A Systematic Review on the Role of Agrivoltaics in Enhancing Crop Productivity, Livelihoods, and Land-Use Efficiency Within Smallholder Farming Systems in Africa

A Systematic Review on the Role of Agrivoltaics in Enhancing Crop Productivity, Livelihoods, and Land-Use Efficiency Within Smallholder Farming Systems in Africa | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Systematic Review A Systematic Review on the Role of Agrivoltaics in Enhancing Crop Productivity, Livelihoods, and Land-Use Efficiency Within Smallholder Farming Systems in Africa John Okwaro, Prof. Ulrike Feistel, Susanna Kettner This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9313636/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The dual utilization of land for agriculture and energy production is known as agrivoltaic systems. Studies have shown that these systems have the potential to address land-use competition between agriculture and energy systems. This study analyzed systematically available evidence on agrivolaic systems impact on livelihood, land-use efficiency, and crop productivity and the implication for smallholder farmers in Africa. The review utilized a structured methodology to analyze relevant peer-reviewed literature. The review found that agrivoltaics systems create can improve crop production by reducing heat stress, improving soil moisture, and reducing evapotranspiration. Additionally, the evidence reviewed showed that agrivoltaics could improve land-use efficiency by enabling dual land use. Land can be used to generate green energy without inhibiting agriculture. Also, the evidence synthesized showed that agrivoltaics had the potential to improve the livelihoods of the farmers. The agrivoltaics systems enhance energy access, improve adaptation to unfavorable climatic conditions like arid and semi-arid conditions, and allow diversification of income by the farmers. However, it was noted that the results of the selected studies were context-specific. The agrivoltaics system supports particular crops. In addition, the design of the system and environmental factor of the site of interest determines the outcome. Because of these aspects, it was challenging to compare the results of the included studies and generalize the findings of the studies. Though the agrivoltaic systems demonstrated the ability to generate various benefits, the review identified various gaps in the adoptions of the system. There are limited empirical studies providing evidence on the impact of agrivoltaics on crop productivity, land-use efficiency, and livelihoods among smallholder farmers in Africa. Additionally, there was little evidence on the long-term assessment of the impact of agrivoltaics. Many studies undertook short-term experiments. Also, some socio-economic aspects, such as gender, equity, and land tenure, were not featured in the studies that were included in the review. There, the impact of the system on these factors is not known. Finally, the variability in the methodologies that were utilized in the included studies inhibited generalization of findings. The review concluded that the widespread adoption of the agrivoltaic systems by smallholder farmers is possible if relevant policies are put in place, incentives are introduced in the agricultural and energy sectors, and financial and technical skills are availed to the smallholder farmers. There is also a need for more research to be undertaken in Africa to determine the impact of agrivoltaics systems on soil water balance, crop productivity, and optimal system design configuration to encourage investment by smallholder farmers. Studies should focus on field-based experiments. Agricultural Engineering agrivoltaics crop productivity dual land-use evapotranspiration microclimate solar energy Figures Figure 1 1. Introduction Attaining global sustainable development is hindered by limited land utility. The need for environmental conservation, roads and building construction, food production, and energy generation compete [1]. This issue is more pronounced in developing regions, which experience high population growth and high climate vulnerability. In Africa, farming is mainly smallholder. This type of farming depends on seasonal rainfall and is vulnerable to climate variability and land degradation [2]. The study by [3] discusses the need for sustainable practices to mitigate land degradation and balance food production and environmental conservation. To achieve this, there is need for adoption of stems that promote sustainability in land use. Also, the need to decarbonize energy sector has grown over the years accelerating the adoption of renewable energy technologies including geothermal, wind, and solar photovoltaics (PV). However, installation of large-scale solar PV requires large track of land as compared to other energy sources. The need for extensive land creates conflict with agricultural and construction activities [4]. This issue has resulted to increase in the utilization of land-use systems that can address both food and energy needs. Agrivoltaic system, a dual-use land strategy, has emerged as a promising solution to the competition between agriculture and energy [5], [6], [7]. The systematic review byAlves et al. (2025) discusses policy frameworks supporting the adoption of the agrivoltaics worldwide. The review reveals challenges and opportunities to enhance widespread adoption of these systems. Limited geographical coverage and fragmented leadership are identified as major inhibitors to the widespread adoption of the systems. According to this study, financial support emerged as the main incentives to encourage adoption of agrivoltaics. The study by[9] discusses how PVs can be integrated not only with crops but also livestock. The study focuses on agrivoltaic system designs to optimize land utilization [9]. The study underscores that elevation of PVs produce energy while allowing enough sunlight to reach crops. Additionally, solar PVs improve soil moisture and reduce heat stress. These factors are crucial for arid and semi-arid regions. Allowing sunlight, improving soil moisture, and reducing heat stress improves crop productivity. The study by[10] also underscores land-use efficiency gains from agrivoltaics. However, the study notes that the success of this system depends on particular crops and climatic conditions. In addition, the strategic review by[11] also discusses the application of agrivoltaic systems in fruit crops. The findings of the review shows that PV installation maintains fruit agricultural land while generating energy. Further, the study done by[6] that focused on the Phoenix Metropolitan Statistical Area indicates that PV systems in agricultural land could produce energy that could surpass local need. Recently, there has been technological advancement in this field, which has boosted the agrivoltaic adoption potential. The studies by [10], [12] discuss the advancement of solar PV modules to transmit photosynthetically active radiation to crops for growth while using non crop useful wavelength to generate electricity. In addition, studies have shown that agrivoltaic shading impact crop physiology, yield, and water use [13]. The shading reduces heat stress and evapotranspiration [14], [15]. Despite growth in the utilization of agrivoltaic systems across the globe, the adoption of the system in Africa is still low. Most of the studies undertaken on agrivoltaics are concentrated in Europe, North America, and parts of Asia. In addition, there is limited evidence of the utilization of agrivoltaic systems by smallholder farmers in Africa. This is attributed to limited resources and lack of technological skills [7], [16]. Other factors limiting the adoption of agrivoltaic systems include stakeholder perception, system complexity, socio-cultural factors and governance, land-use priorities, and uncertainties concerning economic returns [17], [18], [19]. The objective of this systematic review is to synthesize the impact of agrivoltaics on crop productivity, land-use efficiency, and livelihoods of the farmers as a climate adaptation solution. The review also seeks to understand the potential utilization of agrivoltaic systems Africa’s smallholder farmers and the implication. 2. Methodology This review employed the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) (PRISMA 2020) guidelines outlined by [20] to enhance transparency and reproducibility in the identification, screening, and synthesis of existing literature on agrivoltaics. This study incorporated both quantitative and qualitative research. The review intended to assess the impact of agrivoltaic systems on land-use efficiency, crop productivity, and livelihood and discuss he implication of the imact to Africa’s smallholder farmers. Given limited studies on agrivoltaic utilization by smallholder farming in Africa, this review synthesized studies from across the world that discusses the impact of agrivoltaics on crop production, land-use efficiency, and livelihood then inferred the findings to Africa’s smallholder farming. 2.2 Search strategy A comprehensive literature search was conducted between February and April 2026 across Google Scholar, ScienceDirect.com, Scopus, Web of Science, and Springer Nature Link databases. This review used search approach that combined Boolean operators and keywords related to agrivoltaics. This study restricted its search to peer-reviewed journal articles and conference papers published between 2015 and 2026. Articles published in English were considered. The search terms applied were (“agrivoltaics” OR “agro-photovoltaics” OR “dual land use” AND “solar” AND “agriculture” OR “agrivoltaics Africa” OR “solar farming smallholder” OR “photovoltaics crop productivity shading” OR “agrivoltaics livelihoods”). The search terms were used across all the search database to enhance retrieval. 2.3 Inclusion and exclusion criteria The inclusion criteria were defined to ensure the relevance and methodological robustness of selected studies. The review included peer-reviewed journal articles that focused on agrivoltaics or dual land-use strategies, examined crop productivity, socio-economic impact, and land-use efficiency, with emphasis on studies that discuss the impact of agrivoltaics on crop productivity, livelihood, and land-use efficiency. Only articles published in English were included. Also, the review prioritized articles that provided modelling results, conceptual analysis or empirical data. Non-peer-reviewed articles were excluded. Also, studies that focused solely on conventional solar PV without agricultural aspect or covered good production without incorporating the energy aspects were excluded. In addition, the review excluded articles that depicted insufficient methodological detail, discussed only microclimate or regional water balance without crop productivity, land-use efficiency or impact on livelihood. Finally, this review considered Sub-Saharan Africa as the primary region. However, limited studies focus on the agrivoltaics adoption in Africa. many featured studies hail from Europe, Asia, North America, and global studies (reviews). Though studies from Europe shows strong benefits of agrivoltaics, empirical data for African smallholder systems is limited. 2.4 Study selection process All retrieved records were exported to Mendeley Reference Manager for organization and duplicate removal. Titles and abstracts were screened by the first correspondent for relevance. Full-text review was performed for shortlisted articles to confirm their suitability. No automation tools were used in the selection process. Final studies meeting all criteria were included in the review. The selection process ensured that only studies relevant to agrivoltaics and its effect on crop productivity, land-use efficiency, and livelihood were retained. In total, 248 publications were identified across the listed databases. After removal of duplicate, non-relevant, and screening as per inclusion-exclusion criteria, 77 studies were included in the final synthesis. 2.5 Data extraction Data was systematically extracted from each study manually using a standard data extraction framework to ensure consistency. No automatic tool was used to mine data from the selected articles. Extracted data included bibliographic information (author, year, location), study region, focus area, study design (experimental, modeling, qualitative, mixed methods, review), types of key parameters reported, agrivoltaic system characteristics (panel type, spacing, orientation), and key findings. For the key findings, the focus was on the impact of agrivoltaics on crop yield, microclimate (e.g., shading, soil moisture), energy generation, land-use efficiency, and livelihood. 2.6 Risk of bias and study quality assessment Due to methodological diversity, this review did not apply a formal quantitative-risk-of-bias tool. Also, quantitative aggregation was not applicable in this review, inhibiting subgroup, sensitivity or meta-analysis. However, studies were assessed based on adapted quality criteria. The clarity of study design and the data collection approaches were analyzed critically to addressed quality and risk of bias. Additionally, sample size and representativeness, transparency of analysis, consistency between results and conclusions, and potential sources of bias were also synthesized. The review found that sources of bias emanated from article selection and reporting. Institutional bias was also realized. Studies were then categorized as high, moderate, and low quality. High quality studies were prioritized. 2.7 Data synthesis and analysis Due to the heterogeneity in study designs of the included studies, a thematic synthesis approach was considered. The review considered analysis of three thematic areas, namely: crop productivity, livelihood, and land-use efficiency to align with the objective of the review. Findings were used to inform the applicability of the agrivoltaics systems in Africa, specifically to smallholder farming systems. 3. Results 3.1 Overview of study inclusion Following the study search and selection procedure outlined in sub-Chap. 2.4, a total of 248 records were identified from various databases. The process is summarized in Fig. 1 below. After removal of 50 records due to duplicate, 198 records were scanned based on title and abstract. This process excluded 84 records. The remaining 114 records were retained for full-text review. When these records were sort for retrieval, 37 reports were not retrieved. Finally, 77 reports were examined for eligibility, where 71 studies published between 2015 and 2026 were fully incorporated into this review. The 71 studies included entailed research on agrivoltaics or dual land-use strategies, examined the impact of agrivoltaics on crop yield, livelihood, and land-use efficiency. The included records covered various geographical regions, including Africa, North America, Europe, and parts of Asia with a bias towards Europe and N``orth America. The selected records utilized various methodologies, including field experiments, simulation and modelling, and qualitative analysis. 3.2 Risk of bias within studies The analysis of methodological quality of the included studies revealed varying levels of bias. Studies that had clear and reliable methodologies, for instance, studies that conducted experiments to monitor agrivoltaic systems for a long time provided reliable datasets that minimized bias. On the other hand, studies whose methodologies encompassed modeling, such as those estimating large-scale energy potential, often relied on assumptions regarding solar radiation, land availability, and crop yield. The assumptions introduce uncertainty leading to bias. Also, there are studies that utilized qualitative design. They used small sample sizes and inferred the findings to a larger population. For instance, the study by [17], may not be generalizable across regions. It was specific to the European region. This aspect also introduces bias. 3.3 Results of individual studies Table 1 – 6 discuss results of the thematic areas of focus of this review. 3.3.1 Crop productivity and land-use efficiency Table 1 Studies on crop productivity and land-use efficiency Author Region Focus Area Methodology Key parameters reported Agrivoltaics system characteristics Key findings [21] Italy Land-use optimization Modelling & conceptual LER, energy yield, crop yield Fixed elevated PV structures Demonstrated Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) > 1, confirming dual land-use advantage [22] USA (Drylands) FEW nexus Field experiment Soil moisture, temperature, yield Elevated PV arrays Increased water-use efficiency and crop productivity [23] France Combined productivity Experimental Crop yield, electricity output Mobile PV panels Increased total land productivity by combining outputs [24] Germany Crop yield & microclimate Field trials Yield, radiation, soil moisture Fixed elevated PV Crop-specific responses; improved resilience under drought [25], [26] India Productivity & economics Experimental + economic modelling Yield, revenue, land productivity Elevated PV structures Increased farmer income and land productivity [27] China Crop yield under shading Field experiment Yield, WUE Fixed PV shading gradients Identified optimal shading thresholds [28] France Fruit tree productivity Experimental Leaf physiology, yield Tree-based agrivoltaics Improved water status without significant yield loss [29] Spain Irrigation & maize growth Modelling + field Biomass, ET, yield Fixed/dynamic PV Improved water-use efficiency under deficit irrigation [30] Germany Climate resilience (wheat) Field experiment Yield stability, soil moisture Elevated PV Increased yield stability in dry conditions [31] Italy Tomato productivity Experimental Yield, temperature Fixed PV Increased yield under heat stress conditions [32] Italy Food security Experimental Crop yield, radiation Fixed PV Agrivoltaics can boost food security under climate stress [33] Nigeria Tropical crop productivity Field experiment Photosynthesis, yield Elevated PV Improved yields in tropical environments [34] Egypt Water productivity Experimental Yield, WUE Fixed PV Improved water-use efficiency and yields [35] India Wheat productivity Field experiment Yield, microclimate Fixed PV Enhanced wheat performance under agrivoltaics [36] Peru Crop adaptation Experimental Yield, morphology Different PV technologies Crop adaptability varies with PV type [37] Japan Yield determinants Experimental Yield, growth traits On-farm agrivoltaics Yield depends on crop variety and management [38] Tropical regions Yield stability Field experiment Yield variability, temperature Fixed PV Improved yield stability across wet and dry seasons 3.3.2 Water–energy–food nexus & land-use efficiency Table 2 Studies on water–energy–food nexus and land-use efficiency Author Region Focus area Methodology Key parameters reported Agrivoltaics system characteristics Key findings [39] France Crop modelling & water balance Crop simulation modelling (lettuce) Soil moisture, evapotranspiration, irrigation demand, yield Fixed PV panels integrated with irrigated lettuce system Agrivoltaics reduced evapotranspiration and irrigation needs while maintaining acceptable crop yields, improving water-use efficiency [40] Côte d’Ivoire Productivity & energy synergy Modelling Crop yield, electricity generation, land productivity Integrated PV-crop systems in tropical conditions Demonstrated improved total productivity; agrivoltaics enhances land-use efficiency without compromising yields [41] USA Soil moisture & water-use efficiency Field experiment Soil moisture, microclimate, water-use efficiency, biomass Elevated PV panels over cropland Significant increase in soil moisture retention and improved water-use efficiency under PV shading [42] Global Yield, water efficiency, microclimate Systematic review Crop yield, water-use efficiency (WUE), temperature, radiation Multiple system designs (fixed, tracking, semi-transparent PV) Agrivoltaics generally improves Water Use Efficiency (WUE) and moderates microclimate; crop yield responses vary depending on crop type and shading level [43] Global Water–energy–food nexus optimization Integrated modelling Energy output, water use, crop yield, land-use efficiency Optimized agrivoltaic configurations (panel spacing, tilt, spectral control) Optimized designs can simultaneously maximize energy production and agricultural output, enhancing overall system efficiency [44] Global Land-use efficiency Modelling Land Equivalent Ratio (LER), crop yield, energy yield Dual-use agrivoltaic system configurations Agrivoltaics consistently achieved LER > 1, indicating superior land-use efficiency compared to single-use systems [45] East Africa Opportunities & challenges Conceptual + empirical insights Adoption barriers, yield potential, energy access Small-scale agrivoltaic systems adapted to rural farms Identified key barriers (cost, policy gaps, awareness) but highlighted strong potential for enhancing food and energy security [46] Global Integrated food–energy–water systems System design & modelling Energy generation, water production, crop yield, hydrogen production Hybrid agrivoltaic systems integrated with water and hydrogen production technologies Agrivoltaics can be integrated into multi-resource systems to simultaneously produce food, water, and energy, supporting sustainability goals [47] USA Water scarcity & agrivoltaics Conceptual + modelling Water demand, groundwater depletion, energy production Agrivoltaics coupled with water management strategies Agrivoltaics can reduce irrigation demand and contribute to addressing groundwater depletion in water-scarce regions [48] Global Carbon, water & energy cycles Earth system modelling (CLM5) Carbon flux, evapotranspiration, soil moisture, energy balance Large-scale agrivoltaic deployment scenarios Agrivoltaics influence carbon sequestration, improve water cycling, and enhance system-level climate resilience [45] East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania) Food–Energy–Water (FEW) nexus; productivity Field experiments + modelling Crop yield, soil moisture, energy generation, water-use efficiency Elevated PV systems over smallholder crops (e.g., maize, vegetables) Agrivoltaics improved soil moisture retention, stabilized yields, and increased total land productivity; strong relevance for climate resilience in smallholder systems [49] Sub-Saharan Africa Energy-food nexus Case study Agricultural productivity, energy access, rural livelihoods Decentralized agrivoltaic systems for rural communities Agrivoltaics can improve rural electrification while maintaining agricultural productivity; strong livelihood benefits 3.3.3 Socio-economic impacts Table 3 Studies on socio-economic impacts Author Region Focus area Methodology Key parameters reported Agrivoltaics system characteristics Key findings [50] Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) Risk analysis in rural agrivoltaic investments Quantitative modelling (risk and financial analysis) Investment risk, return on investment (ROI), cost variability, uncertainty factors Ground-mounted agrivoltaic systems integrated with smallholder farming; varying PV configurations Agrivoltaics presents moderate-to-high financial risk due to capital intensity and policy uncertainty, but offers long-term revenue diversification for farmers if supported by stable policy frameworks [51] Germany (applicable to developing contexts) Economic feasibility and adoption potential Economic modelling and scenario analysis Net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), adoption rates, land productivity Dual-use systems combining crops with elevated PV structures Agrivoltaics can significantly increase farm profitability compared to single land-use systems; adoption depends on incentives, market conditions, and farmer awareness [52] Niger Economic modelling in SSA context Case study with techno-economic modelling Capital costs, operational costs, energy revenue, crop yield, payback period Small-scale agrivoltaic system (10 kWp) integrated with irrigated agriculture Agrivoltaics is economically viable in arid SSA regions, with improved income streams from both agriculture and electricity; viability depends on financing mechanisms and local energy demand [53] Europe (comparative rural contexts) Energy justice and rural impacts Qualitative analysis (policy and socio-economic assessment) Equity, land access, distribution of benefits, governance structures Large-scale agrivoltaic systems in rural landscapes Agrivoltaics can exacerbate or reduce inequalities depending on governance; inclusive policy frameworks are necessary to ensure equitable benefit-sharing for smallholder farmers [54] DR Congo (Lubumbashi) Stakeholder perceptions (urban SSA context) Survey-based empirical study Social acceptance, perceived benefits, concerns, willingness to adopt Urban/peri-urban agrivoltaic systems integrated with food production High potential acceptance due to energy and food co-benefits, but concerns exist regarding land access, cost, and technical knowledge gaps [55] Nigeria Farmers’ perceptions and adoption Survey and qualitative interviews Awareness, willingness to adopt, perceived risks, expected benefits Smallholder-focused agrivoltaic systems Adoption is constrained by low awareness, high upfront costs, and lack of technical knowledge, but farmers recognize benefits in income diversification and climate resilience [56] Burkina Faso Profitability & land-use efficiency Techno-economic modelling Net present value (NPV), land-use efficiency, energy yield Configurations with varying PV density and crop integration Agrivoltaics improves profitability compared to monocropping; optimal configurations maximize both energy and crop yield [57] East Africa Adoption pathways & governance Qualitative (stakeholder analysis) Social acceptance, institutional frameworks Smallholder-focused agrivoltaic systems Adoption depends on governance, stakeholder engagement, and policy support; social acceptance is critical 3.3.4 Design, optimization, and productivity modelling studies Table 4 Studies on design, optimization and productivity modelling Author Region Focus area Methodology Key parameters reported Agrivoltaics system characteristics Key findings [58] Germany System design for productivity Experimental + modelling Crop yield, radiation distribution, LER, energy output Elevated PV structures, adjustable panel spacing, arable crops Demonstrated that optimized panel spacing and height significantly improve both crop yield and energy generation; LER > 1 confirms dual land-use efficiency [59] Italy Optimization of crop and energy performance Simulation modelling Crop yield, PV output, shading ratio, solar radiation Open-field agrivoltaic configurations, fixed and tracking PV systems Identified optimal configurations balancing shading and energy production; excessive shading reduces yield, while moderate shading enhances productivity [60] Global (developing countries emphasis) Design parameter optimization Analytical modelling framework Tilt angle, panel spacing, irradiance, crop yield Flexible agrivoltaic system configurations adaptable to climate zones Developed a systematic methodology for optimizing system parameters to maximize both agricultural and energy outputs [61] Sub-Saharan Africa Land productivity and energy optimization Modelling and scenario analysis Land productivity (LER), energy yield, solar irradiance Context-specific agrivoltaic designs for SSA climates (semi-arid and tropical) Demonstrated high potential for agrivoltaics in SSA, with optimized systems improving land productivity and supporting smallholder resilience [62] Global Sunlight-sharing optimization Control systems modelling Light distribution, crop photosynthesis, PV efficiency Dynamic agrivoltaic systems with real-time control (adaptive shading) Proposed intelligent control systems that dynamically allocate sunlight between crops and PV, improving overall system efficiency [63] Sub-Saharan Africa System optimization models Modelling + review Crop yield, energy output, economic returns, land-use efficiency Semi-transparent and bifacial PV panels, optimized layouts Demonstrated that optimized agrivoltaic systems significantly improve productivity and energy output in SSA; highlighted importance of technology choice and system design [64] East Africa Suitability modelling GIS-based modelling Land suitability, solar irradiance, agricultural productivity Spatially optimized agrivoltaic deployment Identified high-potential zones for agrivoltaics in East Africa; strong alignment with smallholder farming systems 3.3.5 Environmental and ecosystem outcomes linked to productivity Table 5 Studies on environmental and ecosystem outcomes linked to productivity Author Region Focus area Methodology Key parameters reported Agrivoltaics system characteristics Key Findings [65] USA Soil–plant interactions Multi-year field experiment Soil moisture, plant biomass, soil temperature, radiation Utility-scale agrivoltaic system with vegetative ground cover Agrivoltaics significantly altered soil–plant interactions by improving soil moisture retention and moderating temperature, leading to enhanced vegetation performance under PV arrays [66] Europe (Mediterranean) Ecohydrological dynamics Process-based ecohydrological modelling Evapotranspiration, soil moisture dynamics, water fluxes Grassland-based agrivoltaic system with partial shading Shading reduced evapotranspiration and improved soil water availability, supporting more stable biomass production under water-limited conditions [67] China Soil quality impacts Field experiment Soil organic matter, nutrient content, microbial activity Agrivoltaic system in dry–hot valley with crop cultivation Improved soil quality observed under PV panels due to reduced evaporation and enhanced microbial activity, contributing to long-term soil fertility [68] China Soil carbon accumulation Long-term field study Soil organic carbon (SOC), plant carbon inputs, microbial necromass Tracking photovoltaic agrivoltaic system Agrivoltaics increased soil carbon sequestration by enhancing plant inputs and stabilizing microbial-derived carbon, indicating climate mitigation potential [69] Europe (Italy) Soil biodiversity and plant response Field experiment Soil microarthropods, plant biomass, biodiversity indices Pasture-based agrivoltaic system Increased biodiversity and improved soil ecological functioning observed, with positive implications for sustainable pasture productivity [70] Europe (Germany) Ecosystem services Systematic review Biodiversity, pollination, soil health, ecosystem services indicators Various agrivoltaic system designs (elevated, vertical, dynamic) Agrivoltaics can enhance ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation, soil stabilization, and pollination, while maintaining agricultural productivity 3.3.6 Synthesis of comprehensive reviews and meta-analyses Table 6 Studies on synthesis of comprehensive reviews and meta-analyses Author Region Focus area Methodology Key parameters reported Agrivoltaics system characteristics Key findings [71] Global Agrivoltaics systems overview (applications, challenges, opportunities) Narrative review Crop yield, light availability, land-use efficiency (LER), energy output Fixed and elevated PV systems; crop-based systems in temperate climates Established agrivoltaics as a viable dual land-use strategy; identified trade-offs between shading and productivity; emphasized need for crop-specific system design [72] Global System performance parameters Review (analytical synthesis) Solar radiation, shading ratio, crop yield, panel spacing, tilt angle Fixed, tracking, and semi-transparent PV systems Identified key design parameters influencing productivity; optimal shading critical for balancing energy and crop yield [7] Sub-Saharan Africa Deployment pathways, energy-food nexus Systematic review Crop yield, energy generation, land-use efficiency, adoption factors Smallholder-oriented systems; off-grid and hybrid PV systems Highlighted agrivoltaics as a pathway for food-energy security in SSA; identified barriers (cost, policy gaps, technical capacity) [73] Global Research trends and knowledge gaps Systematic review & bibliometric analysis Publication trends, crop yield, system types, geographic distribution Diverse systems (fixed, dynamic, vertical) Identified research concentration in Europe/Asia; limited African empirical data; emphasized need for interdisciplinary studies [74] Global Techno-economic-ecological sustainability Systems modelling & review Economic returns, LER, carbon emissions, water use Integrated agrivoltaic systems within WEF nexus Demonstrated that agrivoltaics can optimize sustainability across multiple dimensions; highlighted trade-offs between economic and ecological goals [75] Global Agrivoltaics potential, policy, and crops Comprehensive review Crop suitability, energy output, land-use efficiency, policy frameworks Crop-specific systems; vertical and elevated PV Identified crop-specific suitability (e.g., shade-tolerant crops perform better); stressed role of policy in scaling adoption [76] Global Crop production under agrivoltaics Meta-analysis Yield response, shading intensity, climatic variables Fixed and tracking PV systems across climates Found that moderate shading improves yields in arid/semi-arid regions; excessive shading reduces productivity; strong heterogeneity across crops and climates [77] Global Integrated impacts (yield, environment, socio-economics) Critical review Crop yield, biodiversity, microclimate, socio-economic constraints Mixed systems (open-field, vertical, dynamic shading) Highlighted multi-dimensional benefits (yield stability, biodiversity gains); identified socio-economic barriers as key limitation to scaling [78] West Africa FEW nexus benefits Systematic review Food production, energy output, water efficiency Various agrivoltaic configurations (fixed and elevated systems) Demonstrated significant synergy across food, water, and energy systems; emphasized suitability for semi-arid West Africa 3.4 Results of synthesis 3.4.1 Characteristics and bias The review revealed that most studies focused on temperate regions. A few studies discussed agrivoltaics in Africa or smallholder systems. Additionally, a few studies examined the impact of agrivoltaics on livelihoods in developing regions. It was also noted that some experimental designs prioritized energy outcomes over agricultural performance. These aspects introduce a systematic bias toward energy-centered findings. 3.4.2 Statistical synthesis Given that the included records had varying study designs and the outcome of studies depended on the system design, crop type and climatic conditions, statistical meta-analysis was not possible. However, narrative aggregation shows that energy yield was consistently high, crop productivity was maintained or slightly reduced under moderate shading, and improved under extreme heat. Also, land-use efficiency improved when agriculture and energy were combined. 3.4.3 Heterogeneity of study results Significance differences among study results were reported. The variations were primarily linked to differences in environmental conditions, crop type, PV system design, measurement methods, and study duration. Technical difference also contributed to inconsistent outcomes. 3.4.4 Sensitivity and robustness The sensitivity and robustness of the findings of this review depends on factors such as system design sensitivity, climate sensitivity, and economic sensitivity. Findings showed that crop outcomes varied significantly with panel density and orientation. Also, benefits of the agrivoltaics systems were more in hot, arid environments. In addition, the viability of agrivoltaics depends on the price of energy and the policy interventions. Introduction of incentives could encourage installation of latest technology while high cost could lead to installation of basic agrivoltaics technology. Despite the observed variability, agrivoltaics systems performed best when site-specific environmental and agricultural conditions were considered. 3.5 Reporting bias Limited records discussed failed pilot projects. This introduced reporting bias. Also, few reports highlight negative crop performance outcomes. Additionally, reporting bias was captured in the underrepresentation of studies from African region. These biases may result to overestimation of the global potential and applicability of agrivoltaics. 3.6 Certainty of evidence Due to heterogeneity in the study design, the certainty of evidence discussed in this review was rated as moderate. High evidence was observed in energy generation potential of agrivoltaics systems and land-use efficiency improvement, while moderate evidence was observed in crop yield outcomes and microclimate benefits. Crop productivity outcomes were context-based. Additionally, low evidence was observed in the impact of agrivoltaics on livelihood in African smallholder farming systems and long-term sustainability of the systems. The low number of empirical studies in Africa limited generalizability of findings to the target context of this review. 4. DISCUSSION 4.1 Interpretation of findings This study sought to examine the impact of agrivoltaic systems on crop productivity, livelihoods, and land-use efficiency and discuss the implication of this to the smallholder farmers in Africa. The findings of the review suggest that agrivoltaics possess the ability to end the growing challenge of land-use competition between green energy production and agriculture. The evidence also confirm that dual land-use systems can significantly increase overall land productivity. In addition, the review indicates that the shade from photovoltaic panels can reduce evapotranspiration, lower loss of soil moisture, and reduce heat stress, thereby providing microclimatic conditions that could benefit certain crops, boosting their yield. The review established that such benefits are more evident in arid and semi-arid climatic conditions. Further, the review indicates that the outcome of agrivoltaics depends on crop type, system design, and the local agroecological conditions. For instance, the study by [12] found that photovoltaic panels may reduce photosynthetically active radiation below optimal thresholds for some crops there by lowering productivity. However, technological advancements such as wavelength-selective photovoltaic systems, which maximize the photosynthetically active radiation for crops, have proved to increase crop yield. From a land-use efficiency perspective, this study found that agrivoltaics system is key for regions with high land fragmentation and high population increase. This sets agrivoltaics apart as one of the best solutions for the Sub-Saharan Africa because it allows food and energy production to take place in the same parcel of land. Also, the review underscored the potential of agrivoltaics systems to improved livelihood. The review has indicated that agrivoltaics provide additional income for smallholder farmers while maintaining crop production. The green energy generated earns the farmer extra revenue and reduce their reliance on the national grid system. Studies like [17] shows that stakeholders perceive agrivoltaics as a “win–win” system, indicating a willingness to venture into agrivoltaics. However, there are concerns around the complexity of the system, capital cost, and policy frameworks. These concerns are majorly experienced in developing regions like Africa. For worldwide adoption of the system, these concerned must be addressed. 4.2 Limitations of the evidence included in the review This study reveals a challenge in evidence base. The evidence presented in this review is limited. Additionally, the review reveals evidence that is not uniform. Most of the included studies were conducted in North America and Europe. A few were conducted in Asia and Africa. This aspect limits generalization of findings to smallholder farming in Africa. Also, many studies conducted short-term experiments, which does not address the long-term impacts of agrivoltaics to crop productivity, livelihood, and land-use efficiency. For this reason, it is challenging to comprehend system sustainability. In additionally, the review noted lack of standardized methodologies across included studies. The variability was especially in crop used, and system design. This aspect made it hard for the review to compare study methodologies. Further, the socio-economic aspects such as gender impacts and land tenure systems were not featured prominently. Most included records focused on technical and agronomic outcomes of the system. Leaving out these important issues inhibits the determination of suitability and sustainability of this system for the smallholder farmers in Africa. 4.3 Limitations of the review processes used Though the systematic review process was followed by this study, methodological limitations were observed. Firstly, only studies published in English were included, potentially leaving out relevant studies conducted in French and other languages. Secondly, variability in methodologies limited the ability to undertake a robust meta-analysis. Instead, the review relied on narrative assessment. Thirdly, given the recent high publication rate on agrivoltaics, it is possible that some relevant studies may not have been indexed in academic databases considered by this study at the time of review. As a result, the review could have missed out on important literature. 4.4 Implications for practice, policy, and future research For smallholder farmers and development partners in Africa, agrivoltaic systems are potential climate adaptation mechanism. However, successful adoption of this system calls for careful system design to factor in local crop type, farming practices, and climatic conditions. Technical and financial support and policy framework are critical to the success of these systems in developing countries. Policy makers should endeavor to integrate agrivoltaics into national agricultural and energy strategies to boost their adoption. Important policy intervention includes incentives, subsidies, and land-use regulations that are geared towards encouraging citizens to venture into agrivoltaics. To allow social acceptance, the drivers of the agrivoltaics agenda should bring all stakeholders onboard. The research gaps identified by this study include limited empirical studies on agrivoltaics impact on crop productivity, soil water balance, and determination of the optimal system design configuration in Africa smallholder farming system. There is also limited knowledge on the impact of agrivoltaics on socio-economic aspect such as equity, land tenure, and gender dimensions. Finally. there is need for research on crop-specific light requirements. Declarations Registration and protocol This review was not registered in a systematic review registry, and a formal protocol was not prepared prior to study initiation. Funding The authorship, research or publication of this study was not funded by any individual or entity. Declaration of conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest regarding authorship, research or publication of this study. Data availability All data used in this review were obtained from publicly available sources cited within the manuscript. 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Kolega et al. , “Agrivoltaics Revisited: Critical Insights into Shading-Induced Microclimate Change, Yield and Quality, Biodiversity Shifts and Socio-Economic Limitations,” AgriEngineering , vol. 8, no. 2, p. 69, Feb. 2026, doi: 10.3390/agriengineering8020069. S. G. Favi, R. Adamou, T. Godjo, N. C. Giri, R. Kuleape, and M. Trommsdorff, “Agrivoltaic systems offer symbiotic benefits across the water-energy-food-environment nexus in West Africa: A systematic review,” Energy Res. Soc. Sci. , vol. 117, p. 103737, Nov. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.erss.2024.103737. Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files PRISMA2020checklistOkwaroetal.pdf PRISMA Checklist Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9313636","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Systematic Review","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":617193180,"identity":"93ef44da-559f-41e1-9c08-74e34ea0fe3b","order_by":0,"name":"John Okwaro","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Taita Taveta University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"John","middleName":"","lastName":"Okwaro","suffix":""},{"id":617198258,"identity":"36739a05-10cc-4d68-a3c6-4f084727cc15","order_by":1,"name":"Prof. Ulrike Feistel","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Dresden","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Prof.","middleName":"Ulrike","lastName":"Feistel","suffix":""},{"id":617198259,"identity":"f9fcfa55-8e99-40de-9d5b-bcf001ccc8c7","order_by":2,"name":"Susanna Kettner","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Dresden","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Susanna","middleName":"","lastName":"Kettner","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-03 13:58:44","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9313636/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9313636/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106330684,"identity":"0e0c6e69-3df5-48d3-90d6-cc19d3045000","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 13:58:06","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":38353,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRecords inclusion process\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Systematicreview.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9313636/v1/743a186efce48a284cf3434a.png"},{"id":106404269,"identity":"9158f81a-b687-4630-8959-ed45fa41a71e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:15:44","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1751117,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9313636/v1/75f4f6ae-ea28-468f-8770-53c82ed02bb4.pdf"},{"id":106330674,"identity":"ecb9125f-6500-4e1f-a6b3-0234743ac12f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 13:58:01","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":166663,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePRISMA Checklist\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"PRISMA2020checklistOkwaroetal.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9313636/v1/d48649435a048c3508af0762.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA Systematic Review on the Role of Agrivoltaics in Enhancing Crop Productivity, Livelihoods, and Land-Use Efficiency Within Smallholder Farming Systems in Africa\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAttaining global sustainable development is hindered by limited land utility. The need for environmental conservation, roads and building construction, food production, and energy generation compete [1]. This issue is more pronounced in developing regions, which experience high population growth and high climate vulnerability. In Africa, farming is mainly smallholder. This type of farming depends on seasonal rainfall and is vulnerable to climate variability and land degradation [2]. The study by [3] discusses the need for sustainable practices to mitigate land degradation and balance food production and environmental conservation. To achieve this, there is need for adoption of stems that promote sustainability in land use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlso, the need to decarbonize energy sector has grown over the years accelerating the adoption of renewable energy technologies including geothermal, wind, and solar photovoltaics (PV). However, installation of large-scale solar PV requires large track of land as compared to other energy sources. The need for extensive land creates conflict with agricultural and construction activities [4]. This issue has resulted to increase in the utilization of land-use systems that can address both food and energy needs. Agrivoltaic system, a dual-use land strategy, has emerged as a promising solution to the competition between agriculture and energy [5], [6], [7]. The systematic review byAlves et al. (2025) discusses policy frameworks supporting the adoption of the agrivoltaics worldwide. The review reveals challenges and opportunities to enhance widespread adoption of these systems. Limited geographical coverage and fragmented leadership are identified as major inhibitors to the widespread adoption of the systems. According to this study, financial support emerged as the main incentives to encourage adoption of agrivoltaics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study by[9] discusses how PVs can be integrated not only with crops but also livestock. The study focuses on agrivoltaic system designs to optimize land utilization [9]. The study underscores that elevation of PVs produce energy while allowing enough sunlight to reach crops. Additionally, solar PVs improve soil moisture and reduce heat stress. These factors are crucial for arid and semi-arid regions. Allowing sunlight, improving soil moisture, and reducing heat stress improves crop productivity. The study by[10] also underscores land-use efficiency gains from agrivoltaics. However, the study notes that the success of this system depends on particular crops and climatic conditions. In addition, the strategic review by[11] also discusses the application of agrivoltaic systems in fruit crops. The findings of the review shows that PV installation maintains fruit agricultural land while generating energy. Further, the study done by[6] that focused on the Phoenix Metropolitan Statistical Area indicates that PV systems in agricultural land could produce energy that could surpass local need.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecently, there has been technological advancement in this field, which has boosted the agrivoltaic adoption potential. The studies by [10], [12] discuss the advancement of solar PV modules to transmit photosynthetically active radiation to crops for growth while using non crop useful wavelength to generate electricity. In addition, studies have shown that agrivoltaic shading impact crop physiology, yield, and water use [13]. The shading reduces heat stress and evapotranspiration [14], [15].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite growth in the utilization of agrivoltaic systems across the globe, the adoption of the system in Africa is still low. Most of the studies undertaken on agrivoltaics are concentrated in Europe, North America, and parts of Asia. In addition, there is limited evidence of the utilization of agrivoltaic systems by smallholder farmers in Africa. This is attributed to limited resources and lack of technological skills [7], [16]. Other factors limiting the adoption of agrivoltaic systems include stakeholder perception, system complexity, socio-cultural factors and governance, land-use priorities, and uncertainties concerning economic returns [17], [18], [19].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe objective of this systematic review is to synthesize the impact of agrivoltaics on crop productivity, land-use efficiency, and livelihoods of the farmers as a climate adaptation solution. The review also seeks to understand the potential utilization of agrivoltaic systems Africa\u0026rsquo;s smallholder farmers and the implication.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis review employed the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) (PRISMA 2020) guidelines outlined by [20] to enhance transparency and reproducibility in the identification, screening, and synthesis of existing literature on agrivoltaics. This study incorporated both quantitative and qualitative research. The review intended to assess the impact of agrivoltaic systems on land-use efficiency, crop productivity, and livelihood and discuss he implication of the imact to Africa\u0026rsquo;s smallholder farmers. Given limited studies on agrivoltaic utilization by smallholder farming in Africa, this review synthesized studies from across the world that discusses the impact of agrivoltaics on crop production, land-use efficiency, and livelihood then inferred the findings to Africa\u0026rsquo;s smallholder farming.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Search strategy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA comprehensive literature search was conducted between February and April 2026 across Google Scholar, ScienceDirect.com, Scopus, Web of Science, and Springer Nature Link databases. This review used search approach that combined Boolean operators and keywords related to agrivoltaics. This study restricted its search to peer-reviewed journal articles and conference papers published between 2015 and 2026. Articles published in English were considered. The search terms applied were (\u0026ldquo;agrivoltaics\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;agro-photovoltaics\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;dual land use\u0026rdquo; AND \u0026ldquo;solar\u0026rdquo; AND \u0026ldquo;agriculture\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;agrivoltaics Africa\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;solar farming smallholder\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;photovoltaics crop productivity shading\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;agrivoltaics livelihoods\u0026rdquo;). The search terms were used across all the search database to enhance retrieval.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Inclusion and exclusion criteria\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe inclusion criteria were defined to ensure the relevance and methodological robustness of selected studies. The review included peer-reviewed journal articles that focused on agrivoltaics or dual land-use strategies, examined crop productivity, socio-economic impact, and land-use efficiency, with emphasis on studies that discuss the impact of agrivoltaics on crop productivity, livelihood, and land-use efficiency. Only articles published in English were included. Also, the review prioritized articles that provided modelling results, conceptual analysis or empirical data.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-peer-reviewed articles were excluded. Also, studies that focused solely on conventional solar PV without agricultural aspect or covered good production without incorporating the energy aspects were excluded. In addition, the review excluded articles that depicted insufficient methodological detail, discussed only microclimate or regional water balance without crop productivity, land-use efficiency or impact on livelihood.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, this review considered Sub-Saharan Africa as the primary region. However, limited studies focus on the agrivoltaics adoption in Africa. many featured studies hail from Europe, Asia, North America, and global studies (reviews). Though studies from Europe shows strong benefits of agrivoltaics, empirical data for African smallholder systems is limited.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Study selection process\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll retrieved records were exported to Mendeley Reference Manager for organization and duplicate removal. Titles and abstracts were screened by the first correspondent for relevance. Full-text review was performed for shortlisted articles to confirm their suitability. No automation tools were used in the selection process. Final studies meeting all criteria were included in the review. The selection process ensured that only studies relevant to agrivoltaics and its effect on crop productivity, land-use efficiency, and livelihood were retained.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn total, 248 publications were identified across the listed databases. After removal of duplicate, non-relevant, and screening as per inclusion-exclusion criteria, 77 studies were included in the final synthesis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Data extraction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData was systematically extracted from each study manually using a standard data extraction framework to ensure consistency. No automatic tool was used to mine data from the selected articles. Extracted data included bibliographic information (author, year, location), study region, focus area, study design (experimental, modeling, qualitative, mixed methods, review), types of key parameters reported, agrivoltaic system characteristics (panel type, spacing, orientation), and key findings. For the key findings, the focus was on the impact of agrivoltaics on crop yield, microclimate (e.g., shading, soil moisture), energy generation, land-use efficiency, and livelihood.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6 Risk of bias and study quality assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to methodological diversity, this review did not apply a formal quantitative-risk-of-bias tool. Also, quantitative aggregation was not applicable in this review, inhibiting subgroup, sensitivity or meta-analysis. However, studies were assessed based on adapted quality criteria. The clarity of study design and the data collection approaches were analyzed critically to addressed quality and risk of bias. Additionally, sample size and representativeness, transparency of analysis, consistency between results and conclusions, and potential sources of bias were also synthesized. The review found that sources of bias emanated from article selection and reporting. Institutional bias was also realized. Studies were then categorized as high, moderate, and low quality. High quality studies were prioritized.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7 Data synthesis and analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to the heterogeneity in study designs of the included studies, a thematic synthesis approach was considered. The review considered analysis of three thematic areas, namely: crop productivity, livelihood, and land-use efficiency to align with the objective of the review. Findings were used to inform the applicability of the agrivoltaics systems in Africa, specifically to smallholder farming systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Overview of study inclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing the study search and selection procedure outlined in sub-Chap.\u0026nbsp;2.4, a total of 248 records were identified from various databases. The process is summarized in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e below. After removal of 50 records due to duplicate, 198 records were scanned based on title and abstract. This process excluded 84 records. The remaining 114 records were retained for full-text review. When these records were sort for retrieval, 37 reports were not retrieved. Finally, 77 reports were examined for eligibility, where 71 studies published between 2015 and 2026 were fully incorporated into this review.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 71 studies included entailed research on agrivoltaics or dual land-use strategies, examined the impact of agrivoltaics on crop yield, livelihood, and land-use efficiency. The included records covered various geographical regions, including Africa, North America, Europe, and parts of Asia with a bias towards Europe and N``orth America. The selected records utilized various methodologies, including field experiments, simulation and modelling, and qualitative analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Risk of bias within studies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of methodological quality of the included studies revealed varying levels of bias. Studies that had clear and reliable methodologies, for instance, studies that conducted experiments to monitor agrivoltaic systems for a long time provided reliable datasets that minimized bias. On the other hand, studies whose methodologies encompassed modeling, such as those estimating large-scale energy potential, often relied on assumptions regarding solar radiation, land availability, and crop yield. The assumptions introduce uncertainty leading to bias. Also, there are studies that utilized qualitative design. They used small sample sizes and inferred the findings to a larger population. For instance, the study by [17], may not be generalizable across regions. It was specific to the European region. This aspect also introduces bias.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Results of individual studies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e discuss results of the thematic areas of focus of this review.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.1 Crop productivity and land-use efficiency\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies on crop productivity and land-use efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus Area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethodology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey parameters reported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics system characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey findings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[21]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItaly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand-use optimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModelling \u0026amp; conceptual\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLER, energy yield, crop yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFixed elevated PV structures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemonstrated Land Equivalent Ratio (LER)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1, confirming dual land-use advantage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[22]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA (Drylands)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFEW nexus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eField experiment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil moisture, temperature, yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElevated PV arrays\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreased water-use efficiency and crop productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[23]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCombined productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop yield, electricity output\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMobile PV panels\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreased total land productivity by combining outputs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[24]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGermany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop yield \u0026amp; microclimate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eField trials\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield, radiation, soil moisture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFixed elevated PV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop-specific responses; improved resilience under drought\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[25], [26]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProductivity \u0026amp; economics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;economic modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield, revenue, land productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElevated PV structures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreased farmer income and land productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[27]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop yield under shading\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eField experiment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield, WUE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFixed PV shading gradients\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentified optimal shading thresholds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[28]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit tree productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaf physiology, yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTree-based agrivoltaics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved water status without significant yield loss\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[29]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIrrigation \u0026amp; maize growth\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModelling\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;field\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiomass, ET, yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFixed/dynamic PV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved water-use efficiency under deficit irrigation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[30]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGermany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate resilience (wheat)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eField experiment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield stability, soil moisture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElevated PV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreased yield stability in dry conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[31]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItaly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTomato productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield, temperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFixed PV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreased yield under heat stress conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[32]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItaly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood security\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop yield, radiation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFixed PV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics can boost food security under climate stress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[33]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNigeria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTropical crop productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eField experiment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhotosynthesis, yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElevated PV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved yields in tropical environments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[34]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEgypt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield, WUE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFixed PV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved water-use efficiency and yields\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[35]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheat productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eField experiment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield, microclimate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFixed PV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnhanced wheat performance under agrivoltaics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[36]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeru\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop adaptation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield, morphology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferent PV technologies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop adaptability varies with PV type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[37]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJapan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield determinants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield, growth traits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn-farm agrivoltaics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield depends on crop variety and management\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[38]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTropical regions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield stability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eField experiment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield variability, temperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFixed PV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved yield stability across wet and dry seasons\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.2 Water\u0026ndash;energy\u0026ndash;food nexus \u0026amp; land-use efficiency\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies on water\u0026ndash;energy\u0026ndash;food nexus and land-use efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethodology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey parameters reported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics system characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey findings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[39]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop modelling \u0026amp; water balance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop simulation modelling (lettuce)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil moisture, evapotranspiration, irrigation demand, yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFixed PV panels integrated with irrigated lettuce system\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics reduced evapotranspiration and irrigation needs while maintaining acceptable crop yields, improving water-use efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[40]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u0026ocirc;te d\u0026rsquo;Ivoire\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProductivity \u0026amp; energy synergy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop yield, electricity generation, land productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntegrated PV-crop systems in tropical conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemonstrated improved total productivity; agrivoltaics enhances land-use efficiency without compromising yields\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[41]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil moisture \u0026amp; water-use efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eField experiment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil moisture, microclimate, water-use efficiency, biomass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElevated PV panels over cropland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificant increase in soil moisture retention and improved water-use efficiency under PV shading\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[42]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield, water efficiency, microclimate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystematic review\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop yield, water-use efficiency (WUE), temperature, radiation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultiple system designs (fixed, tracking, semi-transparent PV)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics generally improves Water Use Efficiency (WUE) and moderates microclimate; crop yield responses vary depending on crop type and shading level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[43]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater\u0026ndash;energy\u0026ndash;food nexus optimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntegrated modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy output, water use, crop yield, land-use efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOptimized agrivoltaic configurations (panel spacing, tilt, spectral control)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOptimized designs can simultaneously maximize energy production and agricultural output, enhancing overall system efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[44]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand-use efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand Equivalent Ratio (LER), crop yield, energy yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDual-use agrivoltaic system configurations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics consistently achieved LER\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1, indicating superior land-use efficiency compared to single-use systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[45]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEast Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOpportunities \u0026amp; challenges\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConceptual\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;empirical insights\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdoption barriers, yield potential, energy access\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall-scale agrivoltaic systems adapted to rural farms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentified key barriers (cost, policy gaps, awareness) but highlighted strong potential for enhancing food and energy security\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[46]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntegrated food\u0026ndash;energy\u0026ndash;water systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystem design \u0026amp; modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy generation, water production, crop yield, hydrogen production\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHybrid agrivoltaic systems integrated with water and hydrogen production technologies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics can be integrated into multi-resource systems to simultaneously produce food, water, and energy, supporting sustainability goals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[47]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater scarcity \u0026amp; agrivoltaics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConceptual\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater demand, groundwater depletion, energy production\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics coupled with water management strategies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics can reduce irrigation demand and contribute to addressing groundwater depletion in water-scarce regions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[48]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon, water \u0026amp; energy cycles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEarth system modelling (CLM5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon flux, evapotranspiration, soil moisture, energy balance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge-scale agrivoltaic deployment scenarios\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics influence carbon sequestration, improve water cycling, and enhance system-level climate resilience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[45]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEast Africa (Kenya, Tanzania)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood\u0026ndash;Energy\u0026ndash;Water (FEW) nexus; productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eField experiments\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop yield, soil moisture, energy generation, water-use efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElevated PV systems over smallholder crops (e.g., maize, vegetables)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics improved soil moisture retention, stabilized yields, and increased total land productivity; strong relevance for climate resilience in smallholder systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[49]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSub-Saharan Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy-food nexus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCase study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgricultural productivity, energy access, rural livelihoods\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecentralized agrivoltaic systems for rural communities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics can improve rural electrification while maintaining agricultural productivity; strong livelihood benefits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.3 Socio-economic impacts\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies on socio-economic impacts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethodology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey parameters reported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics system characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey findings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[50]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSub-Saharan Africa (SSA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRisk analysis in rural agrivoltaic investments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative modelling (risk and financial analysis)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInvestment risk, return on investment (ROI), cost variability, uncertainty factors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGround-mounted agrivoltaic systems integrated with smallholder farming; varying PV configurations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics presents moderate-to-high financial risk due to capital intensity and policy uncertainty, but offers long-term revenue diversification for farmers if supported by stable policy frameworks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[51]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGermany (applicable to developing contexts)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic feasibility and adoption potential\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic modelling and scenario analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNet present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), adoption rates, land productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDual-use systems combining crops with elevated PV structures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics can significantly increase farm profitability compared to single land-use systems; adoption depends on incentives, market conditions, and farmer awareness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[52]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNiger\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic modelling in SSA context\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCase study with techno-economic modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCapital costs, operational costs, energy revenue, crop yield, payback period\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmall-scale agrivoltaic system (10 kWp) integrated with irrigated agriculture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics is economically viable in arid SSA regions, with improved income streams from both agriculture and electricity; viability depends on financing mechanisms and local energy demand\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[53]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEurope (comparative rural contexts)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy justice and rural impacts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative analysis (policy and socio-economic assessment)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquity, land access, distribution of benefits, governance structures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge-scale agrivoltaic systems in rural landscapes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics can exacerbate or reduce inequalities depending on governance; inclusive policy frameworks are necessary to ensure equitable benefit-sharing for smallholder farmers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[54]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDR Congo (Lubumbashi)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStakeholder perceptions (urban SSA context)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurvey-based empirical study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial acceptance, perceived benefits, concerns, willingness to adopt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrban/peri-urban agrivoltaic systems integrated with food production\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh potential acceptance due to energy and food co-benefits, but concerns exist regarding land access, cost, and technical knowledge gaps\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[55]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNigeria\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarmers\u0026rsquo; perceptions and adoption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSurvey and qualitative interviews\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAwareness, willingness to adopt, perceived risks, expected benefits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmallholder-focused agrivoltaic systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdoption is constrained by low awareness, high upfront costs, and lack of technical knowledge, but farmers recognize benefits in income diversification and climate resilience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[56]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfitability \u0026amp; land-use efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechno-economic modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNet present value (NPV), land-use efficiency, energy yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigurations with varying PV density and crop integration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics improves profitability compared to monocropping; optimal configurations maximize both energy and crop yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[57]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEast Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdoption pathways \u0026amp; governance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative (stakeholder analysis)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial acceptance, institutional frameworks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmallholder-focused agrivoltaic systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdoption depends on governance, stakeholder engagement, and policy support; social acceptance is critical\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.4 Design, optimization, and productivity modelling studies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies on design, optimization and productivity modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethodology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey parameters reported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics system characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey findings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[58]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGermany\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystem design for productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop yield, radiation distribution, LER, energy output\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElevated PV structures, adjustable panel spacing, arable crops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemonstrated that optimized panel spacing and height significantly improve both crop yield and energy generation; LER\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;1 confirms dual land-use efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[59]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItaly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOptimization of crop and energy performance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimulation modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop yield, PV output, shading ratio, solar radiation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOpen-field agrivoltaic configurations, fixed and tracking PV systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentified optimal configurations balancing shading and energy production; excessive shading reduces yield, while moderate shading enhances productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[60]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal (developing countries emphasis)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDesign parameter optimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalytical modelling framework\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTilt angle, panel spacing, irradiance, crop yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlexible agrivoltaic system configurations adaptable to climate zones\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeveloped a systematic methodology for optimizing system parameters to maximize both agricultural and energy outputs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[61]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSub-Saharan Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand productivity and energy optimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModelling and scenario analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand productivity (LER), energy yield, solar irradiance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContext-specific agrivoltaic designs for SSA climates (semi-arid and tropical)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemonstrated high potential for agrivoltaics in SSA, with optimized systems improving land productivity and supporting smallholder resilience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[62]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSunlight-sharing optimization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl systems modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLight distribution, crop photosynthesis, PV efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDynamic agrivoltaic systems with real-time control (adaptive shading)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProposed intelligent control systems that dynamically allocate sunlight between crops and PV, improving overall system efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[63]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSub-Saharan Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystem optimization models\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModelling\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;review\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop yield, energy output, economic returns, land-use efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSemi-transparent and bifacial PV panels, optimized layouts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemonstrated that optimized agrivoltaic systems significantly improve productivity and energy output in SSA; highlighted importance of technology choice and system design\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[64]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEast Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuitability modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGIS-based modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand suitability, solar irradiance, agricultural productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpatially optimized agrivoltaic deployment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentified high-potential zones for agrivoltaics in East Africa; strong alignment with smallholder farming systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.5 Environmental and ecosystem outcomes linked to productivity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies on environmental and ecosystem outcomes linked to productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethodology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey parameters reported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics system characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey Findings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[65]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil\u0026ndash;plant interactions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMulti-year field experiment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil moisture, plant biomass, soil temperature, radiation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUtility-scale agrivoltaic system with vegetative ground cover\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics significantly altered soil\u0026ndash;plant interactions by improving soil moisture retention and moderating temperature, leading to enhanced vegetation performance under PV arrays\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[66]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEurope (Mediterranean)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEcohydrological dynamics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProcess-based ecohydrological modelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvapotranspiration, soil moisture dynamics, water fluxes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrassland-based agrivoltaic system with partial shading\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShading reduced evapotranspiration and improved soil water availability, supporting more stable biomass production under water-limited conditions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[67]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil quality impacts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eField experiment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil organic matter, nutrient content, microbial activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaic system in dry\u0026ndash;hot valley with crop cultivation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eImproved soil quality observed under PV panels due to reduced evaporation and enhanced microbial activity, contributing to long-term soil fertility\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[68]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChina\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil carbon accumulation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLong-term field study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil organic carbon (SOC), plant carbon inputs, microbial necromass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTracking photovoltaic agrivoltaic system\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics increased soil carbon sequestration by enhancing plant inputs and stabilizing microbial-derived carbon, indicating climate mitigation potential\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[69]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEurope (Italy)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil biodiversity and plant response\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eField experiment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil microarthropods, plant biomass, biodiversity indices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePasture-based agrivoltaic system\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIncreased biodiversity and improved soil ecological functioning observed, with positive implications for sustainable pasture productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[70]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEurope (Germany)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEcosystem services\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystematic review\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBiodiversity, pollination, soil health, ecosystem services indicators\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious agrivoltaic system designs (elevated, vertical, dynamic)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics can enhance ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation, soil stabilization, and pollination, while maintaining agricultural productivity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3.6 Synthesis of comprehensive reviews and meta-analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudies on synthesis of comprehensive reviews and meta-analyses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAuthor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethodology\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey parameters reported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics system characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey findings\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[71]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics systems overview (applications, challenges, opportunities)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNarrative review\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop yield, light availability, land-use efficiency (LER), energy output\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFixed and elevated PV systems; crop-based systems in temperate climates\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEstablished agrivoltaics as a viable dual land-use strategy; identified trade-offs between shading and productivity; emphasized need for crop-specific system design\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[72]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystem performance parameters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReview (analytical synthesis)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolar radiation, shading ratio, crop yield, panel spacing, tilt angle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFixed, tracking, and semi-transparent PV systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentified key design parameters influencing productivity; optimal shading critical for balancing energy and crop yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[7]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSub-Saharan Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeployment pathways, energy-food nexus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystematic review\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop yield, energy generation, land-use efficiency, adoption factors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmallholder-oriented systems; off-grid and hybrid PV systems\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighlighted agrivoltaics as a pathway for food-energy security in SSA; identified barriers (cost, policy gaps, technical capacity)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[73]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch trends and knowledge gaps\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystematic review \u0026amp; bibliometric analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublication trends, crop yield, system types, geographic distribution\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiverse systems (fixed, dynamic, vertical)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentified research concentration in Europe/Asia; limited African empirical data; emphasized need for interdisciplinary studies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[74]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechno-economic-ecological sustainability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystems modelling \u0026amp; review\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomic returns, LER, carbon emissions, water use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntegrated agrivoltaic systems within WEF nexus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemonstrated that agrivoltaics can optimize sustainability across multiple dimensions; highlighted trade-offs between economic and ecological goals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[75]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrivoltaics potential, policy, and crops\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComprehensive review\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop suitability, energy output, land-use efficiency, policy frameworks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop-specific systems; vertical and elevated PV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIdentified crop-specific suitability (e.g., shade-tolerant crops perform better); stressed role of policy in scaling adoption\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[76]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop production under agrivoltaics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeta-analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYield response, shading intensity, climatic variables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFixed and tracking PV systems across climates\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFound that moderate shading improves yields in arid/semi-arid regions; excessive shading reduces productivity; strong heterogeneity across crops and climates\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[77]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntegrated impacts (yield, environment, socio-economics)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCritical review\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop yield, biodiversity, microclimate, socio-economic constraints\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed systems (open-field, vertical, dynamic shading)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighlighted multi-dimensional benefits (yield stability, biodiversity gains); identified socio-economic barriers as key limitation to scaling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[78]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWest Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFEW nexus benefits\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSystematic review\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood production, energy output, water efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious agrivoltaic configurations (fixed and elevated systems)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemonstrated significant synergy across food, water, and energy systems; emphasized suitability for semi-arid West Africa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Results of synthesis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.1 Characteristics and bias\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe review revealed that most studies focused on temperate regions. A few studies discussed agrivoltaics in Africa or smallholder systems. Additionally, a few studies examined the impact of agrivoltaics on livelihoods in developing regions. It was also noted that some experimental designs prioritized energy outcomes over agricultural performance. These aspects introduce a systematic bias toward energy-centered findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.2 Statistical synthesis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven that the included records had varying study designs and the outcome of studies depended on the system design, crop type and climatic conditions, statistical meta-analysis was not possible. However, narrative aggregation shows that energy yield was consistently high, crop productivity was maintained or slightly reduced under moderate shading, and improved under extreme heat. Also, land-use efficiency improved when agriculture and energy were combined.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.3 Heterogeneity of study results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificance differences among study results were reported. The variations were primarily linked to differences in environmental conditions, crop type, PV system design, measurement methods, and study duration. Technical difference also contributed to inconsistent outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.4 Sensitivity and robustness\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sensitivity and robustness of the findings of this review depends on factors such as system design sensitivity, climate sensitivity, and economic sensitivity. Findings showed that crop outcomes varied significantly with panel density and orientation. Also, benefits of the agrivoltaics systems were more in hot, arid environments. In addition, the viability of agrivoltaics depends on the price of energy and the policy interventions. Introduction of incentives could encourage installation of latest technology while high cost could lead to installation of basic agrivoltaics technology. Despite the observed variability, agrivoltaics systems performed best when site-specific environmental and agricultural conditions were considered.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Reporting bias\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimited records discussed failed pilot projects. This introduced reporting bias. Also, few reports highlight negative crop performance outcomes. Additionally, reporting bias was captured in the underrepresentation of studies from African region. These biases may result to overestimation of the global potential and applicability of agrivoltaics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6 Certainty of evidence\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to heterogeneity in the study design, the certainty of evidence discussed in this review was rated as moderate. High evidence was observed in energy generation potential of agrivoltaics systems and land-use efficiency improvement, while moderate evidence was observed in crop yield outcomes and microclimate benefits. Crop productivity outcomes were context-based. Additionally, low evidence was observed in the impact of agrivoltaics on livelihood in African smallholder farming systems and long-term sustainability of the systems. The low number of empirical studies in Africa limited generalizability of findings to the target context of this review.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Interpretation of findings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study sought to examine the impact of agrivoltaic systems on crop productivity, livelihoods, and land-use efficiency and discuss the implication of this to the smallholder farmers in Africa. The findings of the review suggest that agrivoltaics possess the ability to end the growing challenge of land-use competition between green energy production and agriculture. The evidence also confirm that dual land-use systems can significantly increase overall land productivity. In addition, the review indicates that the shade from photovoltaic panels can reduce evapotranspiration, lower loss of soil moisture, and reduce heat stress, thereby providing microclimatic conditions that could benefit certain crops, boosting their yield. The review established that such benefits are more evident in arid and semi-arid climatic conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther, the review indicates that the outcome of agrivoltaics depends on crop type, system design, and the local agroecological conditions. For instance, the study by [12] found that photovoltaic panels may reduce photosynthetically active radiation below optimal thresholds for some crops there by lowering productivity. However, technological advancements such as wavelength-selective photovoltaic systems, which maximize the photosynthetically active radiation for crops, have proved to increase crop yield.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a land-use efficiency perspective, this study found that agrivoltaics system is key for regions with high land fragmentation and high population increase. This sets agrivoltaics apart as one of the best solutions for the Sub-Saharan Africa because it allows food and energy production to take place in the same parcel of land.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlso, the review underscored the potential of agrivoltaics systems to improved livelihood. The review has indicated that agrivoltaics provide additional income for smallholder farmers while maintaining crop production. The green energy generated earns the farmer extra revenue and reduce their reliance on the national grid system. Studies like [17] shows that stakeholders perceive agrivoltaics as a \u0026ldquo;win\u0026ndash;win\u0026rdquo; system, indicating a willingness to venture into agrivoltaics. However, there are concerns around the complexity of the system, capital cost, and policy frameworks. These concerns are majorly experienced in developing regions like Africa. For worldwide adoption of the system, these concerned must be addressed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Limitations of the evidence included in the review\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study reveals a challenge in evidence base. The evidence presented in this review is limited. Additionally, the review reveals evidence that is not uniform. Most of the included studies were conducted in North America and Europe. A few were conducted in Asia and Africa. This aspect limits generalization of findings to smallholder farming in Africa.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlso, many studies conducted short-term experiments, which does not address the long-term impacts of agrivoltaics to crop productivity, livelihood, and land-use efficiency. For this reason, it is challenging to comprehend system sustainability. In additionally, the review noted lack of standardized methodologies across included studies. The variability was especially in crop used, and system design. This aspect made it hard for the review to compare study methodologies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther, the socio-economic aspects such as gender impacts and land tenure systems were not featured prominently. Most included records focused on technical and agronomic outcomes of the system. Leaving out these important issues inhibits the determination of suitability and sustainability of this system for the smallholder farmers in Africa.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Limitations of the review processes used\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThough the systematic review process was followed by this study, methodological limitations were observed. Firstly, only studies published in English were included, potentially leaving out relevant studies conducted in French and other languages. Secondly, variability in methodologies limited the ability to undertake a robust meta-analysis. Instead, the review relied on narrative assessment. Thirdly, given the recent high publication rate on agrivoltaics, it is possible that some relevant studies may not have been indexed in academic databases considered by this study at the time of review. As a result, the review could have missed out on important literature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec30\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Implications for practice, policy, and future research\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor smallholder farmers and development partners in Africa, agrivoltaic systems are potential climate adaptation mechanism. However, successful adoption of this system calls for careful system design to factor in local crop type, farming practices, and climatic conditions. Technical and financial support and policy framework are critical to the success of these systems in developing countries. Policy makers should endeavor to integrate agrivoltaics into national agricultural and energy strategies to boost their adoption. Important policy intervention includes incentives, subsidies, and land-use regulations that are geared towards encouraging citizens to venture into agrivoltaics. To allow social acceptance, the drivers of the agrivoltaics agenda should bring all stakeholders onboard.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research gaps identified by this study include limited empirical studies on agrivoltaics impact on crop productivity, soil water balance, and determination of the optimal system design configuration in Africa smallholder farming system. There is also limited knowledge on the impact of agrivoltaics on socio-economic aspect such as equity, land tenure, and gender dimensions. Finally. there is need for research on crop-specific light requirements.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRegistration and protocol\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis review was \u003cstrong\u003enot registered\u003c/strong\u003e in a systematic review registry, and a formal protocol was not prepared prior to study initiation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authorship, research or publication of this study was not funded by any individual or entity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of conflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflict of interest regarding authorship, research or publication of this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data used in this review were obtained from publicly available sources cited within the manuscript. No new datasets or analytical code were generated.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent to Publish declaration: not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthics and consent to participate: not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eClinical trial number: not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eM. de Haas and K. E. Giller, \u003cem\u003ePathways to African Food Security\u003c/em\u003e. London: Routledge, 2025. doi: 10.4324/9781032649696.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eN. F. V. Mosha and P. 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Kolega \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, \u0026ldquo;Agrivoltaics Revisited: Critical Insights into Shading-Induced Microclimate Change, Yield and Quality, Biodiversity Shifts and Socio-Economic Limitations,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eAgriEngineering\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 8, no. 2, p. 69, Feb. 2026, doi: 10.3390/agriengineering8020069.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eS. G. Favi, R. Adamou, T. Godjo, N. C. Giri, R. Kuleape, and M. Trommsdorff, \u0026ldquo;Agrivoltaic systems offer symbiotic benefits across the water-energy-food-environment nexus in West Africa: A systematic review,\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eEnergy Res. Soc. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 117, p. 103737, Nov. 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.erss.2024.103737.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Taita Taveta University","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"agrivoltaics, crop productivity, dual land-use, evapotranspiration, microclimate, solar energy","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9313636/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9313636/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe dual utilization of land for agriculture and energy production is known as agrivoltaic systems. Studies have shown that these systems have the potential to address land-use competition between agriculture and energy systems. This study analyzed systematically available evidence on agrivolaic systems impact on livelihood, land-use efficiency, and crop productivity and the implication for smallholder farmers in Africa. The review utilized a structured methodology to analyze relevant peer-reviewed literature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe review found that agrivoltaics systems create can improve crop production by reducing heat stress, improving soil moisture, and reducing evapotranspiration. Additionally, the evidence reviewed showed that agrivoltaics could improve land-use efficiency by enabling dual land use. Land can be used to generate green energy without inhibiting agriculture. Also, the evidence synthesized showed that agrivoltaics had the potential to improve the livelihoods of the farmers. The agrivoltaics systems enhance energy access, improve adaptation to unfavorable climatic conditions like arid and semi-arid conditions, and allow diversification of income by the farmers. However, it was noted that the results of the selected studies were context-specific. The agrivoltaics system supports particular crops. In addition, the design of the system and environmental factor of the site of interest determines the outcome. Because of these aspects, it was challenging to compare the results of the included studies and generalize the findings of the studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThough the agrivoltaic systems demonstrated the ability to generate various benefits, the review identified various gaps in the adoptions of the system. There are limited empirical studies providing evidence on the impact of agrivoltaics on crop productivity, land-use efficiency, and livelihoods among smallholder farmers in Africa. Additionally, there was little evidence on the long-term assessment of the impact of agrivoltaics. Many studies undertook short-term experiments. Also, some socio-economic aspects, such as gender, equity, and land tenure, were not featured in the studies that were included in the review. There, the impact of the system on these factors is not known. Finally, the variability in the methodologies that were utilized in the included studies inhibited generalization of findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe review concluded that the widespread adoption of the agrivoltaic systems by smallholder farmers is possible if relevant policies are put in place, incentives are introduced in the agricultural and energy sectors, and financial and technical skills are availed to the smallholder farmers. There is also a need for more research to be undertaken in Africa to determine the impact of agrivoltaics systems on soil water balance, crop productivity, and optimal system design configuration to encourage investment by smallholder farmers. Studies should focus on field-based experiments.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"A Systematic Review on the Role of Agrivoltaics in Enhancing Crop Productivity, Livelihoods, and Land-Use Efficiency Within Smallholder Farming Systems in Africa","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-07 13:56:09","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9313636/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a1ad8a39-e4cd-4bbd-ab73-9ce4592c37e3","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 7th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":65694968,"name":"Agricultural Engineering"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-07T13:56:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-07 13:56:09","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9313636","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9313636","identity":"rs-9313636","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}