Cattle Herding and Crime Incidence Nexus: Case Study of the Sekyere Afram Plains District, Ghana

Cattle Herding and Crime Incidence Nexus: Case Study of the Sekyere Afram Plains District, Ghana | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Cattle Herding and Crime Incidence Nexus: Case Study of the Sekyere Afram Plains District, Ghana Yvonne Yemoh, Paul Osei-Tutu, Boateng Kyereh, Samuel Boadi, Prince Owusu, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8555280/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study examined the relationship between cattle herding and crime in the Sekyere Afram Plains District of Ghana by analyzing crime patterns over a nine-year period (2015–2023). Using a mixed-methods approach, the study collected primary data from farmers, herders, community members, victims of crime, and key informants across eight communities, complemented by secondary data from the Sekyere Afram Plains District Police Department. Quantitative analyses of crime records and qualitative insights from interviews and focus group discussions enabled a comprehensive understanding of herding-related criminal dynamics. The findings indicate that crop damage, assault, farmer–herder clashes, attempted murder, and robbery constituted the top five herding-related offenses. Seasonal influxes of nomadic herders during the dry season, combined with retaliatory actions by farmers responding to crop damage, were associated with spikes in certain criminal activities. Among the factors influencing aggressive behaviors, protection of cattle emerged as the most significant, supporting the theoretical lens of the Culture of Honor, which links herders’ defensive strategies to the perceived vulnerability of their livelihoods. The study also highlights that some Ghanaian media frequently portray both nomadic and sedentary herders as conflict instigators, creating a misconception that herding is inherently linked to crime. Policy recommendations include the need for evidence-based media reporting and strategies that differentiate between nomadic and sedentary herders, promote regulated herder movements, and strengthen local conflict prevention mechanisms. By empirically disentangling perception from practice, the study contributes to the broader discourse on pastoralism, rural security, and farmer–herder relations in Ghana and other African contexts. Farmer Herder Conflict Crime Robbery Nomadism Sekyere Afram Plains Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction Pastoralism, especially cattle herding, remains a critical livelihood system across Africa, Asia, Latin America, and parts of Europe, supporting millions of households while contributing significantly to food security and rural economies. In West Africa, Fulani pastoralists constitute one of the most prominent cattle-herding groups, historically relying on mobility and transhumance to adapt to climatic variability and pasture availability (Abbass, 2012 ; Bukari, 2017 ). However, increasing demographic pressure, agricultural expansion, environmental degradation, and climate change have intensified competition over land, water, and grazing resources, heightening tensions between herders and sedentary farming communities (Ahmed & Kuusaana, 2021 ; Ahmed, 2022 ; Boakye Gyan, 2021 ). Similar dynamics have been documented in East Africa, the Sahel, South Asia, and parts of Southern Europe, where shrinking pastoral corridors and weak land governance structures have transformed historically cooperative farmer–herder relations into sites of recurring conflict (Ahmed, 2022 ; Kassem & Yakubu, 2024 ; Onwumere et al., 2025 ). Across sub-Saharan Africa, farmer–herder conflicts have increasingly been framed not only as resource-use disputes but also as security challenges linked to crime, violence, and rural instability. In countries such as Nigeria, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, herder–farmer tensions have been associated with cattle rustling, armed robbery, sexual violence, kidnapping, and reprisal attacks, often occurring in fragile governance and conflict-prone settings (Gaye, 2018 ; Anthonia, 2022 ; Kassem & Yakubu, 2024 ). In Nigeria alone, cattle rustling and banditry have been shown to undermine rural economies, disrupt agricultural production, and exacerbate insecurity in both pastoral and farming communities (Anthonia, 2022 ; Kassem & Yakubu, 2024 ). Beyond Africa, narratives linking mobile pastoralism to crime and insecurity have emerged in Central Asia and parts of South America, where nomadic or semi-nomadic groups are frequently portrayed as security threats within dominant policy and media discourses (Dörre, 2016 ). Such dynamics highlight the importance of context-sensitive empirical analyses that that move beyond generalized assumptions. In Ghana, farmer–herder conflicts have become pronounced in districts such as Sekyere Afram Plains, Agogo, Gushiegu, and the Kwahu Afram Plains, where fertile agricultural lands coincide with seasonal cattle migration routes (Imoro, 2018 ; Otu et al., 2020 ; Derkyi & Gyamfi, 2024 ). Allegations of crimes including rape, armed robbery, crop destruction, arson, and assault are frequently attributed to Fulani herders, especially during peak dry-season movements (Ghana News Agency, 2010 ; Appiah-Boateng, 2020 ; Abubakari et al., 2024 ). Media narratives often reinforce these claims through sensational headlines that portray herders as homogenous perpetrators of violence, despite limited empirical verification (Shehu, 2017 ; Nwankwo et al., 2020 ). Studies have shown that such representations bring fear, ethnic stereotyping, and retaliatory violence, thereby deepening social divisions and undermining conflict resolution efforts (Bukari & Schareika, 2015 ; Imoro, 2018 ; Anthonia, 2022 ). Consequently, Fulani herders, both nomadic and sedentary are often collectively perceived as threats to human security, regardless of their actual involvement in criminal activities (Otu et al., 2020 ; Ahmed & Kuusaana, 2021 ). Despite the prominence of these narratives, there remains a significant empirical gap regarding longitudinal crime trends and their actual relationship with cattle herding in Ghana and much of sub-Saharan Africa. Existing studies largely rely on perception-based accounts, media reports, or isolated case studies, with limited use of official crime statistics capable of disentangling herding-related crimes from broader community-level criminality (Marfo et al., 2022 ; Ahmed, 2022 ; Derkyi & Gyamfi, 2024 ). This lack of robust evidence has constrained policy responses and perpetuated simplistic linkages between herding, ethnicity, and crime. To address this gap, this present study examines crime trends between 2015 and 2023 and empirically explores the relationship between cattle herding and crime incidence in the Sekyere Afram Plains District of Ghana. Specifically, the study seeks to answer two questions: (1)What is the relationship between cattle herding activities and crime incidence in the Sekyere Afram Plains District? (2)What factors contribute to the criminal behaviors perceived among nomadic herders in the district?. Through the integration of police crime data and qualitative insights from multiple stakeholder groups, the study contributes to wider national and international debates on pastoralism, rural security, and the governance of farmer–herder interactions. 2. Theoretical Framework This study explains the relationship between herding and crime incidence by adopting a theory developed by Nisbett (1993) and expanded upon by Nisbett and Cohen ( 1996 ) which posits that a Culture of Honor reflects an economically practical cultural adaptation that emerged in populations that heavily depended on animal herding. The Herding Culture-of-Honor Theory was used by Nisbett to explain violence in the southern part of U.S where for a long time, has been perceived as having higher levels of violence than the North. The South was established by herders, unlike the North, which was settled by farmers. He explained that herdsmen due to their susceptibility to losing their main source of income, their animals, tend to be quite aggressive and violent. They created their own system of order which was the rule of retaliation: “If you cross me, I will punish you”. As Nisbett & Cohen ( 1996 ) put it: “a stance of aggressiveness and willingness to kill is useful in announcing a herder’s determination to defend his animals (Nisbett & Cohen, 2018). The Culture of Honor described in this context emphasizes status, reputation, and power rather than moral character. Nisbett further argued that such cultures are most likely to emerge where central authority is weak and resources are scarce and easily appropriated. Under these conditions, herders assume the role of protectors and develop reputational strategies that signal readiness to respond forcefully to threats against their livestock, family, or property. Rather than assuming this framework as a universal explanation, this study applies the Culture of Honor theory as an analytical lens to assess whether livestock protection motives meaningfully explain observed patterns of aggression and crime among herders in the Sekyere Afram Plains District. Just like any other theory, the Culture of Honor theory has been criticized by other authors. Chu et al. ( 2000 ), for instance, challenged Nisbett’s conclusions by attributing higher levels of violence among herding populations in the southern United States to structural factors such as poverty, competition over shared resources, and methodological limitations in crime data. Their study of Nisbette’s theory also revealed unreliable crime rate estimates, artifacts of skewed distributions, and a failure to account for variations in the distribution of herders (Chu et al., 2000 ). Barber ( 2009 ) mentioned that scholars who employ Culture of Honor theory as the basis for associating cattle herding to increasing criminal activities have ignored the contradictory evidence pointed out by Chu et al. ( 2000 ). Gul et al. ( 2021 ) added that cultural logics of Honor are not clear-cut categories to define individuals or societies, but rather their tendencies to behave in particular ways. In response to these critiques, this study explicitly incorporates environmental scarcity, livelihood insecurity, and institutional weaknesses as alternative and complementary mechanisms alongside cultural explanations, rather than treating them as secondary observations. There has been a strong support for the Culture of Honor theory and it has been used to explain the relationship between cattle herding and crime incidences by scholar’s including Moritz ( 2008 ) and Cao et al. ( 2021 ), whose study showed a systematic links between traditional herding practices and a violence when Culture of Honor theory was applied to study the link between herding and conflicts using global evidence obtained across countries, ethnolinguistic groups and subnational regions. Drawing on both Nisbett’s theoretical propositions and Chu et al.’s critical insights, this study investigates herding-related crime in the Sekyere Afram Plains District by examining whether aggressive behaviors attributed to herders are primarily driven by livestock protection imperatives or by broader factors such as environmental pressure, economic marginalization, and governance gaps. This approach allows for a systematic assessment of competing explanations, thereby moving the analysis beyond confirmation toward theory refinement. 3. Material and Method 3.1 Study Area The study was conducted in eight (8) cattle herding dominated communities (Drobonso, Dagomba, James Town, Mamprusi II, Wenamda, Issakrom, Kamakama, Sampson) in the Sekyere Afram Plains District of Ghana (Fig. 1 ). The district is one of the 46 Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) in Ghana’s Ashanti Region, with Drobonso as its capital. It is situated in the northeastern part of Ashanti Region and lies between longitudes 6° 52' and 7° 32' west and latitudes 0° 20' and 1° 2' north (Ghana Statistical Service, 2021 ). The district covers an estimated land size of 24,389 square kilometers and has about 106 communities. Semi-deciduous forest and Transitional vegetation are the two distinct ecological zones in the area which makes the area suitable for agriculture. The area is endowed with fertile lands that sustain a variety of income crops including cocoa, oil palm, citrus, cashew, and mango as well as food crops like cassava, plantain, rice, yam, cocoyam, vegetables, and the raising of livestock (Ministry of Food and Agriculture [MOFA], 2020). Higher proportion of agricultural households in the district are engaged in crop farming (98.2%), followed by livestock rearing (52.7%) and tree crop planting (0.8%). Notable livestock reared in the District are goats, guinea fowl, chicken and cattle. There is a total of 5,316 cattle in the district and on the average, there are 63 cattle per keeper. Cattle are moved across farms and unfarmed lands in search for pasture Culture (MOFA, 2020). 3.2 Sampling Eight (8) communities within the Sekyere Afram Plains District were selected following an initial reconnaissance survey designed to map the spatial distribution of cattle herding activities and reported crime incidents. Communities were purposively chosen based on two key criteria: (i) documented or perceived high incidence of crime, and (ii) the sustained presence of both nomadic and sedentary cattle herders. This approach ensured that the study sites reflected contexts where interactions between herders and host communities were most pronounced, thereby maximizing the relevance of the data for examining the herding–crime nexus. The selection strategy also allowed for comparative insights across communities experiencing similar livelihood pressures but varying degrees of exposure to herding-related activities. Within the selected communities, respondents were recruited using a combination of purposive and snowball sampling techniques to capture diverse perspectives from key stakeholder groups, including farmers, cattle herders, community members, crime victims, and key informants such as traditional leaders and security personnel. A total of 112 respondents participated in the study. Sampling continued until theoretical saturation was achieved, that is, the point at which additional interviews yielded no substantively new themes or insights relevant to the study objectives. The attainment of saturation across multiple respondent categories enhanced the depth, credibility, and analytical robustness of the qualitative findings. 3.3 Data Collection Primary data were collected using semi-structured interviews complemented by focus group discussions (FGDs across the selected communities. Respondents comprised individual community members, farmers, cattle herders, and victims of crime, enabling the study to capture a wide range of lived experiences and perspectives on herding-related interactions and crime incidences. In addition, key informant interviews were conducted with police officers, traditional leaders (chiefs), opinion leaders, Unit Committee members, departmental heads of the District Assembly, and officers of the District Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA). Given the sensitivity of crime-related issues such as rape, robbery, and assault, key informant interviews were particularly suitable for eliciting information on both reported and unreported cases while ensuring confidentiality, anonymity, and informed consent. This approach also allowed for in-depth probing of responses and the interpretation of non-verbal cues, facilitating a deeper understanding of the underlying motivations and contextual factors shaping participants’ experiences (van Rompu, 2022 ). Focus group discussions consisting of six to eight participants were conducted to triangulate and validate information obtained from individual interviews and key informants. The FGDs were moderated by trained facilitators proficient in the local languages, with an assistant responsible for note-taking and audio recording. Discussions were held in open, trusted environments to encourage voluntary participation and candid dialogue without coercion. All viewpoints, including dissenting opinions, were documented to capture the diversity of perspectives within communities. This methodology enabled the exploration of group dynamics, shared knowledge, and community deliberations. Prior to the commencement of data collection, the research team engaged local leaders and traditional authorities to obtain permission and ensure community support. Ethical considerations were strictly observed throughout the research process. Participants were informed about the objectives of the study, assured of confidentiality and anonymity, and provided voluntary consent before participation. Secondary data on crime incidences covering a nine-year period (2015–2023) were obtained from official records of the Ghana Police Service in the Sekyere Afram Plains District. These records complemented the primary data and facilitated triangulation between reported crime statistics and qualitative accounts. Data collection was carried out between April and May 2023. 3.4 Data Analysis Qualitative and Quantitative analytical tools were employed in analysing primary and secondary data respectively. The audio recordings of the qualitative responses were transcribed. Transcribed data were analysed using content analysis to show patterns of emerging and recurrent themes related to the theory. Quantitative data on reported crime incidences was analysed using Kruskal–Wallis test and Mann-Whitney Test was employed to determine differences in means. T-test was used to show whether significant differences existed between herder related and non-herder related crimes. Quantitative data was subjected to a Chi squared(χ2) test (Ugoni & Walker, 1995 ) to determine the association between crime and cattle herding. Non-parametric tests were considered appropriate because the crime data were non-normally distributed, involved small and unequal sample sizes across crime categories, and consisted largely of count data, thereby violating the assumptions of parametric tests. The analysis further acknowledges limitations arising from small sample sizes within specific crime categories and potential underreporting biases inherent in police crime records. All statistical analyses were done using PAST version 3.0. The results were presented in tables and charts. 4. Results 4.1 Crime cases in the Sekyere Afram Plains District A total of 489 crime cases were recorded in the Sekyere Afram Plains District from 2015 to 2023 (Tables 1 & 2 ), with 196 (40.06%) cases relating to cattle herding (Table 1 ). Cases unrelated to herding accounted for the majority 293 (59.94%) of reported cases (Table 2 ). However, t-test revealed no significant (t = 0.58, P = 0.57) differences between herding (16.33 ± 6.47) and non-herding (24.42 ± 12.39) related crimes over the 9-year period. Herding related cases were classified as crop damage, assault, theft, armed robbery, rape and defilement, murder, attempted murder, farmer-herder clashes and animal cruelty. Kruskal–Wallis test ( H c = 27.28, P = 0.001) revealed that herder related crimes differed significantly (Fig. 2 ). Mann-Whitney Test revealed that crop damage (n = 74; M 8.22 ± SE 2.04) was significantly the highest herder related crime, followed by assault (n = 43; M 4.78 ± SE 1.55) which was statistically similar (P = 0.23). Theft (n = 26; M 2.89 ± SE 0.90 ). Farmer-herder clashes (n = 19; M 2.11 ± SE 1.02) and attempted murder (n = 14; M 1.56 ± SE 0.60) were statistically similar but contributed to the top five major reported herding-related offenses (Fig. 2 ). Rape and defilement (n = 2; M 0.22 ± SE 1.15) followed by, animal cruelty and murder which were same (n = 3; M 0.33 ± SE 0.17) in occurrence were the least significantly recorded crimes. The trends in terms of years revealed that the occurrences of herder related crimes did differ significantly ( H c = 10.59, P = 0.23; Kruskal–Wallis test) from 2015–2023 (Fig. 3 ). This highest crime occurrence was recorded in 2016 (n = 37; M 4.11 ± SE 1.36) and the least (n = 5; M 0.56 ± SE 1.36) recorded in 2015. Table 1 Statistics of herding related crimes in the Sekyere Afram plains from 2015–2023 Categories Year Total (%) 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 Theft 3 8 5 2 0 0 0 4 4 26 (13.27) Assault 0 5 10 2 3 14 6 3 0 43 (21.94) Crop Damage 1 12 7 8 9 0 12 20 5 74 (37.76) Attempted Murder 0 5 1 0 0 0 2 3 3 14 (7.14) Farmer-Herder Clashes 0 0 0 7 7 4 0 1 0 19 (9.69) Robbery 0 5 2 0 1 1 0 3 0 12 (6.12) Rape & Defilement 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 (1.02) Murder 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 3 (1.53) Animal Cruelty 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 3(1.53) Total (%) 5 (2.55) 37 (18.88) 25 (12.76) 21 (10.71) 21 (10.71) 19 (9.69) 20 (10.20) 36 (18.37) 12 (6.12) 196 Table 2 Statistics of Non-herding related crime cases in the Sekyere Afram plains from 2015–2023 Year 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 Total (%) Theft 14 15 11 12 5 2 19 16 21 115 39.25 Assault 1 24 12 15 12 16 7 20 9 116 39.59 Crop Damage 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 4 1.37 Attempted murder 1 4 1 3 0 0 3 4 2 18 6.14 Robbery 1 3 1 2 2 4 0 0 0 13 4.44 Rape & defilement 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 0 12 4.10 Murder 0 0 0 4 2 0 0 0 0 6 2.05 Illegal Fishing 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0.34 Arson 0 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 1 6 2.05 Abduction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0.68 Total 19 48 30 39 24 23 31 44 35 293 100.00 (%) (6.48) (16.38) (10.24) (13.31) (8.19) (7.85) (10.58) (15.02) (11.95) 4.2 Herding Related Cases Based on Quarterly trends Table 3 presents the quarterly trends of reported herding-related crimes in the Sekyere Afram Plains District over a nine-year period. Quarterly trends in crime figures did not differ significantly ( H c = 2.19, P = 0.53; Kruskal–Wallis test) from 2015–2023. The crime figures were highest from October - December (n = 76; M 8.44 ± SE 3.02) and least from April – June (n = 37; M 4.11 ± SE 1.53) (Fig. 4 ). Chi squared (χ2) test showed that there is a significant (χ2 = 37.93, df = 24, P = 0.04) association between period (quarter) of the year and occurrence of crime incidences. Assault (P = 0.00), crop damage (P = 0.00), farmer herder clashes (P = 0.03) and robbery (P = 0.03) were significantly influenced by the monthly periods during which these cases were dominant (Table 4 ). Contrastingly, attempted murder (P = 0.12), rape and defilement (P = 0.30), and murder (P = 0.50) cases revealed no significant relationship in the period or months of occurrence (Table 4 ). Table 3 Quarterly trends of reported herding related crimes in Sekyere Afram Plains over a 9-year period Months Categories January -March April -June July -September October -December Total % Theft 6 7 4 9 26 (13.27) Assault 4 11 14 14 43 (21.94) Crop Damage 21 10 14 29 74 (37.76) Attempted murder 3 7 2 2 14 (7.14) Farmer-Herder-Clashes 5 0 3 11 19 (9.69) Robbery 1 1 3 7 12 (6.12) Defilement and Rape 0 0 1 1 2 (1.02) Murder 0 1 0 2 3 (1.53) Animal Cruelty 2 0 0 1 3 (1.53) Total 42 37 41 76 196 (100.00) % (21.43) (18.88) (20.92) (38.78) (100.00) Table 4 Chi square analysis of quarterly reported herder related crime cases Categories Degrees of Freedom Significance Level Chi square value Theft 15 0.12 21.45 Assault 18 0.00*** 48.02 Crop Damage 21 0.00*** 97.32 Attempted murder 12 0.48 11.64 Farmer Herder Clashes 12 0.03* 22.78 Robbery 12 0.03* 22.86 Defilement and Rape 3 0.30 3.33 Murder 6 0.50 4.00 * & *** Significant at P ≤ 0.05 and P ≤ 0.001 respectively 4.3 Relationship between cattle herding and crime incidence 4.3.1 Herder groups in Sekyere Afram Plains Our findings revealed that herders in Sekyere Afram Plains District, were categorized into two groups based on ethnicity, movement patterns, main profession and residential status. The first is the “nomadic” Fulani cattle herders, who engage in occasional transhumant travel patterns from other parts of Ghana and possibly outside Ghana to Sekyere Afram Plains in search of pasture and water for their cattle; and the second category is the "sedentary" Fulani herders who have resided in their host communities for many years and or are employed by locals to take care of their cattle. The term ‘settler herders’ was used by respondents to describe sedentary herdsmen in the district. The nomadic Fulanis are basically cattle herders while the sedentary Fulanis are cattle herders and have adopted or diversified into crop farming and agropastoralism. This was explained by a respondent as follows: “We are all Fulani though, but we are very different from the nomads, while they come here annually with their cattle in search for food for their cattle, we grow crops to feed our cattle, we are farmers and also rear cattle, some of us no longer have cattle” (Sedentary Fulani Herder, Dagomba community). 4.3.2 Cattle herding and crime incidences Generally, our findings indicated that there is a link between crime and cattle herding in the district. Varied views from respondents could not attribute these crimes to one particular group. Three main groups were mentioned as the main instigators of crime in Sekyere Afram Plains: (i) only Fulani nomadic herders, (ii) both nomadic and sedentary Fulani herders and (iii) community members The influx of nomadic herders and their activities during the dry season (October and Match) was linked to increased crime incidents especially armed robbery, crop damage, and assaults in communities. It is important to note that these views reflect local perceptions of insecurity rather than verified facts. One respondents shared as follows: “Herders here are nomadics and others are settlers, it’s usually the nomadic ones that commit these acts of criminalities……. They are always roaming; they have got no settlement here” (Community Chief, Mamprusi). “These herders, especially those who come during the dry season upon arrival engage in robbery, murder, rape, and theft. They even steal from one another. These herders have also rendered individuals disabled, while the police do nothing” (Farmer, Wenamda community). “Fulani herders could become confrontational when individuals were seen as entering spaces the herders considered sensitive or reserved for their cattle”. ( Community leader, Kamakama). On the other hand, some respondents share the view that both nomadic and sedentary Fulani herders exhibit similar behavioural traits when it comes to their interactions with community members within the Sekyere Afram Plains District of Ghana. Expressions of respondents were captured as follows: “They are all the same, we have been living with some of them for years but even those people when they get the opportunity, they would want to harm you”. (Respondent, Dagomba community) “All herders, both those who live here and those who come here during the dry are inherently predisposed to criminality. The fact that they have lived here for long does not change who they are. Who you are is who you are, your environment cannot change that”. (Respondent, Dagomba community) Respondents also argued that most crimes, such as theft, rape, murder and farmer-herder clashes cannot be solely blamed on Fulani herders, and that local community members were behind a surge in such criminal activities. This is tandem with the higher percentage (59.94%) of non-herding related reported crimes (Table 2 ). “I don’t think herders are the main perpetrators of crime. From my long experience in this community, most offenses are carried out by local youths, particularly those who are unemployed, who may turn to crime as a means of livelihood” (Male respondent, Drobonso). Some sedentary herdsmen bemoaned why they (Fulani’s) are always associated with illegal activities. This was attributed to the remote location of cattle herding activities who trek long distances to find pasture and water for their animals. They also get attacked as expressed below: “There has been a couple of times where we have been attacked by indigenes, meanwhile, they see us as the people causing trouble here when in fact we are just here for our animals” (Nomadic Fulani) 4.4 Perceptions about Fulani herders as instigators of crimes in Sekyere Afram Plains We explored the potential factors that influence herders’ behaviour towards community members and tested the theoretical foundations of the work. It was found that herders exhibit physical and verbal aggressive behaviours toward community members that violate social boundaries. According to respondents, aggressive behaviours exhibited by Fulani herders were rooted in their history of pastoralism, environmental factors, protection of main source of livelihood, and the sense of entitlement. According to the respondents, the migratory history of the Fulani herders and the nature of their work influences their behaviour. In line with this, respondent comments corroborated by focus group discussions in Dagomba community is expressed as: “Fulani herders come from environments where survival requires constant vigilance and self-defence, and that these past experiences influence how they respond to situations in new communities”. From this perspective, tensions are seen as following them, although this reflects how community members interpret their behaviour rather than an inherent trait. Environmental factors relate to the seasonal shortage of pasture and access to water required to keep a herd of cattle in areas where Fulanis practice their herding activities. To sustain their livelihood, herdsmen wander from one location to another in search for resources in appropriate landscapes which also dotted with crop farming activities by local community members. The need to access and compete for space in such agropastoral landscape for survival makes them penchant for crime activities as pointed out by respondents. A fulani farmer and a former herder in Mamprusi revealed and emphasized that: “ for herders to secure access to an agropastoral landscape, there is a need to be ‘wild’ to be able to feed your cattle ”. “Sometimes you have to do what it takes to get what you want. The cattle you see roaming about here, when you lose one, it’s like you’ve lost an entire investment. You can’t watch them starve and the food you need for them too is not for you so sometimes you have to do whatever it takes to get them the food. When I first arrived here, I used to be a herder, but now I am a farmer, so I understand why the herders act the way they do, sometimes is not them, it’s just life”. Other respondents explained the situation as follows; “During the dry season when food is scarce, that’s when you will see them in the communities the most and during that time, they are usually aggressive to whoever tries to approach them especially women. Its fine if the cattle feed on grass only but it’s the food crops that always makes us retaliate and sometimes kill some of their cattle” (FGD, 29/04/23, Mamprusi Community). Security concerns in terms of real or perceived threat and the impending need, on the part of the Fulanis, to protect their source of livelihood (i.e. cattle) was noted to be a major trigger of aggression among the herders toward local community members. This was narrated as follows: “They are often armed with weapons to protect their cattle, when you try to harm their cattle, they will attack you. They sometimes seem to prioritize the safety of their livestock over human interactions.’ (Unit Committee member, Drobonso). ‘Every Friday, they gather here to pray after which they sit around converse with each other and go back to their various dwelling. How they behave when they are with their cattle is so different from how they act without their cattle’ (Community member, Drobonso). “I suspect the herders act under the influence of drugs in their bid to protect their herd of cattle” (A Police officer, Sekyere Afram Plains). It was also noted that, herders who have settled in host communities or frequently shuttle between communities for a period of time develop a sense of entitlement which makes them feel equally entitled to land and other resources in the communities. For instance, a Fulani sedentary herder revealed that, some of them migrated to the area with their families to look for opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Some have stayed in the area for several years, learned the native language and feel like they belong there. It was also revealed that some of the sedentary Fulani’s have established permanent settlements, married indigenes. The sense to overcome barriers that hinder Fulani herders and their cattle from these perceived privileges by indigenes, has the tendency to result in aggressive behaviours. This was explained by some respondents as: “Why won’t these people feel they belong here when they have access to land allocated to them by the chiefs. The chief and queen of Drobonso, the Kumawu chief and some notable people in the society have their cattle with them, they want them here so these herders feel like they belong which makes them act violently when you don’t allow their cattle to feed on your produce or drink from the same river you also depend on” (Opinion leader, Sampson community). “The Kumawumanhene is very much aware of the Fulani's presence here. They will allocate a piece of land for you to farm and later give out that same land to the Fulanis to come and settle. They will destroy your crops and at the end of the day you will have nowhere to farm” (Farmer, Drobonso ). 5. Discussions 5.1 Relationship between cattle herding and crime incidences This study identified two (2) groups of Fulani herders (Nomadic and Sedentary) in the Sekyere Afram Plains District. Despite being diverse in terms of residence status and cattle herding practices, these groups have received homogeneous treatment. Similar observation was made by Setrana et al. ( 2022 ) who asserted that, Ghana’s treatment of nomadic and sedentary herders creates the impression that they are homogenous. The Culture of Honor theory helps explain why nomadic herders’ mobility and perceived vulnerability of livelihood might predispose them to aggressive defense behaviors, whereas sedentary herders, with established social ties, display restraint. This helps to link observed behaviors to adaptive cultural norms rather than ethnicity per se, providing a basis for interpreting differential crime patterns. Cattle herding related crimes in Sekyere Afram Plains was majorly associated with the nomadic herders who travel to the district at the peak of the dry season (October to March). Nomadic herdsmen, according to Otu et al. ( 2020 ) have relied on seasonal and climatic variations in arid, semi-arid, and sub humid regions, and rainfall patterns in West Africa for survival and feeding of their livestock. Conversely, some sedentary herders engage in other forms of livelihood activities aside herding, speak the local dialect, and marry members of the community as a way of integrating their families into the local communities. According to Setrana ( 2021 ), Fulani herders who are sedentary create their own sense of citizenship by their use of language, access to land, education, marriage, and livelihood. They learn the local rules and codes of conduct and abide by them in order to coexist peacefully with the local people. This distinction illustrates how integration and repeated social interactions with host communities reinforce norms of cooperation and reduce aggression. A large percentage of respondents characterized sedentary herders as peaceful individuals who hardly engage in criminal activities. This posture of the sedentary herders to live and conduct their business in line with the behavioural expectations of their host communities has been found to be a vital prerequisite for peaceful coexistence between migrants and host communities (Llorent, 2012 ). In the study, crime was linked to the actions of nomadic herders as revealed from both secondary and primary data. Because they are mostly on the move, they hardly have time to acquaint themselves with the behavioural expectations in the various communities they move through. This aligns with the Culture of Honor theory, which posits that individuals who perceive their livelihoods as more vulnerable are more likely to respond aggressively to perceived threats. Because nomadic herders are mostly on the move, they have limited time to acquaint themselves with the behavioral expectations in the various communities they pass through and have less motivation to adapt their herding practices for peaceful coexistence. They move on whether there is conflict with the host community or not, which reduces the incentives for building social ties that mitigate violent responses. The lack of familiarity and personal relationships with host communities also places nomadic herders in a defensive position in which they may resort to violence to protect their interests during confrontations. In such situations, people are generally more likely to hurt those they do not know or have no prior relationship with. Familiarity and prior relations can enable measured responses from both herders and host communities when conflicts arise (Selman et al., 1992 ). Thus, the alignment with studies such as Bukari & Schareika ( 2015 ) can be understood contextually. In Ghana, the social and institutional disconnect between nomadic herders and host communities amplifies perceived threat and misrepresentation in the media, rather than reflecting an inherent propensity for crime. The activities of the nomads in the study area have created a misconception that, herding is a front to criminal activities. Pastoralists have generally been accused of rape, theft and other social vices which usually contribute to the conflict situation in the area according to Bonye et al. ( 2021 ). The Ghanaian media contributes to this misconception by portraying all herders as a homogenous group when reporting cases on the conflict and when broad statements are made. Similar observations were made in earlier studies conducted by Bukari & Schareika ( 2015 ) who asserted that Ghanaian media drum on the claim that, herders in general are conflict instigators. According to Bukari & Schareika ( 2015 ), in media discourse, simply naming Fulani by their ethnic group name clearly illustrates ethnic labelling and the social categorization put on all Fulani that blame the Fulani as a whole group. Theoretical insight from social labeling and stigma literature suggests that repeated ethnic and occupational labeling can reinforce public misperceptions, explaining why media narratives diverge from actual crime patterns observed in this study. In the study, inaccurate news reporting is a result of the utilization of unreliable information sources and the seldom conduct of adequate investigation to provide a true account of the crime. It was also made clear that news is reported in a manner that will attract attention. A study conducted on the role of the media discourse of the conflict in Nigeria by Nwankwo et al. ( 2020 ) revealed that the link between the newspapers’ representation of the Fulani’s and the strategies they proposed for curbing the dispute is weak. Further, it argues that developing a sustainable strategy for the resolution of the crisis requires among other things, a national dialogue. A major threat to society as mentioned by Gever & Essien ( 2019 ) is an unprofessional reportage of conflicts, as stated in their words,’ is as deadly as poisoned meal, it can kill’ . The findings from the study also conforms to that of study by Bukari & Schareika ( 2015 ) who asserted that a major prejudice in the general Ghanaian society is that all Fulani herders are seen to be armed robbers or accomplices of robberies. Associating pastoralism with nomadism alone may result in premature inferences about the connection between herding and crime. Although the study identified an association between crime and the activities of nomadic herders, there was no substantial evidence that herding activities in general increased crime incidences in the study district. From the analysis of secondary data collected from the Sekyere Afram Plains Police Station, it was revealed that majority of reported crime incidences were not related to herding and were not perpetrated by herders. Thus, although certain herding-related activities coincide with particular offenses, the broader practice of cattle herding should not be viewed as a major contributor to overall crime in the Sekyere Afram Plains District. 5.2 Factors that explain criminal behavior of nomadic herders In the Culture of Honor theory, Nisbett and Cohen ( 1996 ) explained that, herdsmen due to their susceptibility to losing their animals, tend to demonstrate aggressive and violent behaviors. Protection of cattle was mentioned in the study has the most significant factor that causes aggressive behaviors in herders. This factor reflects the culture of honor theory that underpin this study. The findings align with a study conducted by Okeke ( 2014 ) on conflicts between Fulani herders and farming communities in Nigeria which revealed that herders wage attacks on farming communities when cattle are harmed. Paalo ( 2021 ) also argues that one of the main reasons herders are perceived as being hostile is because they place a great value on their animals and would engage in retaliatory assaults against farmers when their cattle are harmed. Another factor not mentioned in the theory but identified in the study was environmental factors. This factor was mentioned by Chu et al. ( 2000 ) has another major factor that translates to how herders behave. In their study of Nisbett’s theory, Chu attributed the higher levels of violence by herders to the competition over scarce environmental resources. Sehou ( 2022 ) attributed aggressive behaviour by herders to environmental factors, stating that since pastoral landscapes have become deserts as a result of climate change and environmental degradation, herders must migrate to areas with favourable conditions in order to find food for their cattle, forcing them to compete with non-herders for access to resources. Historical reasons and the need to fight for belonging were identified to be additional factors that explain criminal activities on the part of the cattle herders. This observation concurs with an assertion by Dimelu et al. ( 2017 ) that the herdsmen's propensity for violence may possibly be a result of their traditional lifestyles as pastoralists. Herders develop a sense of belonging which makes them feel equally entitled to land and other resources in the community, when these perceived privileges are hindered by indigenes, herders tend to demonstrate aggressive behaviors. In addition to the laid out factors, Baaz & Stern ( 2009 ) put out a theory that could help explain why Nomadic herders assault women and girls in bushes. In their study, Baaz & Stern ( 2009 ) investigated the justifications offered by soldiers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo for the widespread rapes committed by the armed forces during peace keeping missions. The soldiers argued that an adult male is unable to remain for an extended period of time without sex and that it is "somewhat inevitable" that a man who is denied sex will eventually be compelled to sexually assault a woman to release his sexual tension. These dynamics suggest that prolonged separation from family life, combined with weak social regulation, mobility, and limited accountability in remote pastoral settings, may increase the risk of sexual violence. Such acts should not be understood as inevitable outcomes of mobility, but rather as manifestations of structural vulnerability, power asymmetries, and the absence of effective deterrence mechanisms in isolated landscapes. Saminu et al. ( 2023 ) also explained nomadic herders' robbery behaviors in their study, "Bandits' Struggle for life and its Humanitarian Impacts in Zamfara State, Nigeria," pointing out that nomads who are on the verge of impoverishment due to loss of their cattle resort to robbery and theft as a way of subsistence. The bulk of the crimes perpetrated by Fulani herders, according to research by Chinwokwu ( 2016 ), "are hinged upon struggle for economic space and survival." 6. Conclusion The study explored the relation between cattle herding and crime incidence in the Sekyere Afram Plains District. The statistical analyses indicated that, the most recorded herding-related offenses were crop damage, assault, and theft. The number of herding related crime cases that were reported peaked between the months of October to March, the same period for nomadic cattle herding in the district suggesting an association between criminal activities in the district and nomadism. The findings also show that cattle herding was not the primary contributor to overall crime incidence in the district, given that most reported crimes were unrelated to herding. However, the observed seasonal and categorical variations suggest that certain herding-related activities may influence specific forms of crime during particular periods. The notion that herding is directly linked to rising crime is partly due to the media's portrayal of all herders (both nomadic and sedentary herders) as conflict instigators when reporting on conflict incidents involving herders. Reasons that explain the violent behaviours of nomadic herders include historical reasons, environmental reasons, protection of livelihoods, and the need to fight for belonging. Protection of cattle was identified as the most predominate factor as demonstrated in the culture of honour theory. The findings suggest the need for policies that register herders, regulate seasonal movements, and strengthen conflict prevention and law enforcement during peak periods. Law enforcement and community-based monitoring mechanisms should be strengthened during high-risk periods (October to March) to reduce the potential for herding-related offenses. Future research could track longitudinal trends in both herding- and non-herding-related crime and examine dispute resolution outcomes. This study contributes to the global discourse on pastoralism and rural security by showing that herding is not inherently criminal but interacts with environmental and institutional factors. Other African countries, such as Nigeria, Mali, and Burkina Faso, can draw lessons on evidence-based policy and community engagement to reduce conflicts. Integrating mobility regulation with sustainable livelihood support can promote peaceful farmer–herder coexistence. Declarations Acknowledgement This work was supported by the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) Fellowship Centre under the Access - Authority Nexus in Farmer-Herder Conflicts (AAN) Project. This support facilitated the execution of the research outlined in this manuscript. Declaration of interests The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Data Availability The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. Funding Declaration The research received funding support from the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) Fellowship Centre through the Access–Authority Nexus in Farmer–Herder Conflicts (AAN) Project. Human Ethics and Consent to Participate Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana. Participation in the study was entirely voluntary, and all respondents were adequately informed about the purpose of the research prior to data collection. 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10:28:14","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":38792,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMean occurrence of herder related crimes in the Sekyere Afram Plains District of Ghana\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8555280/v1/ff6a90386db8a9b9fdeef113.png"},{"id":106311095,"identity":"0c552b4a-25b7-4ec3-ad0c-6e62552a1cda","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 10:28:14","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25633,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMean yearly occurrence of herder related crimes in the in the Sekyere Afram Plains District of Ghana\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8555280/v1/0438aa1b2d3fcc3fa563b980.png"},{"id":106310985,"identity":"9804c7c5-c427-4052-8cd1-eebe804c9488","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 10:27:50","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":25515,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMean number of quarterly reported crimes in the Sekyere Afram Plains over period of 9 years\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8555280/v1/93fb359ac248b0f3d9e92f0a.png"},{"id":106311198,"identity":"068481ee-4f5e-4fbf-9afe-d307485ecf0a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 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Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePastoralism, especially cattle herding, remains a critical livelihood system across Africa, Asia, Latin America, and parts of Europe, supporting millions of households while contributing significantly to food security and rural economies. In West Africa, Fulani pastoralists constitute one of the most prominent cattle-herding groups, historically relying on mobility and transhumance to adapt to climatic variability and pasture availability (Abbass, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Bukari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). However, increasing demographic pressure, agricultural expansion, environmental degradation, and climate change have intensified competition over land, water, and grazing resources, heightening tensions between herders and sedentary farming communities (Ahmed \u0026amp; Kuusaana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Ahmed, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Boakye Gyan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Similar dynamics have been documented in East Africa, the Sahel, South Asia, and parts of Southern Europe, where shrinking pastoral corridors and weak land governance structures have transformed historically cooperative farmer\u0026ndash;herder relations into sites of recurring conflict (Ahmed, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kassem \u0026amp; Yakubu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Onwumere et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcross sub-Saharan Africa, farmer\u0026ndash;herder conflicts have increasingly been framed not only as resource-use disputes but also as security challenges linked to crime, violence, and rural instability. In countries such as Nigeria, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, herder\u0026ndash;farmer tensions have been associated with cattle rustling, armed robbery, sexual violence, kidnapping, and reprisal attacks, often occurring in fragile governance and conflict-prone settings (Gaye, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Anthonia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kassem \u0026amp; Yakubu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). In Nigeria alone, cattle rustling and banditry have been shown to undermine rural economies, disrupt agricultural production, and exacerbate insecurity in both pastoral and farming communities (Anthonia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kassem \u0026amp; Yakubu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Beyond Africa, narratives linking mobile pastoralism to crime and insecurity have emerged in Central Asia and parts of South America, where nomadic or semi-nomadic groups are frequently portrayed as security threats within dominant policy and media discourses (D\u0026ouml;rre, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Such dynamics highlight the importance of context-sensitive empirical analyses that that move beyond generalized assumptions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Ghana, farmer\u0026ndash;herder conflicts have become pronounced in districts such as Sekyere Afram Plains, Agogo, Gushiegu, and the Kwahu Afram Plains, where fertile agricultural lands coincide with seasonal cattle migration routes (Imoro, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Otu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Derkyi \u0026amp; Gyamfi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Allegations of crimes including rape, armed robbery, crop destruction, arson, and assault are frequently attributed to Fulani herders, especially during peak dry-season movements (Ghana News Agency, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Appiah-Boateng, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Abubakari et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Media narratives often reinforce these claims through sensational headlines that portray herders as homogenous perpetrators of violence, despite limited empirical verification (Shehu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Nwankwo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Studies have shown that such representations bring fear, ethnic stereotyping, and retaliatory violence, thereby deepening social divisions and undermining conflict resolution efforts (Bukari \u0026amp; Schareika, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Imoro, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Anthonia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, Fulani herders, both nomadic and sedentary are often collectively perceived as threats to human security, regardless of their actual involvement in criminal activities (Otu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Ahmed \u0026amp; Kuusaana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the prominence of these narratives, there remains a significant empirical gap regarding longitudinal crime trends and their actual relationship with cattle herding in Ghana and much of sub-Saharan Africa. Existing studies largely rely on perception-based accounts, media reports, or isolated case studies, with limited use of official crime statistics capable of disentangling herding-related crimes from broader community-level criminality (Marfo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Ahmed, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Derkyi \u0026amp; Gyamfi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This lack of robust evidence has constrained policy responses and perpetuated simplistic linkages between herding, ethnicity, and crime. To address this gap, this present study examines crime trends between 2015 and 2023 and empirically explores the relationship between cattle herding and crime incidence in the Sekyere Afram Plains District of Ghana. Specifically, the study seeks to answer two questions: (1)What is the relationship between cattle herding activities and crime incidence in the Sekyere Afram Plains District? (2)What factors contribute to the criminal behaviors perceived among nomadic herders in the district?. Through the integration of police crime data and qualitative insights from multiple stakeholder groups, the study contributes to wider national and international debates on pastoralism, rural security, and the governance of farmer\u0026ndash;herder interactions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Theoretical Framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explains the relationship between herding and crime incidence by adopting a theory developed by Nisbett (1993) and expanded upon by Nisbett and Cohen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) which posits that a Culture of Honor reflects an economically practical cultural adaptation that emerged in populations that heavily depended on animal herding. The Herding Culture-of-Honor Theory was used by Nisbett to explain violence in the southern part of U.S where for a long time, has been perceived as having higher levels of violence than the North. The South was established by herders, unlike the North, which was settled by farmers. He explained that herdsmen due to their susceptibility to losing their main source of income, their animals, tend to be quite aggressive and violent. They created their own system of order which was the rule of retaliation: \u0026ldquo;If you cross me, I will punish you\u0026rdquo;. As Nisbett \u0026amp; Cohen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) put it: \u0026ldquo;a stance of aggressiveness and willingness to kill is useful in announcing a herder\u0026rsquo;s determination to defend his animals (Nisbett \u0026amp; Cohen, 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Culture of Honor described in this context emphasizes status, reputation, and power rather than moral character. Nisbett further argued that such cultures are most likely to emerge where central authority is weak and resources are scarce and easily appropriated. Under these conditions, herders assume the role of protectors and develop reputational strategies that signal readiness to respond forcefully to threats against their livestock, family, or property. Rather than assuming this framework as a universal explanation, this study applies the Culture of Honor theory as an analytical lens to assess whether livestock protection motives meaningfully explain observed patterns of aggression and crime among herders in the Sekyere Afram Plains District.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJust like any other theory, the Culture of Honor theory has been criticized by other authors. Chu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), for instance, challenged Nisbett\u0026rsquo;s conclusions by attributing higher levels of violence among herding populations in the southern United States to structural factors such as poverty, competition over shared resources, and methodological limitations in crime data. Their study of Nisbette\u0026rsquo;s theory also revealed unreliable crime rate estimates, artifacts of skewed distributions, and a failure to account for variations in the distribution of herders (Chu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Barber (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) mentioned that scholars who employ Culture of Honor theory as the basis for associating cattle herding to increasing criminal activities have ignored the contradictory evidence pointed out by Chu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Gul et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) added that cultural logics of Honor are not clear-cut categories to define individuals or societies, but rather their tendencies to behave in particular ways. In response to these critiques, this study explicitly incorporates environmental scarcity, livelihood insecurity, and institutional weaknesses as alternative and complementary mechanisms alongside cultural explanations, rather than treating them as secondary observations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere has been a strong support for the Culture of Honor theory and it has been used to explain the relationship between cattle herding and crime incidences by scholar\u0026rsquo;s including Moritz (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) and Cao et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), whose study showed a systematic links between traditional herding practices and a violence when Culture of Honor theory was applied to study the link between herding and conflicts using global evidence obtained across countries, ethnolinguistic groups and subnational regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrawing on both Nisbett\u0026rsquo;s theoretical propositions and Chu et al.\u0026rsquo;s critical insights, this study investigates herding-related crime in the Sekyere Afram Plains District by examining whether aggressive behaviors attributed to herders are primarily driven by livestock protection imperatives or by broader factors such as environmental pressure, economic marginalization, and governance gaps. This approach allows for a systematic assessment of competing explanations, thereby moving the analysis beyond confirmation toward theory refinement.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Material and Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Study Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in eight (8) cattle herding dominated communities (Drobonso, Dagomba, James Town, Mamprusi II, Wenamda, Issakrom, Kamakama, Sampson) in the Sekyere Afram Plains District of Ghana (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The district is one of the 46 Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) in Ghana\u0026rsquo;s Ashanti Region, with Drobonso as its capital. It is situated in the northeastern part of Ashanti Region and lies between longitudes 6\u0026deg; 52' and 7\u0026deg; 32' west and latitudes 0\u0026deg; 20' and 1\u0026deg; 2' north (Ghana Statistical Service, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The district covers an estimated land size of 24,389 square kilometers and has about 106 communities. Semi-deciduous forest and Transitional vegetation are the two distinct ecological zones in the area which makes the area suitable for agriculture. The area is endowed with fertile lands that sustain a variety of income crops including cocoa, oil palm, citrus, cashew, and mango as well as food crops like cassava, plantain, rice, yam, cocoyam, vegetables, and the raising of livestock (Ministry of Food and Agriculture [MOFA], 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher proportion of agricultural households in the district are engaged in crop farming (98.2%), followed by livestock rearing (52.7%) and tree crop planting (0.8%). Notable livestock reared in the District are goats, guinea fowl, chicken and cattle. There is a total of 5,316 cattle in the district and on the average, there are 63 cattle per keeper. Cattle are moved across farms and unfarmed lands in search for pasture Culture (MOFA, 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Sampling\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEight (8) communities within the Sekyere Afram Plains District were selected following an initial reconnaissance survey designed to map the spatial distribution of cattle herding activities and reported crime incidents. Communities were purposively chosen based on two key criteria: (i) documented or perceived high incidence of crime, and (ii) the sustained presence of both nomadic and sedentary cattle herders. This approach ensured that the study sites reflected contexts where interactions between herders and host communities were most pronounced, thereby maximizing the relevance of the data for examining the herding\u0026ndash;crime nexus. The selection strategy also allowed for comparative insights across communities experiencing similar livelihood pressures but varying degrees of exposure to herding-related activities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithin the selected communities, respondents were recruited using a combination of purposive and snowball sampling techniques to capture diverse perspectives from key stakeholder groups, including farmers, cattle herders, community members, crime victims, and key informants such as traditional leaders and security personnel. A total of 112 respondents participated in the study. Sampling continued until theoretical saturation was achieved, that is, the point at which additional interviews yielded no substantively new themes or insights relevant to the study objectives. The attainment of saturation across multiple respondent categories enhanced the depth, credibility, and analytical robustness of the qualitative findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Data Collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimary data were collected using semi-structured interviews complemented by focus group discussions (FGDs across the selected communities. Respondents comprised individual community members, farmers, cattle herders, and victims of crime, enabling the study to capture a wide range of lived experiences and perspectives on herding-related interactions and crime incidences. In addition, key informant interviews were conducted with police officers, traditional leaders (chiefs), opinion leaders, Unit Committee members, departmental heads of the District Assembly, and officers of the District Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA). Given the sensitivity of crime-related issues such as rape, robbery, and assault, key informant interviews were particularly suitable for eliciting information on both reported and unreported cases while ensuring confidentiality, anonymity, and informed consent. This approach also allowed for in-depth probing of responses and the interpretation of non-verbal cues, facilitating a deeper understanding of the underlying motivations and contextual factors shaping participants\u0026rsquo; experiences (van Rompu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Focus group discussions consisting of six to eight participants were conducted to triangulate and validate information obtained from individual interviews and key informants. The FGDs were moderated by trained facilitators proficient in the local languages, with an assistant responsible for note-taking and audio recording. Discussions were held in open, trusted environments to encourage voluntary participation and candid dialogue without coercion. All viewpoints, including dissenting opinions, were documented to capture the diversity of perspectives within communities. This methodology enabled the exploration of group dynamics, shared knowledge, and community deliberations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior to the commencement of data collection, the research team engaged local leaders and traditional authorities to obtain permission and ensure community support. Ethical considerations were strictly observed throughout the research process. Participants were informed about the objectives of the study, assured of confidentiality and anonymity, and provided voluntary consent before participation. Secondary data on crime incidences covering a nine-year period (2015\u0026ndash;2023) were obtained from official records of the Ghana Police Service in the Sekyere Afram Plains District. These records complemented the primary data and facilitated triangulation between reported crime statistics and qualitative accounts. Data collection was carried out between April and May 2023.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative and Quantitative analytical tools were employed in analysing primary and secondary data respectively. The audio recordings of the qualitative responses were transcribed. Transcribed data were analysed using content analysis to show patterns of emerging and recurrent themes related to the theory. Quantitative data on reported crime incidences was analysed using Kruskal\u0026ndash;Wallis test and Mann-Whitney Test was employed to determine differences in means. T-test was used to show whether significant differences existed between herder related and non-herder related crimes. Quantitative data was subjected to a Chi squared(χ2) test (Ugoni \u0026amp; Walker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) to determine the association between crime and cattle herding. Non-parametric tests were considered appropriate because the crime data were non-normally distributed, involved small and unequal sample sizes across crime categories, and consisted largely of count data, thereby violating the assumptions of parametric tests. The analysis further acknowledges limitations arising from small sample sizes within specific crime categories and potential underreporting biases inherent in police crime records. All statistical analyses were done using PAST version 3.0. The results were presented in tables and charts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Crime cases in the Sekyere Afram Plains District\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 489 crime cases were recorded in the Sekyere Afram Plains District from 2015 to 2023 (Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; \u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), with 196 (40.06%) cases relating to cattle herding (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Cases unrelated to herding accounted for the majority 293 (59.94%) of reported cases (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). However, t-test revealed no significant (t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.58, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.57) differences between herding (16.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.47) and non-herding (24.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.39) related crimes over the 9-year period. Herding related cases were classified as crop damage, assault, theft, armed robbery, rape and defilement, murder, attempted murder, farmer-herder clashes and animal cruelty. Kruskal\u0026ndash;Wallis test (\u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 27.28, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001) revealed that herder related crimes differed significantly (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Mann-Whitney Test revealed that crop damage (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;74; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e 8.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e 2.04) was significantly the highest herder related crime, followed by assault (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;43; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e 4.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e 1.55) which was statistically similar (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.23). Theft (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e 2.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e 0.90 ). Farmer-herder clashes (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e 2.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e 1.02) and attempted murder (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e 1.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e 0.60) were statistically similar but contributed to the top five major reported herding-related offenses (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Rape and defilement (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e 0.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e 1.15) followed by, animal cruelty and murder which were same (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e 0.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e 0.17) in occurrence were the least significantly recorded crimes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe trends in terms of years revealed that the occurrences of herder related crimes did differ significantly (\u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 10.59, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.23; Kruskal\u0026ndash;Wallis test) from 2015\u0026ndash;2023 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This highest crime occurrence was recorded in 2016 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e 4.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e 1.36) and the least (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e 0.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e 1.36) recorded in 2015.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistics of herding related crimes in the Sekyere Afram plains from 2015\u0026ndash;2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategories\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2015\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2016\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheft\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26 (13.27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssault\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43 (21.94)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop Damage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74 (37.76)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttempted Murder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 (7.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarmer-Herder Clashes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 (9.69)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRobbery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 (6.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRape \u0026amp; Defilement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 (1.02)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMurder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3 (1.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnimal Cruelty\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3(1.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2.55)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(18.88)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(12.76)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(10.71)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(10.71)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(9.69)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(10.20)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(18.37)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(6.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e196\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStatistics of Non-herding related crime cases in the Sekyere Afram plains from 2015\u0026ndash;2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"9\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2015\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2016\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2017\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2018\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2019\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2020\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2021\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2022\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2023\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheft\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssault\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop Damage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttempted murder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRobbery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRape \u0026amp; defilement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMurder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIllegal Fishing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArson\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbduction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e293\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(6.48)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(16.38)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(10.24)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(13.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(8.19)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(7.85)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(10.58)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(15.02)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(11.95)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Herding Related Cases Based on Quarterly trends\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents the quarterly trends of reported herding-related crimes in the Sekyere Afram Plains District over a nine-year period. Quarterly trends in crime figures did not differ significantly (\u003cem\u003eH\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ec\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e = 2.19, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.53; Kruskal\u0026ndash;Wallis test) from 2015\u0026ndash;2023. The crime figures were highest from October - December (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;76; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e 8.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e 3.02) and least from April \u0026ndash; June (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e 4.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003eSE\u003c/em\u003e 1.53) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Chi squared (χ2) test showed that there is a significant (χ2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37.93, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.04) association between period (quarter) of the year and occurrence of crime incidences. Assault (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.00), crop damage (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.00), farmer herder clashes (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.03) and robbery (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.03) were significantly influenced by the monthly periods during which these cases were dominant (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Contrastingly, attempted murder (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.12), rape and defilement (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.30), and murder (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.50) cases revealed no significant relationship in the period or months of occurrence (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuarterly trends of reported herding related crimes in Sekyere Afram Plains over a 9-year period\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMonths\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategories\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJanuary -March\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApril -June\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJuly -September\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOctober -December\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheft\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(13.27)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssault\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(21.94)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop Damage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(37.76)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttempted murder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(7.14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarmer-Herder-Clashes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(9.69)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRobbery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(6.12)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDefilement and Rape\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.02)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMurder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnimal Cruelty\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(1.53)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e196\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(100.00)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(21.43)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(18.88)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(20.92)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(38.78)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(100.00)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChi square analysis of quarterly reported herder related crime cases\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategories\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDegrees of Freedom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificance Level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChi square value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheft\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssault\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrop Damage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAttempted murder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarmer Herder Clashes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRobbery\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDefilement and Rape\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMurder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e* \u0026amp; *** Significant at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.05 and P\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;0.001 respectively\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Relationship between cattle herding and crime incidence\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3.1 Herder groups in Sekyere Afram Plains\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings revealed that herders in Sekyere Afram Plains District, were categorized into two groups based on ethnicity, movement patterns, main profession and residential status. The first is the \u0026ldquo;nomadic\u0026rdquo; Fulani cattle herders, who engage in occasional transhumant travel patterns from other parts of Ghana and possibly outside Ghana to Sekyere Afram Plains in search of pasture and water for their cattle; and the second category is the \"sedentary\" Fulani herders who have resided in their host communities for many years and or are employed by locals to take care of their cattle. The term \u0026lsquo;settler herders\u0026rsquo; was used by respondents to describe sedentary herdsmen in the district. The nomadic Fulanis are basically cattle herders while the sedentary Fulanis are cattle herders and have adopted or diversified into crop farming and agropastoralism. This was explained by a respondent as follows:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We are all Fulani though, but we are very different from the nomads, while they come here annually with their cattle in search for food for their cattle, we grow crops to feed our cattle, we are farmers and also rear cattle, some of us no longer have cattle\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (Sedentary Fulani Herder, Dagomba community).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3.2 Cattle herding and crime incidences\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGenerally, our findings indicated that there is a link between crime and cattle herding in the district. Varied views from respondents could not attribute these crimes to one particular group. Three main groups were mentioned as the main instigators of crime in Sekyere Afram Plains: (i) only Fulani nomadic herders, (ii) both nomadic and sedentary Fulani herders and (iii) community members\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe influx of nomadic herders and their activities during the dry season (October and Match) was linked to increased crime incidents especially armed robbery, crop damage, and assaults in communities. It is important to note that these views reflect local perceptions of insecurity rather than verified facts. One respondents shared as follows:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Herders here are nomadics and others are settlers, it\u0026rsquo;s usually the nomadic ones that commit these acts of criminalities\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;. They are always roaming; they have got no settlement here\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (Community Chief, Mamprusi).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;These herders, especially those who come during the dry season upon arrival engage in robbery, murder, rape, and theft. They even steal from one another. These herders have also rendered individuals disabled, while the police do nothing\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (Farmer, Wenamda community).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Fulani herders could become confrontational when individuals were seen as entering spaces the herders considered sensitive or reserved for their cattle\u0026rdquo;. (\u003c/em\u003eCommunity leader, Kamakama).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, some respondents share the view that both nomadic and sedentary Fulani herders exhibit similar behavioural traits when it comes to their interactions with community members within the Sekyere Afram Plains District of Ghana. Expressions of respondents were captured as follows:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;They are all the same, we have been living with some of them for years but even those people when they get the opportunity, they would want to harm you\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e (Respondent, Dagomba community)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;All herders, both those who live here and those who come here during the dry are inherently predisposed to criminality. The fact that they have lived here for long does not change who they are. Who you are is who you are, your environment cannot change that\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e (Respondent, Dagomba community)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespondents also argued that most crimes, such as theft, rape, murder and farmer-herder clashes cannot be solely blamed on Fulani herders, and that local community members were behind a surge in such criminal activities. This is tandem with the higher percentage (59.94%) of non-herding related reported crimes (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I don\u0026rsquo;t think herders are the main perpetrators of crime. From my long experience in this community, most offenses are carried out by local youths, particularly those who are unemployed, who may turn to crime as a means of livelihood\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (Male respondent, Drobonso).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome sedentary herdsmen bemoaned why they (Fulani\u0026rsquo;s) are always associated with illegal activities. This was attributed to the remote location of cattle herding activities who trek long distances to find pasture and water for their animals. They also get attacked as expressed below:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;There has been a couple of times where we have been attacked by indigenes, meanwhile, they see us as the people causing trouble here when in fact we are just here for our animals\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (Nomadic Fulani)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Perceptions about Fulani herders as instigators of crimes in Sekyere Afram Plains\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe explored the potential factors that influence herders\u0026rsquo; behaviour towards community members and tested the theoretical foundations of the work. It was found that herders exhibit physical and verbal aggressive behaviours toward community members that violate social boundaries. According to respondents, aggressive behaviours exhibited by Fulani herders were rooted in their history of pastoralism, environmental factors, protection of main source of livelihood, and the sense of entitlement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the respondents, the migratory history of the Fulani herders and the nature of their work influences their behaviour. In line with this, respondent comments corroborated by focus group discussions in Dagomba community is expressed as:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Fulani herders come from environments where survival requires constant vigilance and self-defence, and that these past experiences influence how they respond to situations in new communities\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom this perspective, tensions are seen as following them, although this reflects how community members interpret their behaviour rather than an inherent trait.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental factors relate to the seasonal shortage of pasture and access to water required to keep a herd of cattle in areas where Fulanis practice their herding activities. To sustain their livelihood, herdsmen wander from one location to another in search for resources in appropriate landscapes which also dotted with crop farming activities by local community members. The need to access and compete for space in such agropastoral landscape for survival makes them penchant for crime activities as pointed out by respondents. A fulani farmer and a former herder in Mamprusi revealed and emphasized that:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003efor herders to secure access to an agropastoral landscape, there is a need to be \u0026lsquo;wild\u0026rsquo; to be able to feed your cattle\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Sometimes you have to do what it takes to get what you want. The cattle you see roaming about here, when you lose one, it\u0026rsquo;s like you\u0026rsquo;ve lost an entire investment. You can\u0026rsquo;t watch them starve and the food you need for them too is not for you so sometimes you have to do whatever it takes to get them the food. When I first arrived here, I used to be a herder, but now I am a farmer, so I understand why the herders act the way they do, sometimes is not them, it\u0026rsquo;s just life\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther respondents explained the situation as follows;\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;During the dry season when food is scarce, that\u0026rsquo;s when you will see them in the communities the most and during that time, they are usually aggressive to whoever tries to approach them especially women. Its fine if the cattle feed on grass only but it\u0026rsquo;s the food crops that always makes us retaliate and sometimes kill some of their cattle\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (FGD, 29/04/23, Mamprusi Community).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecurity concerns in terms of real or perceived threat and the impending need, on the part of the Fulanis, to protect their source of livelihood (i.e. cattle) was noted to be a major trigger of aggression among the herders toward local community members. This was narrated as follows:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;They are often armed with weapons to protect their cattle, when you try to harm their cattle, they will attack you. They sometimes seem to prioritize the safety of their livestock over human interactions.\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e (Unit Committee member, Drobonso).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026lsquo;Every Friday, they gather here to pray after which they sit around converse with each other and go back to their various dwelling. How they behave when they are with their cattle is so different from how they act without their cattle\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e (Community member, Drobonso).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I suspect the herders act under the influence of drugs in their bid to protect their herd of cattle\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (A Police officer, Sekyere Afram Plains).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt was also noted that, herders who have settled in host communities or frequently shuttle between communities for a period of time develop a sense of entitlement which makes them feel equally entitled to land and other resources in the communities. For instance, a Fulani sedentary herder revealed that, some of them migrated to the area with their families to look for opportunities to improve their livelihoods. Some have stayed in the area for several years, learned the native language and feel like they belong there. It was also revealed that some of the sedentary Fulani\u0026rsquo;s have established permanent settlements, married indigenes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sense to overcome barriers that hinder Fulani herders and their cattle from these perceived privileges by indigenes, has the tendency to result in aggressive behaviours. This was explained by some respondents as:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Why won\u0026rsquo;t these people feel they belong here when they have access to land allocated to them by the chiefs. The chief and queen of Drobonso, the Kumawu chief and some notable people in the society have their cattle with them, they want them here so these herders feel like they belong which makes them act violently when you don\u0026rsquo;t allow their cattle to feed on your produce or drink from the same river you also depend on\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (Opinion leader, Sampson community).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The Kumawumanhene is very much aware of the Fulani's presence here. They will allocate a piece of land for you to farm and later give out that same land to the Fulanis to come and settle. They will destroy your crops and at the end of the day you will have nowhere to farm\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e (Farmer, Drobonso ).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussions","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Relationship between cattle herding and crime incidences\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study identified two (2) groups of Fulani herders (Nomadic and Sedentary) in the Sekyere Afram Plains District. Despite being diverse in terms of residence status and cattle herding practices, these groups have received homogeneous treatment. Similar observation was made by Setrana et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) who asserted that, Ghana\u0026rsquo;s treatment of nomadic and sedentary herders creates the impression that they are homogenous. The Culture of Honor theory helps explain why nomadic herders\u0026rsquo; mobility and perceived vulnerability of livelihood might predispose them to aggressive defense behaviors, whereas sedentary herders, with established social ties, display restraint. This helps to link observed behaviors to adaptive cultural norms rather than ethnicity per se, providing a basis for interpreting differential crime patterns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCattle herding related crimes in Sekyere Afram Plains was majorly associated with the nomadic herders who travel to the district at the peak of the dry season (October to March). Nomadic herdsmen, according to Otu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) have relied on seasonal and climatic variations in arid, semi-arid, and sub humid regions, and rainfall patterns in West Africa for survival and feeding of their livestock. Conversely, some sedentary herders engage in other forms of livelihood activities aside herding, speak the local dialect, and marry members of the community as a way of integrating their families into the local communities. According to Setrana (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), Fulani herders who are sedentary create their own sense of citizenship by their use of language, access to land, education, marriage, and livelihood. They learn the local rules and codes of conduct and abide by them in order to coexist peacefully with the local people. This distinction illustrates how integration and repeated social interactions with host communities reinforce norms of cooperation and reduce aggression.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA large percentage of respondents characterized sedentary herders as peaceful individuals who hardly engage in criminal activities. This posture of the sedentary herders to live and conduct their business in line with the behavioural expectations of their host communities has been found to be a vital prerequisite for peaceful coexistence between migrants and host communities (Llorent, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). In the study, crime was linked to the actions of nomadic herders as revealed from both secondary and primary data. Because they are mostly on the move, they hardly have time to acquaint themselves with the behavioural expectations in the various communities they move through. This aligns with the Culture of Honor theory, which posits that individuals who perceive their livelihoods as more vulnerable are more likely to respond aggressively to perceived threats. Because nomadic herders are mostly on the move, they have limited time to acquaint themselves with the behavioral expectations in the various communities they pass through and have less motivation to adapt their herding practices for peaceful coexistence. They move on whether there is conflict with the host community or not, which reduces the incentives for building social ties that mitigate violent responses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lack of familiarity and personal relationships with host communities also places nomadic herders in a defensive position in which they may resort to violence to protect their interests during confrontations. In such situations, people are generally more likely to hurt those they do not know or have no prior relationship with. Familiarity and prior relations can enable measured responses from both herders and host communities when conflicts arise (Selman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, the alignment with studies such as Bukari \u0026amp; Schareika (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) can be understood contextually. In Ghana, the social and institutional disconnect between nomadic herders and host communities amplifies perceived threat and misrepresentation in the media, rather than reflecting an inherent propensity for crime.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe activities of the nomads in the study area have created a misconception that, herding is a front to criminal activities. Pastoralists have generally been accused of rape, theft and other social vices which usually contribute to the conflict situation in the area according to Bonye et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The Ghanaian media contributes to this misconception by portraying all herders as a homogenous group when reporting cases on the conflict and when broad statements are made. Similar observations were made in earlier studies conducted by Bukari \u0026amp; Schareika (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) who asserted that Ghanaian media drum on the claim that, herders in general are conflict instigators. According to Bukari \u0026amp; Schareika (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), in media discourse, simply naming Fulani by their ethnic group name clearly illustrates ethnic labelling and the social categorization put on all Fulani that blame the Fulani as a whole group. Theoretical insight from social labeling and stigma literature suggests that repeated ethnic and occupational labeling can reinforce public misperceptions, explaining why media narratives diverge from actual crime patterns observed in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the study, inaccurate news reporting is a result of the utilization of unreliable information sources and the seldom conduct of adequate investigation to provide a true account of the crime. It was also made clear that news is reported in a manner that will attract attention. A study conducted on the role of the media discourse of the conflict in Nigeria by Nwankwo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) revealed that the link between the newspapers\u0026rsquo; representation of the Fulani\u0026rsquo;s and the strategies they proposed for curbing the dispute is weak. Further, it argues that developing a sustainable strategy for the resolution of the crisis requires among other things, a national dialogue. A major threat to society as mentioned by Gever \u0026amp; Essien (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) is an unprofessional reportage of conflicts, as stated in their words,\u0026rsquo; \u003cem\u003eis as deadly as poisoned meal, it can kill\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e. The findings from the study also conforms to that of study by Bukari \u0026amp; Schareika (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) who asserted that a major prejudice in the general Ghanaian society is that all Fulani herders are seen to be armed robbers or accomplices of robberies. Associating pastoralism with nomadism alone may result in premature inferences about the connection between herding and crime.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the study identified an association between crime and the activities of nomadic herders, there was no substantial evidence that herding activities in general increased crime incidences in the study district. From the analysis of secondary data collected from the Sekyere Afram Plains Police Station, it was revealed that majority of reported crime incidences were not related to herding and were not perpetrated by herders. Thus, although certain herding-related activities coincide with particular offenses, the broader practice of cattle herding should not be viewed as a major contributor to overall crime in the Sekyere Afram Plains District.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2 Factors that explain criminal behavior of nomadic herders\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the Culture of Honor theory, Nisbett and Cohen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) explained that, herdsmen due to their susceptibility to losing their animals, tend to demonstrate aggressive and violent behaviors. Protection of cattle was mentioned in the study has the most significant factor that causes aggressive behaviors in herders. This factor reflects the culture of honor theory that underpin this study. The findings align with a study conducted by Okeke (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) on conflicts between Fulani herders and farming communities in Nigeria which revealed that herders wage attacks on farming communities when cattle are harmed. Paalo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) also argues that one of the main reasons herders are perceived as being hostile is because they place a great value on their animals and would engage in retaliatory assaults against farmers when their cattle are harmed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother factor not mentioned in the theory but identified in the study was environmental factors. This factor was mentioned by Chu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e) has another major factor that translates to how herders behave. In their study of Nisbett\u0026rsquo;s theory, Chu attributed the higher levels of violence by herders to the competition over scarce environmental resources. Sehou (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) attributed aggressive behaviour by herders to environmental factors, stating that since pastoral landscapes have become deserts as a result of climate change and environmental degradation, herders must migrate to areas with favourable conditions in order to find food for their cattle, forcing them to compete with non-herders for access to resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistorical reasons and the need to fight for belonging were identified to be additional factors that explain criminal activities on the part of the cattle herders. This observation concurs with an assertion by Dimelu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) that the herdsmen's propensity for violence may possibly be a result of their traditional lifestyles as pastoralists. Herders develop a sense of belonging which makes them feel equally entitled to land and other resources in the community, when these perceived privileges are hindered by indigenes, herders tend to demonstrate aggressive behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to the laid out factors, Baaz \u0026amp; Stern (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) put out a theory that could help explain why Nomadic herders assault women and girls in bushes. In their study, Baaz \u0026amp; Stern (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) investigated the justifications offered by soldiers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo for the widespread rapes committed by the armed forces during peace keeping missions. The soldiers argued that an adult male is unable to remain for an extended period of time without sex and that it is \"somewhat inevitable\" that a man who is denied sex will eventually be compelled to sexually assault a woman to release his sexual tension. These dynamics suggest that prolonged separation from family life, combined with weak social regulation, mobility, and limited accountability in remote pastoral settings, may increase the risk of sexual violence. Such acts should not be understood as inevitable outcomes of mobility, but rather as manifestations of structural vulnerability, power asymmetries, and the absence of effective deterrence mechanisms in isolated landscapes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSaminu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) also explained nomadic herders' robbery behaviors in their study, \"Bandits' Struggle for life and its Humanitarian Impacts in Zamfara State, Nigeria,\" pointing out that nomads who are on the verge of impoverishment due to loss of their cattle resort to robbery and theft as a way of subsistence. The bulk of the crimes perpetrated by Fulani herders, according to research by Chinwokwu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), \"are hinged upon struggle for economic space and survival.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study explored the relation between cattle herding and crime incidence in the Sekyere Afram Plains District. The statistical analyses indicated that, the most recorded herding-related offenses were crop damage, assault, and theft. The number of herding related crime cases that were reported peaked between the months of October to March, the same period for nomadic cattle herding in the district suggesting an association between criminal activities in the district and nomadism. The findings also show that cattle herding was not the primary contributor to overall crime incidence in the district, given that most reported crimes were unrelated to herding. However, the observed seasonal and categorical variations suggest that certain herding-related activities may influence specific forms of crime during particular periods. The notion that herding is directly linked to rising crime is partly due to the media's portrayal of all herders (both nomadic and sedentary herders) as conflict instigators when reporting on conflict incidents involving herders. Reasons that explain the violent behaviours of nomadic herders include historical reasons, environmental reasons, protection of livelihoods, and the need to fight for belonging. Protection of cattle was identified as the most predominate factor as demonstrated in the culture of honour theory.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings suggest the need for policies that register herders, regulate seasonal movements, and strengthen conflict prevention and law enforcement during peak periods. Law enforcement and community-based monitoring mechanisms should be strengthened during high-risk periods (October to March) to reduce the potential for herding-related offenses. Future research could track longitudinal trends in both herding- and non-herding-related crime and examine dispute resolution outcomes. This study contributes to the global discourse on pastoralism and rural security by showing that herding is not inherently criminal but interacts with environmental and institutional factors. Other African countries, such as Nigeria, Mali, and Burkina Faso, can draw lessons on evidence-based policy and community engagement to reduce conflicts. Integrating mobility regulation with sustainable livelihood support can promote peaceful farmer\u0026ndash;herder coexistence.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) Fellowship Centre under the Access - Authority Nexus in Farmer-Herder Conflicts (AAN) Project. This support facilitated the execution of the research outlined in this manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research received funding support from the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) Fellowship Centre through the Access\u0026ndash;Authority Nexus in Farmer\u0026ndash;Herder Conflicts (AAN) Project.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHuman Ethics and Consent to Participate\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for this study was obtained from the Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana. Participation in the study was entirely voluntary, and all respondents were adequately informed about the purpose of the research prior to data collection. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and they were assured of anonymity and confidentiality.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbbass IM (2012) No retreat no surrender conflict for survival between Fulani pastoralists and farmers in Northern Nigeria. Eur Sci J 8(1):331\u0026ndash;346\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbubakari A, Kyere B, Derkyi MAA, Osei-Tutu P (2024) Socioeconomic impacts of farmer-herder conflicts on livelihoods and agricultural sustainability in the Ashanti Region of Ghana\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdeleke NA, Adebimpe WO, Farinloye EO, Olowookere AS (2019) Rural and urban prevalence of sexual assault against women in an African population. 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Poetics\u003c/em\u003e, 91, 101577\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":false,"email":"","identity":"sn-social-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"SN Social Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":false,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"VoR Journals","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Farmer Herder Conflict, Crime, Robbery, Nomadism, Sekyere Afram Plains","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8555280/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8555280/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the relationship between cattle herding and crime in the Sekyere Afram Plains District of Ghana by analyzing crime patterns over a nine-year period (2015\u0026ndash;2023). Using a mixed-methods approach, the study collected primary data from farmers, herders, community members, victims of crime, and key informants across eight communities, complemented by secondary data from the Sekyere Afram Plains District Police Department. Quantitative analyses of crime records and qualitative insights from interviews and focus group discussions enabled a comprehensive understanding of herding-related criminal dynamics. The findings indicate that crop damage, assault, farmer\u0026ndash;herder clashes, attempted murder, and robbery constituted the top five herding-related offenses. Seasonal influxes of nomadic herders during the dry season, combined with retaliatory actions by farmers responding to crop damage, were associated with spikes in certain criminal activities. Among the factors influencing aggressive behaviors, protection of cattle emerged as the most significant, supporting the theoretical lens of the Culture of Honor, which links herders\u0026rsquo; defensive strategies to the perceived vulnerability of their livelihoods. The study also highlights that some Ghanaian media frequently portray both nomadic and sedentary herders as conflict instigators, creating a misconception that herding is inherently linked to crime. Policy recommendations include the need for evidence-based media reporting and strategies that differentiate between nomadic and sedentary herders, promote regulated herder movements, and strengthen local conflict prevention mechanisms. By empirically disentangling perception from practice, the study contributes to the broader discourse on pastoralism, rural security, and farmer\u0026ndash;herder relations in Ghana and other African contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Cattle Herding and Crime Incidence Nexus: Case Study of the Sekyere Afram Plains District, Ghana","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-07 10:26:24","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8555280/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-14T02:20:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-12T12:54:46+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"203798783221947392233463707094038225366","date":"2026-05-11T04:08:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-23T14:42:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"73707747608156454159243739256320624306","date":"2026-04-03T19:08:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-01T13:20:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-15T02:48:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-01-10T05:29:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-01-10T05:29:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"SN Social Sciences","date":"2026-01-08T22:20:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":false,"email":"","identity":"sn-social-sciences","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"SN Social Sciences","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":false,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"VoR Journals","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1df357be-3cd8-4182-ace1-c97610b6b9b1","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 7th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-14T02:20:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-12T12:54:46+00:00","index":25,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"203798783221947392233463707094038225366","date":"2026-05-11T04:08:18+00:00","index":24,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-14T02:24:22+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-07 10:26:24","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8555280","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8555280","identity":"rs-8555280","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}