The multiscale characteristics and cracking behavior in reservoir sandstone subjected to dry-wet cycles: Insights from NMR, AE and SEM based analysis

The multiscale characteristics and cracking behavior in reservoir sandstone subjected to dry-wet cycles: Insights from NMR, AE and SEM based analysis | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The multiscale characteristics and cracking behavior in reservoir sandstone subjected to dry-wet cycles: Insights from NMR, AE and SEM based analysis Pei He, Ruide Lei, Pengcheng Zhao, Ye Zhang, Linsen Zhou, Dong Wang This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8578506/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 01 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The periodic water-level fluctuations in the hydro-fluctuation belt of the Three Gorges reservoir diminish the mechanical properties of the reservoir rock mass, leading to slope instability and associated geological disasters. To investigate the multiscale characteristics and cracking behavior of sandstone under hydromechanical loading, here we conducted a series of dry-wet cyclic experiments, synchronized with acoustic emission (AE), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The results show that the early warning points are primarily identified using the variance of AE parameters. According to the evolution of RA (rise time/amplitude) and AF (AE count/duration time), the tensile microcracks become pronounced as the number of dry-wet cycles increases. When the number of dry-wet cycle increases from 0 to 30, the proportion of tensile cracks increases substantially from 31.05% to 48.93%, signifying a transition in the failure mode from shear-dominated to a tensile-shear mixed one. The porosity of the sandstone increases exponentially with the number of dry-wet cycles. The T 2 spectrum evolves from unimodal to bimodal, thereby enhancing the structural heterogeneity of the pore network. This phenomenon is accompanied by a significant reorganization of the pore structure, with the proportion of micropores decreasing from 8.09% to 0.24% and that of macropores increasing from 50.78% to 65.30%. At a low number of cycles, the damage is characterized by the formation of dissolution pits and isolated microcracks on mineral surfaces. In contrast, the interparticle cementation is significantly weakened, resulting in the generation of large amounts of debris. In addition, the microcracks further propagate and coalesce into macroscopic fractures. Physical sciences/Energy science and technology Physical sciences/Engineering Earth and environmental sciences/Natural hazards Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences dry-wet cycles multiscale evolution failure precursor acoustic emission nuclear magnetic resonance Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 01 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in Scientific Reports → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 04 Feb, 2026 Reviews received at journal 29 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 24 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 19 Jan, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 19 Jan, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 19 Jan, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 19 Jan, 2026 Editor invited by journal 16 Jan, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 13 Jan, 2026 First submitted to journal 13 Jan, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8578506","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":577812609,"identity":"10f0a6f6-b35e-40af-8d2c-8031149a2c84","order_by":0,"name":"Pei He","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chongqing Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Pei","middleName":"","lastName":"He","suffix":""},{"id":577812610,"identity":"fd963fb5-c7f7-4378-9c8b-daadd8494146","order_by":1,"name":"Ruide Lei","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA20lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACPgbGBgYGA2YGNvb2gw8SKmoIa2GDaeHjOZNs8ODMMWK0gAEzg5xEgpnkwxZmIrSwN7d95imwlmNjSEirSGxgY+Bv707Ar4XnYPNsHoN0YzaGg8duJO6QYZA4c3YDfi0Sic3MPAaHE9sYG9JuJJ5hYzCQyCWgRf4hWEt9GzODWUEikCSsRYIRrCWBjY3BjIE4LTyJzYxzDNIN23h4kiUSzhzjIegXfvbjjxne/LGWl5///ODHHxU1cvztvfi1YAAe0pSPglEwCkbBKMAKANF0QAdZED3HAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Chongqing Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ruide","middleName":"","lastName":"Lei","suffix":""},{"id":577812611,"identity":"cb7aaaf7-6740-4372-a5fd-4b0fa2a549c0","order_by":2,"name":"Pengcheng Zhao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Sichuan University of Science and Engineering","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Pengcheng","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhao","suffix":""},{"id":577812612,"identity":"9a5adc95-b8bc-4915-9ad0-0230d76aa3c6","order_by":3,"name":"Ye Zhang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chongqing Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ye","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhang","suffix":""},{"id":577812613,"identity":"543ebad7-dd8e-4c62-8e9b-2bb471870ff1","order_by":4,"name":"Linsen Zhou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Sichuan University of Science and Engineering","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Linsen","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhou","suffix":""},{"id":577812614,"identity":"0f41c7fd-66e5-4b0f-a5c5-51896edcf414","order_by":5,"name":"Dong Wang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Sichuan University of Science and Engineering","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dong","middleName":"","lastName":"Wang","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-12 07:24:53","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8578506/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8578506/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-46226-1","type":"published","date":"2026-04-01T15:59:59+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":100781819,"identity":"3a4be30e-dcab-4bfe-bd56-44779678cc62","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:24","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":33310724,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Manuscript.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/40a8c579aca4b96efb8a6260.docx"},{"id":100796771,"identity":"0794cd36-93fb-450c-b1b8-e0e02d9fff62","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 13:45:41","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":7572,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"9230e9f1fbc748769577d9fe69896078.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/f65699f4b2a91164d7be3152.json"},{"id":100782155,"identity":"67c98f8a-60fb-4e7a-8d40-5ade4383afc4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:45:19","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":130583,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"9230e9f1fbc748769577d9fe698960781enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/472837ac509f457da40f984d.xml"},{"id":100782052,"identity":"ed510f56-d395-4cf8-8640-86bcdc5b6384","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:46","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":60172,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/01dbfc0a9adff79e5a18f4b6.png"},{"id":100782159,"identity":"f7502e7c-5d76-4541-8af3-1fc824f5371d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:45:21","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1332703,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/9c8de5478cbad066d85a9958.png"},{"id":100781684,"identity":"4158168d-4944-472f-bdfd-e528337b67b3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:09","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":763625,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/9ea0e060af95c3127a70f135.png"},{"id":100781361,"identity":"566078f3-a8df-4454-8163-a3f67ddd5813","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:43:23","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1878127,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/0d5048c47b988265110c05a9.png"},{"id":100782231,"identity":"03104cef-8d14-48f6-8d08-496eeb997f98","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:45:38","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":701194,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage13.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/9863c234bbe26d22f25e48fb.jpeg"},{"id":100781359,"identity":"087a4ad4-e506-49e2-83bc-fa45869a24f2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:43:23","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":2675436,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage14.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/f89460c99b03f0dd5050ca74.png"},{"id":100781639,"identity":"ae06ae79-c638-4220-818f-3807f28c0027","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:07","extension":"jpeg","order_by":9,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":656798,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage15.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/938c897690f841b242c1be3f.jpeg"},{"id":100781876,"identity":"9bcb8593-e080-4273-9d9d-3ee8a0a16c6d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:32","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":12937705,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage16.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/f07b768208930e328cf74c42.png"},{"id":100781485,"identity":"fb112f30-06f1-46ca-b350-08be7cb153c9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:43:42","extension":"jpeg","order_by":11,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1038108,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage17.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/7a19a763b7b8b8d1fe27a700.jpeg"},{"id":100857777,"identity":"abab04e6-9b0d-475e-8372-160e51dcfdf7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-22 07:22:23","extension":"jpeg","order_by":12,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":256852,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage18.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/c14479bd7cb62732272241ad.jpeg"},{"id":100781496,"identity":"5f91d0d5-8dc9-479e-bc3a-bf6677b48ceb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:43:48","extension":"png","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":586485,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage19.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/1c3e877056bc79b99e03aff5.png"},{"id":100781686,"identity":"890652b7-074a-4869-9873-bc2e80b3fd56","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:09","extension":"png","order_by":14,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":840537,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/1af03ffc0a6956e9ccc85fdb.png"},{"id":100796613,"identity":"a28f7460-27ea-44ba-8ac9-a73416dc3fc9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 13:44:30","extension":"png","order_by":15,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":5070158,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/2e84c8dd3a94b0440f121055.png"},{"id":100796709,"identity":"fef21f9c-4e7c-4e08-98f0-2d850fa7ca95","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 13:45:14","extension":"jpeg","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":844633,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/b7cf380282bcc72acfda440e.jpeg"},{"id":100781801,"identity":"2ceac4e5-1127-43a2-93e8-8cf330ad9acf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:21","extension":"wmf","order_by":17,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":700,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.wmf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/79f6eb04be8551a10c12c343.wmf"},{"id":100781708,"identity":"cf97b4ef-928f-4dc0-aa72-2b0463fd256e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:11","extension":"jpeg","order_by":18,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":701730,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/bd618bbac4f770fc062daa94.jpeg"},{"id":100781487,"identity":"ae462add-1089-4abb-9441-0b5e52629f7d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:43:42","extension":"jpeg","order_by":19,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":727945,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/7c496d2835e63173500d47f5.jpeg"},{"id":100782050,"identity":"10250dd7-ee4a-44ed-86ac-8ea28d5755a6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:45","extension":"jpeg","order_by":20,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":581440,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/003541370f722d319d6af783.jpeg"},{"id":100782057,"identity":"c36c3fa3-01cc-423c-9e7c-d0abf19299dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:49","extension":"jpeg","order_by":21,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":402903,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/fb08a6eb73bb21e0ae6a633f.jpeg"},{"id":100781480,"identity":"914f9366-cc50-43fd-a1c9-c65daa65ac09","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:43:42","extension":"png","order_by":22,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":19495,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/f7ee6637be78229dd2e9ec74.png"},{"id":100781694,"identity":"93462ab5-50fd-40fe-9b0a-a8bdd5fcae1f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:09","extension":"png","order_by":23,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":487597,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/b8bdd17f3d3153a469d17752.png"},{"id":100781800,"identity":"7f07884f-93a4-4111-b176-a3962811f2c3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:21","extension":"png","order_by":24,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":284972,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/34b815662d1059476ecc754b.png"},{"id":100781443,"identity":"ebf0a17b-e1e1-4268-ad56-5bc36d0ca36b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:43:36","extension":"png","order_by":25,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":249195,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/a56738feb540229453856723.png"},{"id":100782154,"identity":"f0deca4b-2c4d-48eb-b8e9-eb80450fef98","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:45:19","extension":"png","order_by":26,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":156049,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage13.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/67562bd3760b0363d68c4480.png"},{"id":100781572,"identity":"24e1ed5e-d6a6-4dee-8368-a7e48c6cb640","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:43:56","extension":"png","order_by":27,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":712458,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage14.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/0594706793462de5a0bdaf1b.png"},{"id":100781717,"identity":"929a3e73-6a62-4641-bf01-ffcc055b2988","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:16","extension":"png","order_by":28,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":121533,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage15.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/f8dd4b2c73bb53f9016f754b.png"},{"id":100781490,"identity":"17922fd1-cc61-4f90-a9aa-a5f382c91bea","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:43:43","extension":"png","order_by":29,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1233395,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage16.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/aee75ef165b36539c8d1b1e1.png"},{"id":100782038,"identity":"0b64fbe8-d074-4192-b4f6-e7e39afce391","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:43","extension":"png","order_by":30,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":215319,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage17.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/f7062acaca0f7dc231e6e1ca.png"},{"id":100782156,"identity":"997ebed8-cb7a-47bb-ad6e-434014d46ce7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:45:20","extension":"png","order_by":31,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":62564,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage18.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/1036e34a35c511b63443d4ce.png"},{"id":100781689,"identity":"426cfaeb-3a7c-43c8-86aa-0c3e7e8750ff","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:09","extension":"png","order_by":32,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":112603,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage19.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/b9d3297a2dd05207254a579a.png"},{"id":100781823,"identity":"c8ba603c-5c24-4671-b462-c9bef2e70961","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:25","extension":"png","order_by":33,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":177133,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/ad4b2e6077a815aa16d8da2b.png"},{"id":100781440,"identity":"6ef1ebba-d595-42c0-8f2d-0664a06b9155","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:43:35","extension":"png","order_by":34,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":451530,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/90faf6000780af80f20e8d5d.png"},{"id":100781466,"identity":"80622df1-26cc-4abf-9b3f-eb1f53cc0709","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:43:40","extension":"png","order_by":35,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":176301,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/8717355812824b4150e18187.png"},{"id":100781988,"identity":"91d929cb-efca-476c-a165-f3b52a1904bd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:40","extension":"png","order_by":36,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":267,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/cf82ba3636ad0520afaa157e.png"},{"id":100781512,"identity":"f906cb0f-7681-4bd4-a3a5-b624c50e451a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:43:50","extension":"png","order_by":37,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":139264,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/86fa8c293de9c5b81990f790.png"},{"id":100781877,"identity":"b9483980-5d93-498a-ada9-ca9a1fc33abe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:33","extension":"png","order_by":38,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":145679,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/7ea0fb0639ee01718d474e9b.png"},{"id":100781712,"identity":"7c3268dc-d093-496e-9674-29cc78972bb6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:11","extension":"png","order_by":39,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":146528,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/0fc31af84e848bbbac3521d8.png"},{"id":100781698,"identity":"ddc4b4df-387e-4cda-8cca-22b25122f20d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:10","extension":"png","order_by":40,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":102082,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/eea542533ed0f515c33e5eab.png"},{"id":100782094,"identity":"09e0f68d-757e-48b1-8968-5444371b29a4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:45:09","extension":"xml","order_by":41,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":129879,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"9230e9f1fbc748769577d9fe698960781structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/e719f3d58a6739f62752c52d.xml"},{"id":100782044,"identity":"f1d19859-f09f-46bd-9254-04e7e203a662","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-21 11:44:44","extension":"html","order_by":42,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":146386,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1/9921ed6d9554b5239d3f5c36.html"},{"id":106343830,"identity":"66ead2fd-2cae-4789-b872-ae49c6f22e3e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 16:09:41","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3400491,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8578506/v1_covered_02ee49b9-89bd-413a-83c0-50ed9731ba22.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The multiscale characteristics and cracking behavior in reservoir sandstone subjected to dry-wet cycles: Insights from NMR, AE and SEM based analysis","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"dry-wet cycles, multiscale evolution, failure precursor, acoustic emission, nuclear magnetic resonance","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8578506/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8578506/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe periodic water-level fluctuations in the hydro-fluctuation belt of the Three Gorges reservoir diminish the mechanical properties of the reservoir rock mass, leading to slope instability and associated geological disasters. To investigate the multiscale characteristics and cracking behavior of sandstone under hydromechanical loading, here we conducted a series of dry-wet cyclic experiments, synchronized with acoustic emission (AE), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The results show that the early warning points are primarily identified using the variance of AE parameters. According to the evolution of RA (rise time/amplitude) and AF (AE count/duration time), the tensile microcracks become pronounced as the number of dry-wet cycles increases. When the number of dry-wet cycle increases from 0 to 30, the proportion of tensile cracks increases substantially from 31.05% to 48.93%, signifying a transition in the failure mode from shear-dominated to a tensile-shear mixed one. The porosity of the sandstone increases exponentially with the number of dry-wet cycles. The \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e spectrum evolves from unimodal to bimodal, thereby enhancing the structural heterogeneity of the pore network. This phenomenon is accompanied by a significant reorganization of the pore structure, with the proportion of micropores decreasing from 8.09% to 0.24% and that of macropores increasing from 50.78% to 65.30%. At a low number of cycles, the damage is characterized by the formation of dissolution pits and isolated microcracks on mineral surfaces. In contrast, the interparticle cementation is significantly weakened, resulting in the generation of large amounts of debris. In addition, the microcracks further propagate and coalesce into macroscopic fractures.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The multiscale characteristics and cracking behavior in reservoir sandstone subjected to dry-wet cycles: Insights from NMR, AE and SEM based analysis","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-21 10:25:05","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8578506/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-02-04T05:01:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-29T15:14:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-24T11:29:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"258355117832865748882519456182021994227","date":"2026-01-20T01:47:34+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"116761032296435485384177521379878765128","date":"2026-01-20T01:46:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-20T01:40:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-01-20T01:36:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-16T16:59:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-01-14T02:27:05+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2026-01-14T02:20:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3d6739d5-7ed6-4b63-9e2d-aeb31c9e7dfa","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 21st, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":61474652,"name":"Physical sciences/Energy science and technology"},{"id":61474653,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering"},{"id":61474654,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Natural hazards"},{"id":61474655,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Solid earth sciences"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-07T16:05:32+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-8578506","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-46226-1","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2026-04-01 15:59:59","publishedOnDateReadable":"April 1st, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-21 10:25:05","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-026-46226-1","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-46226-1","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8578506","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8578506","identity":"rs-8578506","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}