Combining non-invasive survey methods increases cumulative detection probability for breeding Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus)

The effective implementation of new technologies for wildlife population monitoring is limited by knowledge of factors that impact their efficacy. Population monitoring of Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus; HADU) on their breeding streams in Montana and Idaho in the Northern Rocky Mountains has historically relied on ground-based foot surveys (GBS), which have produced variable count data, making it hard to decipher trends in stream occupancy and population size. We quantified the detection probability of GBS and compared it to two additional non-invasive technologies, environmental DNA (eDNA), and camera traps (time-lapse and motion detection) for detecting breeding HADU. We surveyed for HADU presence on 10 occupied streams during incubation and brood rearing in 2022 and 2023 using GBS, eDNA, and camera traps. We found that a single, five km, GBS had a mean detection probability of 0.51 (95% CI: 0.31 – 0.71) and varied with the relative abundance of HADU, streamflow, and survey pace, but not between incubation and brood-rearing periods. Both eDNA and camera traps proved effective in detecting HADU, particularly when replicated across space (multiple samples of eDNA along a stream reach) or time (camera traps deployed over several weeks). Combining methods proved particularly effective; we estimated a cumulative detection probability >0.95 for a single-day survey effort by collecting eDNA samples spread throughout a stream reach in tandem with a GBS. Utilizing and combining these non-invasive survey techniques could prove efficient for surveying other low abundance stream-residing waterbirds. Supplementary Material File (chapter1_publication_final_draft.docx) - Download - 3.88 MB Information & Authors Information Version history Peer review timeline Published Wildlife Biology Version of Record15 Mar 2026Published Copyright This work is licensed under a Non Exclusive No Reuse License. Collection

Authors Metrics & Citations Metrics Article Usage 216views 151downloads Citations Download citation Holli Holmes, Hannah Specht, Lisa Bate, et al. Combining non-invasive survey methods increases cumulative detection probability for breeding Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus). Authorea. 17 September 2025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22541/au.175812173.34134279/v1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22541/au.175812173.34134279/v1 If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download. For more information or tips please see 'Downloading to a citation manager' in the Help menu.