles, such as metallic and metallic oxides, have been investigated for their ability to enhance the anti-wear properties, reduce friction, and improve the load-carrying capacity of nano-fluids (Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere are two primary approaches for the preparation of nano-fluids (Das, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Ingole et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ea. Single-Step Method: This method combines the production of nanoparticles with the simultaneous creation of the nano-fluid (Das, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eb. Two-Step Method: This method involves separate procedures. The first step focuses on synthesizing the nanomaterial, typically resulting in a dry powder. The second step then disperses the nanomaterial within a base liquid such as water, ethanol, or ethylene glycol (Das, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUltrasonic dispersion is another method for preparing nano-emulsions with precise control over their characteristics. This technique can be employed to directly generate a nano-emulsion or to reduce the size of a pre-existing emulsion. When ultrasound waves propagate through the emulsion, they induce a phenomenon known as cavitation (Viesca et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Cavitation involves the formation, growth, and implosive collapse of microscopic bubbles within the medium. These momentary collapses generate localized hot spots with incredibly high temperatures (up to 5000K) and pressures (up to 1000 bar). Such intense conditions can trigger the desired physical transformations during the emulsification process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUltrasound-based emulsification occurs through two mechanisms. The first mechanism involves the generation of droplets directly within the acoustic field. The second mechanism relies on the creation of intense turbulence and microjets during the asymmetric collapse of cavities, which fractures and disperses existing droplets within the continuous phase (Viesca et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Numerous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of ultrasound in producing nano-emulsions with droplet sizes below 100 nm. Smaller droplet sizes correlate with enhanced long-term stability for the emulsions. Therefore, ultrasound offers a powerful tool for controlling particle size distribution and improving emulsion stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurfactants are molecules that function as wetting agents. They reduce the surface tension of a liquid, promoting increased spreading ability. Surfactant molecules typically possess a structure with both hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails and hydrophilic (water-loving) heads. This dual nature allows them to interact with both water (polar) and oils (non-polar). When a group of surfactant molecules aggregate, they form a structure called a micelle, which is a sphere with the hydrophobic tails facing inwards and the hydrophilic heads facing outwards. Oils and fats can be encapsulated within the micelle sphere. In the context of nano-lubricants, surfactants can play a vital role in promoting nanoparticle dispersion and enhancing the overall stability of the nano-fluid.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEXPERIMENTATION\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experiment involved the preparation of nano-lubricants using ultrasonic dispersion and subsequent viscosity measurements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eA. Nano-lubricant preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the nano-lubricant preparation phase, meticulous attention was paid to accurately measuring the requisite quantities of base oil, oleic acid (surfactant), and CuO nanoparticles as outlined in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmount of Mixture Preparation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBase Oil (ml)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOleic Acid (ml)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCuO Nanoparticles (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCuO Nanoparticles (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.229\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.458\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9161\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3741\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presented a series of formulations with varying CuO concentrations ranging from 0.25\u0026ndash;1.50%. Employing a digital weighing balance and calibrated measuring cylinders, the solution and CuO nanoparticles were meticulously combined according to the pre-determined ratios. To achieve a uniform and well-dispersed nano-lubricant, each concoction underwent ultrasonic treatment within the ultrasonicator \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e for 5 minutes at a controlled temperature of 45\u0026deg;C. This sonication process was iterated four times for each solution to ensure optimal nanoparticle dispersion throughout the base oil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eB. Viscosity Testing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe subsequent phase focused on characterizing the viscosity of the prepared nano-lubricants using a Redwood viscometer. Prior to commencing the measurements, the oil cup and orifice jet of the viscometer were meticulously cleaned with a suitable solvent, such as carbon tetrachloride, to eliminate any contaminants and ensure complete desiccation. For stability during the experiment, the water bath was set up and the oil cup was securely mounted on a tripod stand \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e Following the addition of a designated level of water to the bath, the prepared nano-lubricant sample or base oil was carefully poured into the oil cup, reaching the gauge point, before being capped with the lid. A clean and dry 50 ml flask was strategically positioned beneath the orifice jet to capture the efflux of oil. The experiment commenced by initiating the flow of the sample through the orifice upon lifting the ball valve, while a stopwatch concurrently measured the time required for 50 ml of oil to traverse the orifice. To minimize the formation of air bubbles, the position of the flask was strategically adjusted during the measurement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis experiment was meticulously repeated at various elevated temperatures for each sample. The collected data pertaining to the time taken for the oil to flow through the orifice was documented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReadings of Viscometer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSr.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemperature (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTime (sec)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight of Empty Flask (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeight of Flask\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Oil (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBase Oil\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e175\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e220\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e259\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e323\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e381\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.25%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e225\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e258\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e286\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e376\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e479\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e669\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.5%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e214\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e247\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e295\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e328\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e445\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e691\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e155\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e174\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e266\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e293\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e396\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e523\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.5%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e194\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e235\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e340\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e405\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e561\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure 6 shows the base oil (unmodified lubricant) in one beaker. The other beakers contain the nano-lubricant preparations at different concentrations mentioned in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. These preparations would be a mix of the base oil, oleic acid (surfactant), and CuO nanoparticles, although they may appear visually similar to the base oil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTESTING OF SHOCK ABSORBER\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA crucial aspect of this investigation involved the utilization of a precisely calibrated shock absorber test rig to evaluate the damping characteristics of the specimens. This rig employed a 3 HP electric motor as its primary source of driving force. A reduction gearbox was then incorporated to meticulously regulate the motor's rotational speed, allowing for the establishment of a desired testing regime. To effectively simulate the compression and expansion cycles experienced by a shock absorber in real-world driving conditions, an eccentric mechanism was employed. This mechanism served to convert the rotary motion of the motor shaft into a reciprocating action. The simulated shaking motion was subsequently transferred to the shock absorber under test via a dedicated reciprocating connecting rod securely attached to specialized fixtures. The test rig was further equipped with a comprehensive control panel designed to facilitate the monitoring of critical parameters throughout the testing process. This panel housed a peak hold indicator, which provided researchers with direct readings of the maximum compression and tension forces encountered by the shock absorber during operation. Additionally, an rotational speed (RPM) indicator displayed the speed of motor, which directly corresponded to the frequency of the simulated bumps experienced by the test specimen. Finally, a counter kept track of the total number of cycles undergone by the shock absorber. By meticulously analyzing the data acquired from these instruments, researchers were able to calculate transmissibility, a key metric that quantifies the efficiency with which the shock absorber dampens vibrations. The ability of this test rig to simulate diverse driving conditions and precisely measure the response of the shock absorber proved instrumental in achieving a comprehensive and quantitative evaluation of the investigated performance of damper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe performance shock absorber with the prepared nano-lubricant was assessed through a meticulously designed testing procedure. Initially, the motor was activated and its RPM precisely controlled using a Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) to simulate various driving conditions. The impressed force exerted on the shock absorber was then calculated based on established formulas. Subsequently, the transmitted force experienced by the shock absorber was measured by a load cell positioned at its uppermost point and meticulously documented. To quantify the efficiency in dampening vibrations, transmissibility of shock absorber was calculated as the ratio of transmitted force to impressed force. All measured parameters, including RPM, impressed force, transmitted force, and transmissibility, were meticulously recorded. To investigate the effect of varying speeds on the performance of shock absorber the motor RPM was systematically increased, and the entire testing procedure was meticulously repeated at each new speed setting. Furthermore, the experiment could be extended to evaluate the influence of different shock absorber stroke lengths by adjusting this parameter and repeating the aforementioned measurements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eA. Viscosity Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents the kinematic and dynamic viscosity measurements obtained for the experiment. The tested lubricants include the base oil and nano-lubricants formulated with varying CuO nanoparticle concentrations (0.25 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 1.0 wt%, and 1.5 wt%). The viscosity testing method involved measuring the flow time of a fixed oil volume at various temperatures. This data, along with the oil weight, was then used to calculate the kinematic viscosity, density, and dynamic viscosity of each lubricant. It is noteworthy that the incorporation of CuO nanoparticles resulted in a proportional increase in density.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults of Viscosity Test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSr.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemperature of the oil\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity of\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eoil in\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKinematic Viscosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(cSt)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKinematic Viscosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDynamic Viscosity\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Pa/s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBase Oil\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e888\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.6167\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000366\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03252\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e888\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.8536\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000429\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03805\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e888\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.0445\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000540\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04799\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e888\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.7220\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000637\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05659\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e888\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79.5798\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000796\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07067\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e888\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.9364\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000939\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08342\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.25%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e931.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.2861\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000553\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05148\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e931.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.4741\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000635\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05911\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e931.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.4147\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000704\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06557\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e931.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.6991\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000927\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.08632\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e931.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118.1773\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001182\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e931.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e165.1458\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001651\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15378\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.5%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e933.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.55.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000526\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04906\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e933.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.7458\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000607\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05671\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e933.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.6447\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000726\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06782\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e933.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.8178\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000808\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07545\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e933.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109.7689\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001098\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10248\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e933.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170.5829\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001706\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15926\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.0%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e938\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.8656\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000379\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03552\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e938\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.6044\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000426\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03996\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e938\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.4576\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000655\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e938\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.1492\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000721\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06768\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e938\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.6489\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000976\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09159\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e938\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e129.0567\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001291\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.5%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e942.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.1170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000401\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03781\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e942.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.5829\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000476\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04485\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e942.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.7684\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000578\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05445\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e942.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83.7888\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000838\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07898\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e942.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.8745\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0000999\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09414\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e942.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138.4511\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0001385\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFigure 6(a)\u003c/b\u003e presents the kinematic viscosity measurements obtained from the viscometer test. The graph depicts the kinematic viscosity of the formulated nano-lubricants containing varying concentrations of CuO nanoparticles, alongside the base oil for comparison. Consistent with established tribological principles, all lubricants exhibit a decreasing trend in kinematic viscosity with increasing temperature (Yang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). This behavior reflects the inherent thinning of lubricants at higher temperatures, facilitating easier flow. Notably, at all investigated temperatures, the CuO-nanoparticle lubricants demonstrate a statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) increase in kinematic viscosity compared to the base oil. This observation suggests that the presence of CuO nanoparticles effectively hinders the internal fluid flow within the lubricant. Furthermore, a concentration-dependent effect is evident, with increasing CuO nanoparticle concentration leading to a more pronounced enhancement in viscosity. For instance, at 35\u0026deg;C, the 1.5 wt% CuO nano-lubricant exhibits a nearly four-fold increase in kinematic viscosity compared to the base oil (138.45 cSt vs. 36.62 cSt).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistent with the behavior observed for kinematic viscosity, all lubricants in \u003cb\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;6(b)\u003c/b\u003e exhibit a decreasing trend in dynamic viscosity with increasing temperature. This aligns with the established principle that lubricants become less resistant to flow at higher temperatures. This finding suggests that the presence of CuO nanoparticles effectively hinders the internal movement of the fluid molecules of lubricant, resulting in greater resistance to flow. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e reveals that at 35\u0026deg;C, the 1.5 wt% CuO nano-lubricant exhibits a dynamic viscosity of 0.1305 Pa\u0026bull;s, which is nearly four times higher compared to the base oil (0.0325 Pa\u0026bull;s). This statistically significant difference reinforces the conclusion that CuO nanoparticles significantly elevate the dynamic viscosity of the lubricant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA key finding is the significant increase in both kinematic and dynamic viscosity of CuO-nanoparticle lubricants compared to the base oil, especially at lower temperatures. This indicates that CuO nanoparticles have a more substantial influence on the lubricant's viscosity under colder operating conditions. This characteristic holds significant promise for shock absorbers. These components experience significant shearing forces during operation and require adequate viscosity, particularly during cold starts or in low-temperature environments. The enhanced viscosity at lower temperatures suggests potential benefits for shock absorbers in two ways: improved load-carrying capacity and potentially reduced friction. This could translate to better damping performance, potentially mitigating vibrations and enhancing ride quality under these critical conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2 Damper Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA damper performance test evaluated the ability of CuO-nanoparticle lubricants to reduce vibrations. Lubricant samples (base oil and various CuO concentrations) were tested at a constant RPM within a setup simulating an unbalanced system. The test measured vibration parameters - acceleration, displacement, and velocity - to assess the dampening effect of each lubricant with and without a damper present. The results presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e reveal a pronounced trend of improved vibration control attributable to the synergistic effects of CuO nanoparticle inclusion and damper utilization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults of Damper Test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDamper\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Y/N)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpeed (rpm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcceleration (g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDisplacement (mm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVelocity (mm/s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRMS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRMS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRMS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.675\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.822\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e242.596\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.024\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.337\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.423\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96.548\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e426.258\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.128\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.077\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.136\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.457\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.547\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e377.506\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBase oil\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.782\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.578\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.954\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.887\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.694\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e229.813\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e353\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.793\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.592\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.327\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102.695\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.944\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.201\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.595\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.719\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e185.367\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.25%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e305\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.783\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.156\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.566\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.281\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.361\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e142.769\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e356\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.815\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.821\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.816\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.483\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.644\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e163.296\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.863\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.983\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.864\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.324\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e167.382\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.5%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e299\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.231\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.512\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.834\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103.295\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.811\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.208\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.748\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.981\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.288\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e146.051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e396\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.998\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.896\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.508\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.375\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e221.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e304\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.792\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.093\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.495\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.028\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.872\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e112.631\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e353\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.806\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.507\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.665\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e113.644\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e404\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.956\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.658\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.303\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.783\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.705\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e235.283\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.5%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.826\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.737\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.936\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.595\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.198\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e161.242\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e349\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.803\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.512\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.106\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.207\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e223.311\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e406\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.081\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.169\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.894\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.588\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e322.373\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e visually depicts the influence of lubricant type (base oil vs. CuO-nanoparticle lubricants) and damper presence (damper vs. no damper) on the RMS acceleration experienced by the unbalanced system at various RPM. As expected, all lubricants exhibit a trend of increasing RMS acceleration with increasing speed. This aligns with the principle that unbalanced systems experience greater centrifugal forces at higher RPM, leading to more pronounced vibrations. A critical observation from Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e is the significant reduction in RMS acceleration for lubricants used in conjunction with a damper compared to those without. This stark difference underscores the effectiveness of dampers in mitigating vibrations by absorbing a substantial portion of the generated accelerations. Notably, even CuO-nanoparticle lubricants exhibit lower RMS acceleration compared to the base oil, particularly at lower speeds. This suggests that CuO nanoparticles potentially contribute to improved damping characteristics, even in the absence of a dedicated damper.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e focuses on the RMS velocity of the unbalanced system across different speeds and lubricant conditions. Similar to the trends observed in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, all lubricants exhibit a general increase in RMS velocity with increasing speed. This reflects the intensified vibration experienced by the system at higher rotational speeds. A key takeaway from Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e is the clear distinction between lubricants with and without dampers. The presence of a damper significantly reduces the RMS velocity across all speeds and lubricant types. This reinforces the crucial role of dampers in attenuating vibration-induced velocity. CuO-nanoparticle lubricants again demonstrate a potential benefit, exhibiting lower RMS velocity compared to the base oil, particularly at lower speeds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e explores the influence of speed and lubricant type on the RMS displacement of the unbalanced system. Consistent with the previous observations, all lubricants exhibit a trend of increasing RMS displacement with increasing speed, indicating more pronounced vibration-induced movements at higher rotational speeds. The most striking observation from Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e is the substantial reduction in RMS displacement for lubricants used with a damper compared to those without. This again highlights the effectiveness of dampers in mitigating vibration by minimizing the overall displacement experienced by the system. While CuO-nanoparticle lubricants generally show lower RMS displacement compared to the base oil, particularly at lower speeds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.3 Shock-Absorber Test\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effectiveness of various lubricants, including those formulated with CuO nanoparticles, in mitigating shock and vibration within a shock absorber setup was assessed, and represented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. The testing methodology involved subjecting each lubricant sample to a fixed RPM and measuring key parameters: torque, transmitted force (F\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), and impressed force (F\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e). The transmissibility ratio (TR), calculated as F\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e divided by F\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e, served as a metric for vibration transmission through the system. The results reveal a general trend of decreasing torque with increasing speed across all lubricants, potentially due to reduced friction at higher speeds. Additionally, the data suggests a slight decrease in shock absorber effectiveness (increasing TR) at higher speeds. While some CuO-nanoparticle formulations exhibit lower TR values at specific speeds compared to the base oil, a definitive conclusion regarding their overall impact on performance requires further analysis, potentially incorporating statistical comparisons or visualizations of the data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResults of Shock-Absorber Test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSr. No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRPM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTorque\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eForce F\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e (N)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eForce F\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e (N)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;F\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e/F\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBase Oil\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2137.133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85485.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000803\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1068.566\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42742.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001607\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e712.378\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28495.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002066\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e534.283\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21371.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002754\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e427.427\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17097.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003443\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.25%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2137.133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85485.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000803\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1068.566\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42742.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001607\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e712.3780\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28495.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002066\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e534.283\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21371.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002754\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e427.427\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17097.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003443\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.5%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2137.133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85485.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000893\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1068.566\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42742.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001708\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e712.378\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28495.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002374\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e534.283\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21371.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002932\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e427.427\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17097.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003236\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e356.189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14247.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003860\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2137.133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85485.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000878\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1068.566\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42742.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001692\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e712.378\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28495.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002452\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e534.283\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21371.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003139\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e427.427\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17097.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003764\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e356.189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14247.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004206\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.5%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCuO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2137.133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85485.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000877\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1068.566\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42742.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001722\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e712.378\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28495.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.002471\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e534.283\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21371.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003196\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e427.427\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17097.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.003733\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e356.189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14247.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004134\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e delves deeper into the shock absorber performance evaluation by presenting the relationship between transmission ratio and RPM.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe key observation from Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e is the general uptrend in transmission ratio across all lubricants as RPM increases. This suggests that the efficiency of torque transmission through the shock absorber setup diminishes slightly at higher speeds. While a definitive conclusion regarding impact of CuO nanoparticles is challenging based solely on this graph, there is a hint of potential benefit at lower speeds (around 300 RPM). Here, some CuO-nanoparticle formulations appear to exhibit marginally lower transmission ratios compared to the base oil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eShock absorber performance is critical for vehicle stability and ride quality, particularly under cold operating conditions. This study investigated the potential of nanoparticles CuO as a lubricant additive to enhance the tribological properties of shock absorber oil. The findings reveal a significant increase in oil viscosity due to CuO nanoparticle inclusion, especially at lower temperatures. This improved viscosity holds promise for mitigating the challenges faced by shock absorbers during cold starts. The thicker lubricant film created by CuO nanoparticles could translate to enhanced load-carrying capacity and potentially reduced friction, leading to improved vibration damping and overall shock absorber performance. Furthermore, the increased viscosity might provide a protective layer on the components, reducing wear and tear. While these results are promising, further research is warranted to explore the long-term effects of CuO nanoparticles on shock absorber durability and to elucidate the tribological mechanisms underlying the observed performance improvements. Overall, this study suggests CuO nanoparticles as a promising lubricant additive for shock absorbers, potentially paving the way for advancements in ride quality and vehicle control, especially in cold climates.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of interests:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability:\u003c/strong\u003e The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e Investigation, Data curation, Writing - original draft preparation: Akshay Pawar; Supervision, conceptualization, methodology: Kuldip A Patil; Writing- reviewing and editing, Conceptualization, Methodology: Dadaso D Mohite.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcanfora, V., Saputo, S., Russo, A., \u0026amp; Riccio, A. 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(2013).\u003c/strong\u003e Preparation and characterization of copper nanoparticles surface‐capped by alkanethiols. \u003cem\u003eSurface and Interface Analysis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e45\u003c/em\u003e(11\u0026ndash;12), 1695\u0026ndash;1701. https://doi.org/10.1002/sia.5309\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-nano","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"narl","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Nano](https://www.springer.com/journal/11671)","snPcode":"11671","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11671/3","title":"Discover Nano","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Nano-lubricant, Copper-oxide, Shock absorber, Nanoparticles","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4388782/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4388782/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigates the potential of copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles as additives to enhance the tribological properties of shock absorber oil, focusing on their impact on viscosity and vibration damping performance. Shock absorbers play a critical role in vehicle safety and handling by mitigating vibrations from road irregularities. However, their effectiveness deteriorates over time. To address this, CuO nanoparticles were explored for their ability to improve lubricant performance. Nano-lubricants were prepared by dispersing CuO nanoparticles at varying concentrations of 0.25 wt%, 0.5 wt%, 1 wt%, and 1.5 wt% in a base oil using ultrasonication. The viscosity of these nano-lubricants increased significantly, particularly at lower temperatures, indicating improved load-carrying capacity and potential friction reduction. Vibration damping performance was evaluated using a dedicated shock absorber test rig. While the nano-lubricants exhibited reduced overall vibration acceleration compared to plain oil, the transmissibility ratio, a key damping metric, did not show significant variation. This suggests that traditional shock absorber designs might require modifications to fully leverage the benefits of CuO nanoparticles. These findings demonstrate the potential of CuO nanoparticles to enhance the viscosity of shock absorber oil, potentially leading to improved performance at lower temperatures.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Tribological Performance Enhancement of Shock Absorber Oil using CuO Nanoparticles Additives","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-05-31 10:40:56","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4388782/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-07-22T09:50:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-09T15:14:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"241275652259263350496435624112191690780","date":"2024-07-08T22:43:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-08T13:38:06+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"111274675631142232235566058116572092022","date":"2024-07-08T13:11:16+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-07T18:28:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-04T07:16:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"327189335853423494418540226006534058138","date":"2024-07-04T05:24:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"285914470700375625739125667363284091063","date":"2024-07-03T21:41:28+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"264368960585438219409885721154567951202","date":"2024-07-03T17:38:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"53353709422889367494188036330545666651","date":"2024-07-03T14:19:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"234784908967809019790083211394356075079","date":"2024-07-03T13:15:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-05-24T04:51:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"137409928539009658746300445832919091353","date":"2024-05-22T01:27:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-05-21T09:53:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-05-20T09:19:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-05-20T09:19:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Nano","date":"2024-05-08T10:50:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-nano","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"narl","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Nano](https://www.springer.com/journal/11671)","snPcode":"11671","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11671/3","title":"Discover Nano","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"4804a187-4e17-4e98-af1a-2ff80959b674","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 31st, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-08-26T15:59:37+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4388782","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-024-04080-y","journal":{"identity":"discover-nano","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Discover Nano"},"publishedOn":"2024-08-19 15:57:05","publishedOnDateReadable":"August 19th, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-05-31 10:40:56","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s11671-024-04080-y","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-024-04080-y","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4388782","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4388782","identity":"rs-4388782","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}