The Psychosocial Effects of Negative Social Media Discourses Directed at Syrian Refugees on Afghan International University Students: A Qualitative Study

The Psychosocial Effects of Negative Social Media Discourses Directed at Syrian Refugees on Afghan International University Students: A Qualitative Study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Psychosocial Effects of Negative Social Media Discourses Directed at Syrian Refugees on Afghan International University Students: A Qualitative Study Hafız Bek, Önder Deniz This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9137461/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study examines the psychological effects on Afghan international students legally residing in Turkey of negative social media content directed at Syrian refugees. Although Afghan students are not the direct target of these contents, such discourses may indirectly create feelings of threat, exclusion, insecurity, and weakened sense of belonging. The research was conducted within the framework of a qualitative phenomenological design, and the data collected through semi-structured interviews with 40 Afghan international students studying at different universities in Turkey were analysed using the thematic analysis method. The findings show that most of the participants frequently encounter negative content directed at Syrian refugees on social media. In general, the findings indicate that digital anti-refugee discourse produces significant psychosocial consequences for Afghan international students. In addition, in the conclusion section of the study, solution recommendations were presented for preventing negative content and for reducing the psychological effects on individuals exposed to such content. social media hate speech Syrian refugees Afghan students digital discrimination secondary victimisation Introduction Statement of the problem The European Union’s (EU) refugee policy toward Turkey has, over time, turned into a “refugee problem” within Turkey’s political structure (Saatçioğlu, 2020, p. 175). The EU’s positioning of Turkey as a buffer zone in line with its aim of restricting refugees’ passage to Europe (Zaragoza-Cristiani, 2017) has paved the way for the refugee issue in Turkey to become multidimensional and increasingly more complex (Apaydın & Müftüler-Baç, 2022). In this process, Germany’s and France’s direct financial and credit support to Turkey made it possible for the Erdoğan government to keep refugees in Turkey, at least partially; at the same time, it contributed to the transformation of refugee policy into a field of political manoeuvre in domestic politics (Erdoğan, 2018; Kale & Erdoğan, 2019; Reiners & Tekin, 2020, p. 120). A natural consequence of this policy has been the increase in the number of refugees in Turkey and, together with the worsening of living conditions, the spread of anti-refugee discourses. Indeed, the visibility of anti-refugee sentiment and discriminatory practices directed at refugees has increased in Turkey (Yabancı, 2025, p. 10). The presence of Syrian refugees in Turkey, especially in the post-civil war period, has created a marked population density in different regions of the country (Memişoğlu & Ilgıt, 2017), and this has generated considerable effects on the socioeconomic structure. Although official data state the number of refugees to be approximately 3 million, some sources suggest that this number may be as high as 6 million (Baş, 2024). In the context of a developing country, population mobility of this magnitude produces a social burden and area of tension that is felt more heavily, especially during periods of economic crisis (Demirkol, 2024). In this context, the refugee issue has become more visible during periods in which economic fragility deepened, and a marked rise in anti-refugee discourse has been observed (Secen, Al, & Arslan, 2024). The strengthening of negative attitudes toward Syrian refugees among lower- and middle-income groups has increased concerns that the issue may generate social polarization (Woodward et al., 2024). During a period when the refugee crisis intensified, the Taliban’s takeover of control in Afghanistan gave rise to a new wave of migration; a new mobility from Afghanistan to Turkey occurred, especially via Iran. In this process, in particular, attempts by young men to reach Turkey triggered new reactions in public opinion (Jefroudi, 2024). Although Turkey did not experience a situation specifically defined as an “Afghan refugee crisis,” it was observed that social reactions toward Syrians were also reflected onto Afghans; images of border crossings generated broad public debate and increased criticism (Ziss, 2024). Thus, the politicization of anti-refugee sentiments became even stronger, and before the 2023 general elections, political discourses advocating deportation were able to become part of vote-gaining strategies. This picture is also being reproduced and made visible in the digital sphere. In recent years, anti-refugee discourses have been voiced more frequently on new media platforms (Ekman, 2019; Özdüzen et al., 2021; Yılmaz, Elmas, & Eröz, 2023), and social media displays a dual character as both a space that contributes to participation/democracy/freedom of thought and a medium that facilitates the spread of hate speech (Castaño-Pulgarín et al., 2021; Matamoros-Fernández & Farkas, 2021). For this reason, social media is not only a space where political debates are conducted; it is also an interaction environment experienced by individuals in their daily lives as a “space of everyday encounter,” with psychosocial effects. While the spread of anti-refugee discourses in the digital environment affects different segments of society, one of these segments is international students studying in higher education in Turkey. The fact that the number of international students has reached historically the highest levels in higher education indicates that the student group that may be affected by digital discrimination has also expanded. Importance of the research This study is important in two respects. First, although the group targeted on social media is often Syrian refugees, the effect of the discourses produced is not limited only to the target group. In “secondary/side target” groups such as Afghan international students, it may also trigger perceptions of indirect threat, exclusion, and insecurity. Therefore, the study aims to make visible the way in which anti-refugee discourses turn into “generalized xenophobia” in society and the reflections of this on the psychosocial experiences of international students. Second, while universities accept more foreign-national students in line with their internationalization goals, the discriminatory discourses students encounter in the digital public sphere are often not systematically addressed at the institutional level. In this context, the study will contribute to making visible the digital discrimination to which international students in higher education may be exposed; and to developing concrete recommendations regarding possible support and policy tools for universities and social media platforms. Purpose of the research and research questions The aim of this research is to examine, through a qualitative approach, the psychosocial effects of Afghan international university students studying in Turkey encountering negative/discriminatory discourses directed at Syrian refugees during their social media use processes. The study aims to reveal how these encounters are reflected in students’ emotional worlds, perceptions of security, social media use practices, and academic adaptation/motivation processes. In line with this purpose, the research questions were structured around the following dimensions: Q1 (Exposure) How frequently do you encounter negative/discriminatory content directed at Syrian refugees on social media? Q2 (Emotional impact) What emotions do you experience when you encounter such content? Q3 (Indirect threat, exclusion) In your opinion, are concepts such as “refugee, foreigner, guest” confused with one another on social media? Q4 (Experience of living in Turkey) How do these discourses affect your life in Turkey? Do you experience problems in feeling safe, moving comfortably in public spaces, or stating your nationality? Q5 (Change in digital behaviour, coping) When you are exposed to this content, does your use of social media change? (unfollowing, muting, not commenting, reporting, avoiding, etc.)? Do you have any method of managing this situation? Q6 (Academic motivation/adaptation + solution suggestions) Do these discourses affect your academic motivation? Do they have any effect on your sense of belonging to the university and on your adaptation process? In your opinion, how should universities support international students against digital discrimination, and what concrete measures should social media platforms take? Conceptual Framework and Literature Digital discrimination and xenophobia Digital discrimination refers to the exclusion, humiliation, targeting, or restriction of individuals’ access to opportunities in online environments for many different reasons. While this discrimination is carried out explicitly in the form of insults, hate speech, threats, and lynching culture, it can sometimes also be carried out in more implicit ways through stigmatizing labels, mocking humour, disinformation, and generalized stereotypes (Link & Phelan, 2001; Arendt, 2023). Since social media is a space where users can rapidly produce and disseminate content, discriminatory discourses can reach wide audiences in a short time. Comments, quoting practices, tagging practices, and “trend” mechanisms accelerate this spread (Ekman, 2019; Aldamen, 2023). One of the structures in which this discrimination is experienced most today is xenophobia. Xenophobia positions the individual as a threat at the societal level. It is the whole of attitudes and discourses that portray him/her as the source of economic, cultural, or security-based problems (Ahmed et al., 2021; Ekman, 2019). In digital media, xenophobia is frequently reproduced through negative discourses and the reduction of migrant/refugee groups to a uniform and negative identity (Ekman, 2019; Arendt, 2023). When these discourses combine with populist frames that explain everyday problems through simple enemy images, they may increase feelings of stigma, exclusion, and insecurity among targeted groups (Link & Phelan, 2001; Aldamen, 2023). In addition, the confusion of concepts such as “refugee–foreigner–guest” with one another may lead to the spread of anger directed at a particular group to the whole category of “foreigners” and may cause secondary target groups (for example, Afghan international students) to feel themselves at risk as well (Abdelaaty, 2021). An important dimension that strengthens digital discrimination is algorithmic visibility. The fact that provocative and anger-producing content receives more interaction may make this content even more visible. Thus, hateful or discriminatory language is supported not only by the attitudes of individual users but also by social media algorithms (Guess et al., 2025). As a result, targeted groups are exposed to constant attacks in the online sphere. The individual may tend to conceal his/her identity or may also experience anxiety in offline life (Aldamen, 2023). For this reason, digital discrimination is considered a multilayered social problem that does not “remain only on the internet” but extends to areas such as education, adaptation, belonging, and psychological well-being (Aldamen, 2023; Link & Phelan, 2001). Indirect/secondary victimization Indirect/secondary victimization refers to the situation in which a discriminatory discourse or hate act produces psychological and social effects on persons or groups who are not the direct target. In other words, even if the target of the attack is a specific community, people who share similar identity characteristics or who are included in the same “foreigner/refugee” category may perceive it as if it were directed at themselves (Imperato & Mancini, 2025; Mulder et al., 2023). With this generalization, the thought that “I may be next” is strengthened, and this situation increases feelings of insecurity and exclusion in everyday life (Imperato & Mancini, 2025). In this context, such generalization constitutes a frequently encountered situation in the digital sphere. In Turkey, hate speech directed at Syrian refugees on social media has gained a widespread character (Özdüzen et al., 2021). Groups such as Afghan international students, who are not directly at the centre of the discourse, may also experience this language as if it were directed at them. This is because, even if digital discourse often begins with a specific category such as “Syrian,” it is rapidly extended through comments and tagging to broader and more generalized categories such as “refugee,” “foreigner,” “illegal,” and “asylum seeker”; thus, discrimination ceases to be directed at a particular group and turns into a more inclusive practice of exclusion directed at the identity of the “foreigner” (Özdüzen et al., 2021; Uluğ et al., 2023). This transformation may trigger behavioural and emotional reactions in secondary groups, especially such as concealing identity on social media, avoiding social settings, and feeling constantly on alert (Imperato & Mancini, 2025). Another dimension of indirect victimization is that hate speech disrupts individuals’ perception of the “social climate.” That is, even if the person is not directly subjected to discrimination, repeatedly encountered hostile expressions in the digital sphere create the feeling that the ground of acceptance and tolerance in society as a whole has weakened (Özdüzen et al., 2021; Uluğ et al., 2023). This situation may damage the sense of belonging and perception of security of international students; it may produce outcomes such as difficulties in adaptation to the university, reduced motivation, and withdrawal from social relationships (Çiçek & Eser, 2025). For this reason, indirect/secondary victimization requires digital discrimination to be evaluated not merely as a problem experienced by the target group, but within a broader network of social impact (Imperato & Mancini, 2025; Çiçek & Eser, 2025). Belonging, security, and university adjustment The higher education experience of international students is not limited only to course achievement and academic outputs. Students’ psychosocial well-being, social adjustment, sense of belonging, and perception of security are among the main determinants of this experience. Belonging is related to the student’s feeling that he/she is accepted on campus, valued, and recognized as a legitimate member of the university community. As this feeling is strengthened, students’ academic productivity, well-being, and level of benefiting from institutional resources increase (Allen et al., 2025; Caligiuri et al., 2020). In contrast, the weakening of belonging may produce outcomes such as loneliness, social withdrawal, and distancing from the university, thereby making the adjustment process more fragile (Allen et al., 2025; Chen et al., 2024). Perception of security, on the other hand, is related to the student’s not feeling under threat both on campus and in everyday life outside the campus. In particular, exclusionary and hostile discourses targeting foreigners in online environments may create in students the feeling that they are unwanted persons at the university. Such digital and campus-related discrimination experiences may cause students to avoid social settings and, over time, to be perceived as maladjusted or withdrawn. Campus climate is shaped according to how students are received by the administration, academic staff, and other students; the strength of anti-discrimination rules and inclusive attitudes also directly affects this climate (Mitchell et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2024). It has also been shown that international students’ encounters with microaggressions and discriminatory attitudes weaken their sense of belonging (George Mwangi et al., 2024). At this point, the effect of digital discrimination and especially indirect/secondary victimization on university adjustment becomes even more visible. Such indirect victimization experiences produce consequences that can directly weaken universities’ internationalization goals. The spread of a hostile climate in the digital sphere targeting the identity of the “foreigner” may erode international students’ feelings of belonging and security, thereby reducing their participation in campus life and their academic visibility. This situation may damage the university’s externally perceived image as an inclusive and safe learning environment, negatively affecting both new international student applications and current students’ commitment to the institution. Comprehensive review studies on internationalization show that the most effective institutional approaches for students should focus not only on attracting students but also on producing inclusion, bonding, support, and connection throughout the institution (Mittelmeier et al., 2023). Similarly, international students’ access to support services is regarded as strategic in terms of adjustment, participation, and retention (Martirosyan et al., 2019). In addition, the weakening of multicultural interaction may also create negative effects on universities’ international collaborations, exchange programmes, and research networks. The internationalization literature emphasizes that this process gains meaning not only through mobility and student numbers, but through the holistic design of teaching, student support, campus life, and institutional practices (Mittelmeier et al., 2023; Msomphora, 2025). As a result, digital discrimination and indirect victimization are not only an individual psychosocial problem; they are a structural area of risk affecting universities’ international competitiveness, institutional attractiveness, and prestige. In this context, the relationship between belonging, security, and adjustment should be addressed not only as a psychological issue at the individual level, but also as an institutional domain that determines higher education institutions’ capacity for inclusiveness and their performance in internationalization. It is of critical importance for universities to conduct awareness studies against digital discrimination, to develop accessible psychosocial support mechanisms for international students, and to strengthen the campus climate through inclusive norms in order to improve the international student experience (George Mwangi et al., 2024; Martirosyan et al., 2019; Mittelmeier et al., 2023). Confusion of concepts: refugee–migrant–foreigner–guest In discussions of migration and displacement in Turkey, the use of the concepts “refugee,” “migrant,” “foreigner,” and “guest” interchangeably directly affects both the quality of public debate and the social perception of migration. Although these concepts are used in similar meanings in everyday language, each of them points to different legal statuses, rights, and obligations. Especially in the Turkish context, the legal position of Syrians is mostly defined not as “refugees,” but within the framework of the temporary protection regime; by contrast, the discourse of “guest” functions more as a political and social form of naming (Abdelaaty, 2021). The blurring of concepts may strengthen a generalizing perspective that gathers people under a single category of “foreigner,” rather than explaining the causes and dimensions of the migration phenomenon (Abdelaaty, 2021; Özdüzen et al., 2021). This conceptual confusion becomes especially more visible in social media environments. News headlines, tags, and user comments circulating on platforms can quickly carry criticism directed at a specific group into a broader category. Studies on digital racism and exclusionary discourse directed at Syrians in Turkey show that in online discussions, categories such as “Syrian,” “refugee,” “foreigner,” and similar labels become articulated with one another and turn into a more inclusive language of exclusion (Özdüzen et al., 2021; Uluğ et al., 2023; Erdoğdu & Koçoğlu, 2020). Thus, discriminatory discourses may begin by targeting a specific group, but can transform into a language of exclusion directed at all out-groups through categories such as “illegal,” “asylum seeker,” and “foreigner” (Özdüzen et al., 2021; Uluğ et al., 2023). The confusion of concepts is not merely a linguistic problem; it is also a framing mechanism that shapes social relations. The emotional and political connotations of concepts such as “guest” and “refugee,” and the association of categories such as “migrant” and “foreigner” with security- and economy-oriented debates, can quickly turn into polarizing narratives on social media (Abdelaaty, 2021; Koca, 2022; Danış & Nazlı, 2022). This situation may negatively affect adjustment and belonging processes by increasing perceptions of misrecognition, exclusion, and insecurity not only among targeted groups but also among secondary groups such as international students. Studies on international students also show that generalizing perceptions related to foreignness and out-group status can weaken students’ sense of belonging, security, and campus experiences (Mwangi & Yao, 2021; George Mwangi et al., 2024). Method Research design This study was designed with a qualitative research approach because it aims to reveal in depth the emotions, perceptions, and meaning-making processes related to Afghan international university students studying in Turkey encountering negative/discriminatory discourses directed at Syrian refugees on social media. The research design was structured within the framework of phenomenology (lived experience) because it is suitable for examining participants’ experiences and the meanings they attribute to these experiences. In this context, the data source consists of a total of 40 semi-structured interviews conducted with Afghan students studying at different universities in Turkey. The main reason for choosing the phenomenological approach is to make visible what kind of psychosocial response discriminatory discourses encountered on social media create in the participants; which emotions these experiences trigger; and how students interpret and make sense of these contents. In line with this, through the narratives obtained from 40 interviews, the reflections of digital discrimination experiences on students’ perception of security, sense of belonging, social media use practices, and adjustment processes to the university were analysed holistically. Thus, the study aimed to present an in-depth explanation centred on participant experiences rather than quantitative measurements. Study group In the first stage of the study, institutional data were examined in order to reveal the general framework of Afghan students studying in higher education in Turkey and to determine the access strategy of the research. In this context, according to the data of the Council of Higher Education (YÖK), there are a total of 9,149 officially registered Afghan students in Turkey in the 2024–2025 Academic Year. Of these students, 6,539 are male and 2,610 are female (YÖK Atlas, 2025). However, information obtained from the Afghan Hazaras Culture and Solidarity Association and from various universities indicates that only 25%–35% of these students are actively continuing their education, while the remaining group has either frozen their education or not completed the registration process. This situation has shown that the number of registered students may not fully reflect the reality of “active students” in the field. Since the research was conducted in a qualitative design, the study group was determined through purposive sampling in a way that would allow an in-depth understanding of experiences rather than quantitative representation. Accordingly, a total of 40 participants were selected from among Afghan international students studying in Turkey by considering maximum variation (gender, class level, city and university of study, department/programme type, and duration of stay in Turkey). The number of participants was not fixed definitively in advance; as the interviews progressed, it was assessed that qualitative saturation had been reached at the point where responses began to repeat and the production of new themes decreased, and the sample was therefore limited to 40 people. Participation in the interviews was entirely on a voluntary basis, and anonymity was ensured by keeping the identities of the participants confidential. Data collection The data were collected through semi-structured interviews. The interview form was prepared in a way that would address the research questions of the study; it covers experiences of encountering negative/discriminatory discourses directed at Syrian refugees on social media, the emotional and behavioural effects of these experiences, perception of indirect threat/exclusion, feeling of security, academic adjustment, coping strategies, and solution suggestions. In addition, a short demographic form was applied in order to describe the characteristics of the participants (age, gender, duration of stay in Turkey, the most frequently used social media platforms, and duration of use, etc.). In order for the interviews to proceed through concrete examples, participants were optionally asked to describe an example of content they remembered from the last month, and this method was used as a recall trigger. Data analysis The qualitative data obtained were analysed through the thematic analysis method using MAXQDA software. In the analysis process, first, the interview records were transcribed and the texts were transferred into the MAXQDA environment. Then, (i) the data were read repeatedly in order to develop a holistic understanding in line with the research questions, (ii) meaningful expressions were identified and coded through open coding, (iii) codes with similar content were brought together through MAXQDA’s code system and sub-themes were created, (iv) the sub-themes were organized under higher-level themes, and (v) in order to make the relationships between the themes visible, a thematic map was created by making use of MAXQDA’s visualization tools. At the end of this process, the findings were systematically reported on the basis of the theme and sub-theme structure; where deemed necessary, they were interpreted by being supported with quotations from participant statements. Reliability and validity strategies More than one strategy was used to increase the reliability of the analysis. Where appropriate, the data were coded by two researchers and inter-coder agreement was checked. In addition, expert opinion was obtained in order to strengthen the consistency of the theme structure, and member checking was conducted in order to check whether the findings accurately reflected participant experiences. Besides this, the decisions taken in the data collection and analysis process were recorded in detail, thereby ensuring the traceability of the research. Findings The demographic distributions of the university students within the scope of the research in terms of gender, marital status, level of education, age groups, and duration of residence in Turkey are shown in Table 1 . No private information was asked in this table. Only information directly related to the subject was asked of the participants. Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the participants Variable Sub-category / Statistic n % Gender Male 30 75.0 Female 10 25.0 Marital status Single 24 60.0 Married 16 40.0 Level of education Undergraduate 32 80.0 Master’s 4 10.0 Doctorate 4 10.0 Age groups 19–21 11 27.5 22–24 13 32.5 25–27 6 15.0 28–30 4 10.0 31–35 6 15.0 Duration of residence in Turkey 2–3 years 14 35.0 4–5 years 16 40.0 6–10 years 8 20.0 11 years and above 2 5.0 As shown in Table 1 , it is seen that the number of female participants is lower than the number of male participants. This was preferred in order to be parallel with the distribution of Afghan students studying in Turkey. Indeed, while forming the sample, the current demographic structure of Afghan students studying in higher education institutions in Turkey was taken into consideration. The data show that approximately half of the students are married. In addition, it is understood that more than half of the students have been residing in Turkey for 5 years or longer. This situation indicates that a significant proportion of these students came to the country during the period in which the issue of Syrian refugees was being intensely discussed in Turkey. Table 2 Frequency of encountering negative content directed at Syrian refugees Category n % Never/Almost never 3 7.5 Rarely 9 22.5 Occasionally 12 30.0 Frequently 7 17.5 Very frequently 7 17.5 Unclear 2 5.0 When the responses given to the question “frequency of encountering negative content directed at Syrian refugees” in Table 2 are examined, it is seen that 92.5% of the participants encountered such content at least once. This situation can partly be explained by the fact that the participants themselves are also foreigners and therefore may be more sensitive to such content and develop selective perception. Nevertheless, the fact that approximately 34% of the participants stated that they encounter such content frequently or very frequently on social media shows that Afghan students are significantly confronted with negative discourses directed at Syrian refugees. The fact that the rate is this high also reveals how open social media environments are to negative discourses directed at refugees. Table 3 Reported dominant emotional reactions when encountering negative content Emotional reaction n % Sadness/negative affect 11 27.5 Desensitization/not caring 6 15.0 Anger/resentment/injustice 5 12.5 Discomfort/stress 4 10.0 Anxiety/fear/uneasiness 4 10.0 Empathy/identification 3 7.5 Unclear 2 5.0 Shame/guilt/embarrassment 2 5.0 Feeling of exclusion 1 2.5 Hopelessness/helplessness 1 2.5 Withdrawal/avoidance 1 2.5 In Table 3 , when the dominant emotional reactions reported upon encountering negative content are examined, it is seen that the most prominent reactions are sadness and being overwhelmed by negative emotions. Although only three participants stated in the interviews that they directly identified these contents with themselves, the findings clearly reveal that these contents create significant psychological effects. In contrast, it is understood that only six participants did not care about such contents. Table 4 Levels of indirect threat, conceptual confusion, security, digital behaviour, and academic impact Dimension Category n % S3: Perception of indirect threat/exclusion No 6 15.0 S3: Perception of indirect threat/exclusion Partly 13 32.5 S3: Perception of indirect threat/exclusion Yes 21 52.5 S4: Perception of conceptual confusion No 6 15.0 S4: Perception of conceptual confusion Partly 8 20.0 S4: Perception of conceptual confusion Yes 25 62.5 S4: Perception of conceptual confusion Unclear 1 2.5 S5: Security/life impact No 6 15.0 S5: Security/life impact Partly 14 35.0 S5: Security/life impact Yes 20 50.0 S6: Change in digital behaviour No 7 17.5 S6: Change in digital behaviour Partly 6 15.0 S6: Change in digital behaviour Yes 27 67.5 S7: Academic motivation/adjustment impact No 6 15.0 S7: Academic motivation/adjustment impact Partly 15 37.5 S7: Academic motivation/adjustment impact Yes 19 47.5 When Table 4 is examined, it is seen that psychological effects clearly emerged among the individuals participating in the research. It is understood that, apart from 6 participants, a total of 34 Afghan university students were affected by negative social media posts directed at Syrians in terms of indirect threat and perception of exclusion. Similarly, it is seen that the perception of conceptual confusion also occurred at the same level. In addition, it was determined that there was a decrease in the perception of security among Afghan students at rates close to this. Besides this, a decline in academic motivation and a change in digital behaviours are also among the findings. Table 5 Coping strategies Coping strategy n % Blocking/unfollowing/reporting 6 15.0 Not using any method 6 15.0 Ignoring/not caring 6 15.0 Avoidance/distancing 4 10.0 Silence/non-engagement 4 10.0 Seeking social support 3 7.5 Emotion regulation/staying calm 2 5.0 Turning to positive activity 2 5.0 Acting cautiously/becoming invisible 2 5.0 Unclear 1 2.5 Taking a break from social media 1 2.5 Seeking institutional support 1 2.5 Producing counter-content 1 2.5 Information verification/confirmation 1 2.5 When Table 5 is examined, it is seen that the coping strategies of the participants in the research differ considerably. In particular, coping forms such as blocking, unfollowing, reporting, not using any method, and ignoring/not caring are understood to come to the fore more. However, it is seen that these strategies are largely unsupported forms of coping and that most of them are passive in nature. Table 6 Support mechanisms expected from universities Expected support from universities n % Education/awareness 14 35.0 Institutional policy/coordination 10 25.0 Inclusiveness and equality 8 20.0 Complaint/reporting mechanism 7 17.5 Psychological and multilingual support 4 10.0 Legal/security/administrative protection 3 7.5 Social support/peer mentoring 2 5.0 Unclear/no opinion response 6 15.0 When Table 6 is examined, it is seen that the participants highlighted education/awareness, institutional policy/coordination, and inclusiveness and equality the most in coping with these negativities. The results obtained from the study reveal, through participant views, that although there are many foreign-national students at universities in Turkey, a sufficiently professional approach is not displayed on this issue and the problem is not given the necessary level of importance. Table 7 Measures expected from social media platforms Expected measure from platforms n % Legal/state intervention and banning 6 15.0 Awareness-raising/ethical language 6 15.0 Rapid content removal/moderation 5 12.5 Algorithmic/AI/multilingual monitoring 3 7.5 Account sanction/punishment 3 7.5 Reporting/complaint system 2 5.0 User safety/protection 2 5.0 Response without specific measure/evaluative response 19 47.5 When Table 7 is examined, it is seen that the participants expressed quite different views regarding the prevention of such content on social media platforms. Among these views, the most striking are demands for legal/state intervention and banning. The view with the highest rate is in favour of the complete banning of such posts. However, it is understood that approximately half of the participants could not develop any solution proposal and did not make any concrete demand from social media platforms. Discussion This research has revealed that Afghan international university students studying in Turkey are affected at a meaningful level by negative discourses directed at Syrian refugees on social media. The findings show that digital discrimination affects not only the target group but also other groups that may similarly be perceived as “foreigners,” “migrants,” or “refugees.” This result indicates that hate speech directed at migrants and refugees on social media creates not only an exclusion at the level of content, but also a broader social exclusion. In particular, online hate speech has a structure fed by platform policies, political polarization, populist discourses, and threat perceptions. This can also legitimize negative attitudes not only toward the targeted group but also toward broader social categories (Gracia-Calandín & Suárez-Montoya, 2023; Malmasi & Zampieri, 2017; Matamoros-Fernández & Farkas, 2021; Rawat et al., 2024). The first important finding of the research is that almost all of the participants had encountered negative content directed at Syrian refugees on social media. This situation parallels the work of researchers examining digital racism and the creation of online spaces in the Turkish context (Özdüzen, 2020; Özdüzen et al., 2021). These studies show that social media accounts relating to Syrians in Turkey produce exclusionary language; that is, anti-refugee discourse has gained a highly visible structure in the digital sphere rather than being exceptional. Current studies examining xenophobia directed at refugees on social media also reveal similar results to these studies (Amores & Arcila-Calderón, 2025; Kentmen-Cin, 2025; Pradel, 2025). The fact that the participants reported exposure at frequent or very frequent levels stems from discussions of algorithmic visibility and the interaction economy. The studies of Matamoros-Fernández show that content producing anger, provocation, and polarization can become more visible within platform logic (Matamoros-Fernández & Farkas, 2021; Matamoros-Fernández et al., 2021). In this context, Afghan students are exposed to negative posts not only accidentally, but repeatedly due to the visibility dynamics of the platforms. Therefore, this study shows that anti-refugee discourse in Turkey becomes part not only of the political or media level, but also of everyday user experience through algorithmic circulation. The findings obtained in terms of emotional effects also overlap significantly with the literature. In the research, the most dominant emotional reactions are seen to be sadness, stress, and anxiety. This is also compatible with studies showing that online hate speech not only produces public debate, but also creates emotional and psychosocial consequences. In particular, it has been shown that negative discourses targeting migrants reinforce negative stereotypes. Similarly, it was included in the findings that experiences of discrimination and indirect discrimination weaken the sense of belonging. From this perspective, the findings of sadness and uneasiness in your study weaken the sense of belonging especially among individuals who have lived in Turkey for a long time. However, the fact that some participants in your research responded in the direction of “desensitization” or “not caring” also constitutes a similar situation in the literature (Li et al., 2017; Nicklin et al., 2020). Although this type of reaction may appear at first glance as not being affected, it may lead to deeper psychological effects. In particular, emotional distancing and ignoring are very frequently seen behaviours among individuals who repeatedly encounter discriminatory content. One of the strongest contributions of the study is to show that content directly targeting Syrians produces a perception of exclusion among Afghan students. This finding is highly consistent with the literature on vicarious discrimination, that is, indirect/secondary discrimination (Achiume, 2013; Bell, 2025; Costello & Foster, 2022). Studies show that even if individuals are not the direct victims of discrimination, they can be psychologically affected by exclusionary discourses directed at communities they see as close to their own identity group. Research conducted in the context of higher education also reveals that indirect discrimination is associated with mental health outcomes and can produce negative effects especially on anxiety and well-being (Mickelson, 2003; Pager & Shepherd, 2008). It suggests that Afghan students also experience social media discourse as if it were directed at themselves through the thought that “we may look like them too.” The biggest reason why Afghan university students feel social media discourse as if it were directed at themselves stems from the perception of conceptual confusion. They stated that categories such as “refugee,” “foreigner,” “illegal,” and “guest” are confused with one another on social media. This result overlaps with the findings of Özdüzen and colleagues showing that Syrians in Turkey are re-categorized in the digital sphere and that discourse spreads from a specific group to broader out-group categories (Özdüzen et al., 2021). The findings regarding perception of security are also largely parallel to the literature and indicate that half of the participants stated that these discourses on social media affect their life experience and sense of security in Turkey. The existing literature has revealed that online exclusionary discourses cause not only emotional reactions in individuals but also more cautious behaviour in public space (Kuneva & Hough, 2023; Sutkutė, 2019). The findings regarding change in digital behaviour are also supported by the literature. The majority of the participants adopted strategies such as unfollowing, muting, avoidance, not commenting, and becoming invisible. In fact, this also triggers fear of social media. It shows that students think they are not sufficiently protected in the digital sphere and try to secure themselves more through individual defence (Dekker et al., 2018; Udwan et al., 2020). The effects on academic motivation and university adjustment are also among the aspects of the research that are strongly connected to the literature. It indicates that a significant proportion of the participants stated that their academic motivation and adjustment to the university were affected. It is seen that these posts weaken the phenomenon of belonging in higher education, namely the student’s feeling of being accepted, supported, and recognized as a legitimate member. For this reason, this situation should be read not only as an individual loss of morale, but as the erosion by the digital climate of exclusion of the relationship that the student establishes with the university community (Allen et al., 2018; Caligiuri et al., 2020; Roseth et al., 2011; Tice et al., 2021). The findings regarding the support mechanisms expected from universities bring to the fore the participants’ demands for awareness studies, institutional policy, inclusiveness, complaint mechanisms, and multilingual psychosocial support. In this context, the results are parallel to the recommendations of current studies on migrant and international student well-being. These studies have revealed that belonging and well-being cannot be explained only by individual resilience and that institutional support must definitely exist (Caligiuri et al., 2020; Roseth et al., 2011). It is also noteworthy that a significant proportion of the participants could not produce concrete solutions regarding the measures expected from social media platforms. A considerable number of participants, on the other hand, want harsher measures, banning, and state intervention. Although there are solution proposals in the studies in the literature, in our research participants could not put forward a tangible solution proposal on this issue (Aldamen, 2023; Kuneva & Hough, 2023). When we evaluate the discussion section of this research in general, it is seen that digital hate speech directed at Syrian refugees in Turkey creates secondary victimization for Afghan international students in many respects. It is seen that this victimization directly affects their university education and daily lives. It adds the international student experience in the position of a “secondary target” to the digital discrimination literature. Discussions of belonging, security, and adjustment should be reconsidered through the context of social media. Public information studies should be carried out to reduce conceptual ambiguities regarding migration, refugeehood, and international student statuses. Conclusion At the conclusion of the study, it emerged that Afghan international university students studying in Turkey are affected by negative discourses directed at Syrian refugees on social media. The findings show that posts circulating on social media can create among Afghan students a perception of indirect threat, a sense of exclusion, insecurity, anxiety, discomfort, and loss of belonging. In particular, the confusion of concepts such as “refugee–foreigner–guest–illegal” causes the discourse to become more effective. Social media broadens the scope of the discourse and makes it more difficult for students to position themselves outside this hostile climate. As a result of the research, it was understood that the discriminatory language produced on social media does not remain limited only to the digital environment. It has been understood that it affects students’ social media usage habits, daily life experiences, perceptions of security, and academic motivations. A significant portion of the students try to protect themselves through individual means such as becoming invisible on social media, remaining silent, and avoiding. The general result of the study is that negative discourses directed at Syrian refugees on social media produce secondary victimization among Afghan students and that this gives rise to psychosocially significant consequences. In this context, universities, social media platforms, and policy makers have responsibilities in eliminating this problem: 1- It may be recommended that adaptation and orientation training be provided for newly enrolled foreign-national students at the university. These trainings may have a positive effect on students’ adaptation to the university and the new environment they have come to, as well as on their self-confidence. 2- Universities should provide awareness training on this issue and guidance and psychological counselling support can be given to victimized students. With this support, foreign students may be helped in coping with feelings of loneliness, anxiety, stress, and discrimination. 3- Universities may prepare and implement clear and explicit policies and programmes against discrimination and exclusionary behaviours. Within the scope of interaction with society, universities may enable their integration with the local people through volunteering programmes, city introduction programmes, and activities held on special days. 4- Training may be provided at the universities where they study for domestic students and staff on multiculturalism and intercultural communication. In particular, trainings, seminars, and conferences may be organized for domestic students on issues of social acceptance. This may positively affect the communication and interaction of domestic and foreign-national students as well as their adjustment, adaptation, and success. In addition, in this context, social media platforms and policy makers also have responsibilities in preventing and eliminating this problem: 1- They need to behave more humanely by setting aside commercial concerns. Social media tools are among those that will play the most critical role in this matter. 2- Great responsibility falls on policy makers regarding social media. More effective legal sanctions should be established in combating hate speech in the media. As a result, this study shows that anti-refugee discourse produced in the digital public sphere in Turkey creates a climate of exclusion that affects not only the communities directly targeted, but also a broader group of foreign students. The experiences of Afghan international students reveal that digital discrimination is a problem area in the context of higher education that is invisible but produces powerful consequences. For this reason, universities, policy makers, and social media platforms need to develop more inclusive, protective, and rights-based mechanisms. Declarations Funding Not applicable Ethics Ethical approval for this study was granted by the Uşak University Social and Human Sciences Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee. The committee reviewed the study titled “The Psychosocial Effects of Negative Social Media Discourses Directed at Syrian Refugees on Afghan International University Students: A Qualitative Study” and approved it as ethically appropriate on 20 November 2025 with Decision No. 2025-330. Ethical principles were observed throughout the research process. The purpose and scope of the study were explained to the participants, and informed consent was obtained on the basis of voluntary participation. The identity information of the participants was kept confidential, and anonymity was ensured in the interview records and transcripts. Since the study included sensitive topics such as hate speech and discriminatory content, the possibility of psychological distress was taken into consideration. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9137461","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":616566674,"identity":"1da6b8ca-dff1-4993-8cdc-5930159a3bc0","order_by":0,"name":"Hafız Bek","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Usak University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hafız","middleName":"","lastName":"Bek","suffix":""},{"id":616566675,"identity":"625c852f-473b-48bb-a279-1f58b6105c01","order_by":1,"name":"Önder Deniz","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA80lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACAyBmBiHGB1CeAdFamGHKgTiBGC0MDGwSRGnhl27e+LiCwVrOnJ39WTXPHztjBvbmbRKMP+7h1CI551ix4RmGdGPLZoa027xtyWYMPMfKJBgSinG76kaOmWQDw+HEDYcZjt3mbWC2YZDIMQNqwe0yoBbzn0At9RsOM7YV8/ypt2GQf0NQixkjUEuCwWFmNmYetsNmDBI8+LVIzkgrlmwwSDfccJiNWXJu23FjNp60YouENNxa+CWSN35sqLCWNzh//OGHN3+qDfvZD2+88cEGtxao85DYbCCCkIZRMApGwSgYBfgBADUTR5gyxb5yAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Usak University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Önder","middleName":"","lastName":"Deniz","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-16 11:53:25","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9137461/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9137461/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106402878,"identity":"2fa3604b-74cd-4c79-a8e9-6faf896bd768","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-08 09:13:07","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":913522,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9137461/v1/bbb37325-1993-4d1a-9691-71ffee889a20.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Psychosocial Effects of Negative Social Media Discourses Directed at Syrian Refugees on Afghan International University Students: A Qualitative Study","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatement of the problem\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe European Union\u0026rsquo;s (EU) refugee policy toward Turkey has, over time, turned into a \u0026ldquo;refugee problem\u0026rdquo; within Turkey\u0026rsquo;s political structure (Saat\u0026ccedil;ioğlu, 2020, p. 175). The EU\u0026rsquo;s positioning of Turkey as a buffer zone in line with its aim of restricting refugees\u0026rsquo; passage to Europe (Zaragoza-Cristiani, 2017) has paved the way for the refugee issue in Turkey to become multidimensional and increasingly more complex (Apaydın \u0026amp; M\u0026uuml;ft\u0026uuml;ler-Ba\u0026ccedil;, 2022). In this process, Germany\u0026rsquo;s and France\u0026rsquo;s direct financial and credit support to Turkey made it possible for the Erdoğan government to keep refugees in Turkey, at least partially; at the same time, it contributed to the transformation of refugee policy into a field of political manoeuvre in domestic politics (Erdoğan, 2018; Kale \u0026amp; Erdoğan, 2019; Reiners \u0026amp; Tekin, 2020, p. 120). A natural consequence of this policy has been the increase in the number of refugees in Turkey and, together with the worsening of living conditions, the spread of anti-refugee discourses. Indeed, the visibility of anti-refugee sentiment and discriminatory practices directed at refugees has increased in Turkey (Yabancı, 2025, p. 10). The presence of Syrian refugees in Turkey, especially in the post-civil war period, has created a marked population density in different regions of the country (Memişoğlu \u0026amp; Ilgıt, 2017), and this has generated considerable effects on the socioeconomic structure. Although official data state the number of refugees to be approximately 3\u0026nbsp;million, some sources suggest that this number may be as high as 6\u0026nbsp;million (Baş, 2024). In the context of a developing country, population mobility of this magnitude produces a social burden and area of tension that is felt more heavily, especially during periods of economic crisis (Demirkol, 2024). In this context, the refugee issue has become more visible during periods in which economic fragility deepened, and a marked rise in anti-refugee discourse has been observed (Secen, Al, \u0026amp; Arslan, 2024). The strengthening of negative attitudes toward Syrian refugees among lower- and middle-income groups has increased concerns that the issue may generate social polarization (Woodward et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring a period when the refugee crisis intensified, the Taliban\u0026rsquo;s takeover of control in Afghanistan gave rise to a new wave of migration; a new mobility from Afghanistan to Turkey occurred, especially via Iran. In this process, in particular, attempts by young men to reach Turkey triggered new reactions in public opinion (Jefroudi, 2024). Although Turkey did not experience a situation specifically defined as an \u0026ldquo;Afghan refugee crisis,\u0026rdquo; it was observed that social reactions toward Syrians were also reflected onto Afghans; images of border crossings generated broad public debate and increased criticism (Ziss, 2024). Thus, the politicization of anti-refugee sentiments became even stronger, and before the 2023 general elections, political discourses advocating deportation were able to become part of vote-gaining strategies. This picture is also being reproduced and made visible in the digital sphere. In recent years, anti-refugee discourses have been voiced more frequently on new media platforms (Ekman, 2019; \u0026Ouml;zd\u0026uuml;zen et al., 2021; Yılmaz, Elmas, \u0026amp; Er\u0026ouml;z, 2023), and social media displays a dual character as both a space that contributes to participation/democracy/freedom of thought and a medium that facilitates the spread of hate speech (Casta\u0026ntilde;o-Pulgar\u0026iacute;n et al., 2021; Matamoros-Fern\u0026aacute;ndez \u0026amp; Farkas, 2021). For this reason, social media is not only a space where political debates are conducted; it is also an interaction environment experienced by individuals in their daily lives as a \u0026ldquo;space of everyday encounter,\u0026rdquo; with psychosocial effects. While the spread of anti-refugee discourses in the digital environment affects different segments of society, one of these segments is international students studying in higher education in Turkey. The fact that the number of international students has reached historically the highest levels in higher education indicates that the student group that may be affected by digital discrimination has also expanded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImportance of the research\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study is important in two respects. First, although the group targeted on social media is often Syrian refugees, the effect of the discourses produced is not limited only to the target group. In \u0026ldquo;secondary/side target\u0026rdquo; groups such as Afghan international students, it may also trigger perceptions of indirect threat, exclusion, and insecurity. Therefore, the study aims to make visible the way in which anti-refugee discourses turn into \u0026ldquo;generalized xenophobia\u0026rdquo; in society and the reflections of this on the psychosocial experiences of international students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, while universities accept more foreign-national students in line with their internationalization goals, the discriminatory discourses students encounter in the digital public sphere are often not systematically addressed at the institutional level. In this context, the study will contribute to making visible the digital discrimination to which international students in higher education may be exposed; and to developing concrete recommendations regarding possible support and policy tools for universities and social media platforms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePurpose of the research and research questions\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe aim of this research is to examine, through a qualitative approach, the psychosocial effects of Afghan international university students studying in Turkey encountering negative/discriminatory discourses directed at Syrian refugees during their social media use processes. The study aims to reveal how these encounters are reflected in students\u0026rsquo; emotional worlds, perceptions of security, social media use practices, and academic adaptation/motivation processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn line with this purpose, the research questions were structured around the following dimensions:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eQ1 (Exposure)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow frequently do you encounter negative/discriminatory content directed at Syrian refugees on social media?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eQ2 (Emotional impact)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat emotions do you experience when you encounter such content?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eQ3 (Indirect threat, exclusion)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn your opinion, are concepts such as \u0026ldquo;refugee, foreigner, guest\u0026rdquo; confused with one another on social media?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eQ4 (Experience of living in Turkey)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow do these discourses affect your life in Turkey? Do you experience problems in feeling safe, moving comfortably in public spaces, or stating your nationality?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eQ5 (Change in digital behaviour, coping)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen you are exposed to this content, does your use of social media change? (unfollowing, muting, not commenting, reporting, avoiding, etc.)? Do you have any method of managing this situation?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eQ6 (Academic motivation/adaptation\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;solution suggestions)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eDo these discourses affect your academic motivation? Do they have any effect on your sense of belonging to the university and on your adaptation process? In your opinion, how should universities support international students against digital discrimination, and what concrete measures should social media platforms take?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eConceptual Framework and Literature\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDigital discrimination and xenophobia\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDigital discrimination refers to the exclusion, humiliation, targeting, or restriction of individuals\u0026rsquo; access to opportunities in online environments for many different reasons. While this discrimination is carried out explicitly in the form of insults, hate speech, threats, and lynching culture, it can sometimes also be carried out in more implicit ways through stigmatizing labels, mocking humour, disinformation, and generalized stereotypes (Link \u0026amp; Phelan, 2001; Arendt, 2023). Since social media is a space where users can rapidly produce and disseminate content, discriminatory discourses can reach wide audiences in a short time. Comments, quoting practices, tagging practices, and \u0026ldquo;trend\u0026rdquo; mechanisms accelerate this spread (Ekman, 2019; Aldamen, 2023). One of the structures in which this discrimination is experienced most today is xenophobia. Xenophobia positions the individual as a threat at the societal level. It is the whole of attitudes and discourses that portray him/her as the source of economic, cultural, or security-based problems (Ahmed et al., 2021; Ekman, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn digital media, xenophobia is frequently reproduced through negative discourses and the reduction of migrant/refugee groups to a uniform and negative identity (Ekman, 2019; Arendt, 2023). When these discourses combine with populist frames that explain everyday problems through simple enemy images, they may increase feelings of stigma, exclusion, and insecurity among targeted groups (Link \u0026amp; Phelan, 2001; Aldamen, 2023). In addition, the confusion of concepts such as \u0026ldquo;refugee\u0026ndash;foreigner\u0026ndash;guest\u0026rdquo; with one another may lead to the spread of anger directed at a particular group to the whole category of \u0026ldquo;foreigners\u0026rdquo; and may cause secondary target groups (for example, Afghan international students) to feel themselves at risk as well (Abdelaaty, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn important dimension that strengthens digital discrimination is algorithmic visibility. The fact that provocative and anger-producing content receives more interaction may make this content even more visible. Thus, hateful or discriminatory language is supported not only by the attitudes of individual users but also by social media algorithms (Guess et al., 2025). As a result, targeted groups are exposed to constant attacks in the online sphere. The individual may tend to conceal his/her identity or may also experience anxiety in offline life (Aldamen, 2023). For this reason, digital discrimination is considered a multilayered social problem that does not \u0026ldquo;remain only on the internet\u0026rdquo; but extends to areas such as education, adaptation, belonging, and psychological well-being (Aldamen, 2023; Link \u0026amp; Phelan, 2001).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eIndirect/secondary victimization\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndirect/secondary victimization refers to the situation in which a discriminatory discourse or hate act produces psychological and social effects on persons or groups who are not the direct target. In other words, even if the target of the attack is a specific community, people who share similar identity characteristics or who are included in the same \u0026ldquo;foreigner/refugee\u0026rdquo; category may perceive it as if it were directed at themselves (Imperato \u0026amp; Mancini, 2025; Mulder et al., 2023). With this generalization, the thought that \u0026ldquo;I may be next\u0026rdquo; is strengthened, and this situation increases feelings of insecurity and exclusion in everyday life (Imperato \u0026amp; Mancini, 2025). In this context, such generalization constitutes a frequently encountered situation in the digital sphere. In Turkey, hate speech directed at Syrian refugees on social media has gained a widespread character (\u0026Ouml;zd\u0026uuml;zen et al., 2021). Groups such as Afghan international students, who are not directly at the centre of the discourse, may also experience this language as if it were directed at them. This is because, even if digital discourse often begins with a specific category such as \u0026ldquo;Syrian,\u0026rdquo; it is rapidly extended through comments and tagging to broader and more generalized categories such as \u0026ldquo;refugee,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;foreigner,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;illegal,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;asylum seeker\u0026rdquo;; thus, discrimination ceases to be directed at a particular group and turns into a more inclusive practice of exclusion directed at the identity of the \u0026ldquo;foreigner\u0026rdquo; (\u0026Ouml;zd\u0026uuml;zen et al., 2021; Uluğ et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis transformation may trigger behavioural and emotional reactions in secondary groups, especially such as concealing identity on social media, avoiding social settings, and feeling constantly on alert (Imperato \u0026amp; Mancini, 2025). Another dimension of indirect victimization is that hate speech disrupts individuals\u0026rsquo; perception of the \u0026ldquo;social climate.\u0026rdquo; That is, even if the person is not directly subjected to discrimination, repeatedly encountered hostile expressions in the digital sphere create the feeling that the ground of acceptance and tolerance in society as a whole has weakened (\u0026Ouml;zd\u0026uuml;zen et al., 2021; Uluğ et al., 2023). This situation may damage the sense of belonging and perception of security of international students; it may produce outcomes such as difficulties in adaptation to the university, reduced motivation, and withdrawal from social relationships (\u0026Ccedil;i\u0026ccedil;ek \u0026amp; Eser, 2025). For this reason, indirect/secondary victimization requires digital discrimination to be evaluated not merely as a problem experienced by the target group, but within a broader network of social impact (Imperato \u0026amp; Mancini, 2025; \u0026Ccedil;i\u0026ccedil;ek \u0026amp; Eser, 2025).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eBelonging, security, and university adjustment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe higher education experience of international students is not limited only to course achievement and academic outputs. Students\u0026rsquo; psychosocial well-being, social adjustment, sense of belonging, and perception of security are among the main determinants of this experience. Belonging is related to the student\u0026rsquo;s feeling that he/she is accepted on campus, valued, and recognized as a legitimate member of the university community. As this feeling is strengthened, students\u0026rsquo; academic productivity, well-being, and level of benefiting from institutional resources increase (Allen et al., 2025; Caligiuri et al., 2020). In contrast, the weakening of belonging may produce outcomes such as loneliness, social withdrawal, and distancing from the university, thereby making the adjustment process more fragile (Allen et al., 2025; Chen et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerception of security, on the other hand, is related to the student\u0026rsquo;s not feeling under threat both on campus and in everyday life outside the campus. In particular, exclusionary and hostile discourses targeting foreigners in online environments may create in students the feeling that they are unwanted persons at the university. Such digital and campus-related discrimination experiences may cause students to avoid social settings and, over time, to be perceived as maladjusted or withdrawn. Campus climate is shaped according to how students are received by the administration, academic staff, and other students; the strength of anti-discrimination rules and inclusive attitudes also directly affects this climate (Mitchell et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2024). It has also been shown that international students\u0026rsquo; encounters with microaggressions and discriminatory attitudes weaken their sense of belonging (George Mwangi et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt this point, the effect of digital discrimination and especially indirect/secondary victimization on university adjustment becomes even more visible. Such indirect victimization experiences produce consequences that can directly weaken universities\u0026rsquo; internationalization goals. The spread of a hostile climate in the digital sphere targeting the identity of the \u0026ldquo;foreigner\u0026rdquo; may erode international students\u0026rsquo; feelings of belonging and security, thereby reducing their participation in campus life and their academic visibility. This situation may damage the university\u0026rsquo;s externally perceived image as an inclusive and safe learning environment, negatively affecting both new international student applications and current students\u0026rsquo; commitment to the institution. Comprehensive review studies on internationalization show that the most effective institutional approaches for students should focus not only on attracting students but also on producing inclusion, bonding, support, and connection throughout the institution (Mittelmeier et al., 2023). Similarly, international students\u0026rsquo; access to support services is regarded as strategic in terms of adjustment, participation, and retention (Martirosyan et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, the weakening of multicultural interaction may also create negative effects on universities\u0026rsquo; international collaborations, exchange programmes, and research networks. The internationalization literature emphasizes that this process gains meaning not only through mobility and student numbers, but through the holistic design of teaching, student support, campus life, and institutional practices (Mittelmeier et al., 2023; Msomphora, 2025). As a result, digital discrimination and indirect victimization are not only an individual psychosocial problem; they are a structural area of risk affecting universities\u0026rsquo; international competitiveness, institutional attractiveness, and prestige.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this context, the relationship between belonging, security, and adjustment should be addressed not only as a psychological issue at the individual level, but also as an institutional domain that determines higher education institutions\u0026rsquo; capacity for inclusiveness and their performance in internationalization. It is of critical importance for universities to conduct awareness studies against digital discrimination, to develop accessible psychosocial support mechanisms for international students, and to strengthen the campus climate through inclusive norms in order to improve the international student experience (George Mwangi et al., 2024; Martirosyan et al., 2019; Mittelmeier et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eConfusion of concepts: refugee–migrant–foreigner–guest\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn discussions of migration and displacement in Turkey, the use of the concepts \u0026ldquo;refugee,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;migrant,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;foreigner,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;guest\u0026rdquo; interchangeably directly affects both the quality of public debate and the social perception of migration. Although these concepts are used in similar meanings in everyday language, each of them points to different legal statuses, rights, and obligations. Especially in the Turkish context, the legal position of Syrians is mostly defined not as \u0026ldquo;refugees,\u0026rdquo; but within the framework of the temporary protection regime; by contrast, the discourse of \u0026ldquo;guest\u0026rdquo; functions more as a political and social form of naming (Abdelaaty, 2021). The blurring of concepts may strengthen a generalizing perspective that gathers people under a single category of \u0026ldquo;foreigner,\u0026rdquo; rather than explaining the causes and dimensions of the migration phenomenon (Abdelaaty, 2021; \u0026Ouml;zd\u0026uuml;zen et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis conceptual confusion becomes especially more visible in social media environments. News headlines, tags, and user comments circulating on platforms can quickly carry criticism directed at a specific group into a broader category. Studies on digital racism and exclusionary discourse directed at Syrians in Turkey show that in online discussions, categories such as \u0026ldquo;Syrian,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;refugee,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;foreigner,\u0026rdquo; and similar labels become articulated with one another and turn into a more inclusive language of exclusion (\u0026Ouml;zd\u0026uuml;zen et al., 2021; Uluğ et al., 2023; Erdoğdu \u0026amp; Ko\u0026ccedil;oğlu, 2020). Thus, discriminatory discourses may begin by targeting a specific group, but can transform into a language of exclusion directed at all out-groups through categories such as \u0026ldquo;illegal,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;asylum seeker,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;foreigner\u0026rdquo; (\u0026Ouml;zd\u0026uuml;zen et al., 2021; Uluğ et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe confusion of concepts is not merely a linguistic problem; it is also a framing mechanism that shapes social relations. The emotional and political connotations of concepts such as \u0026ldquo;guest\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;refugee,\u0026rdquo; and the association of categories such as \u0026ldquo;migrant\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;foreigner\u0026rdquo; with security- and economy-oriented debates, can quickly turn into polarizing narratives on social media (Abdelaaty, 2021; Koca, 2022; Danış \u0026amp; Nazlı, 2022). This situation may negatively affect adjustment and belonging processes by increasing perceptions of misrecognition, exclusion, and insecurity not only among targeted groups but also among secondary groups such as international students. Studies on international students also show that generalizing perceptions related to foreignness and out-group status can weaken students\u0026rsquo; sense of belonging, security, and campus experiences (Mwangi \u0026amp; Yao, 2021; George Mwangi et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eResearch design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was designed with a qualitative research approach because it aims to reveal in depth the emotions, perceptions, and meaning-making processes related to Afghan international university students studying in Turkey encountering negative/discriminatory discourses directed at Syrian refugees on social media. The research design was structured within the framework of phenomenology (lived experience) because it is suitable for examining participants\u0026rsquo; experiences and the meanings they attribute to these experiences. In this context, the data source consists of a total of 40 semi-structured interviews conducted with Afghan students studying at different universities in Turkey.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main reason for choosing the phenomenological approach is to make visible what kind of psychosocial response discriminatory discourses encountered on social media create in the participants; which emotions these experiences trigger; and how students interpret and make sense of these contents. In line with this, through the narratives obtained from 40 interviews, the reflections of digital discrimination experiences on students\u0026rsquo; perception of security, sense of belonging, social media use practices, and adjustment processes to the university were analysed holistically. Thus, the study aimed to present an in-depth explanation centred on participant experiences rather than quantitative measurements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy group\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the first stage of the study, institutional data were examined in order to reveal the general framework of Afghan students studying in higher education in Turkey and to determine the access strategy of the research. In this context, according to the data of the Council of Higher Education (Y\u0026Ouml;K), there are a total of 9,149 officially registered Afghan students in Turkey in the 2024\u0026ndash;2025 Academic Year. Of these students, 6,539 are male and 2,610 are female (Y\u0026Ouml;K Atlas, 2025). However, information obtained from the Afghan Hazaras Culture and Solidarity Association and from various universities indicates that only 25%\u0026ndash;35% of these students are actively continuing their education, while the remaining group has either frozen their education or not completed the registration process. This situation has shown that the number of registered students may not fully reflect the reality of \u0026ldquo;active students\u0026rdquo; in the field.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince the research was conducted in a qualitative design, the study group was determined through purposive sampling in a way that would allow an in-depth understanding of experiences rather than quantitative representation. Accordingly, a total of 40 participants were selected from among Afghan international students studying in Turkey by considering maximum variation (gender, class level, city and university of study, department/programme type, and duration of stay in Turkey). The number of participants was not fixed definitively in advance; as the interviews progressed, it was assessed that qualitative saturation had been reached at the point where responses began to repeat and the production of new themes decreased, and the sample was therefore limited to 40 people. Participation in the interviews was entirely on a voluntary basis, and anonymity was ensured by keeping the identities of the participants confidential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data were collected through semi-structured interviews. The interview form was prepared in a way that would address the research questions of the study; it covers experiences of encountering negative/discriminatory discourses directed at Syrian refugees on social media, the emotional and behavioural effects of these experiences, perception of indirect threat/exclusion, feeling of security, academic adjustment, coping strategies, and solution suggestions. In addition, a short demographic form was applied in order to describe the characteristics of the participants (age, gender, duration of stay in Turkey, the most frequently used social media platforms, and duration of use, etc.). In order for the interviews to proceed through concrete examples, participants were optionally asked to describe an example of content they remembered from the last month, and this method was used as a recall trigger.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe qualitative data obtained were analysed through the thematic analysis method using MAXQDA software. In the analysis process, first, the interview records were transcribed and the texts were transferred into the MAXQDA environment. Then, (i) the data were read repeatedly in order to develop a holistic understanding in line with the research questions, (ii) meaningful expressions were identified and coded through open coding, (iii) codes with similar content were brought together through MAXQDA\u0026rsquo;s code system and sub-themes were created, (iv) the sub-themes were organized under higher-level themes, and (v) in order to make the relationships between the themes visible, a thematic map was created by making use of MAXQDA\u0026rsquo;s visualization tools. At the end of this process, the findings were systematically reported on the basis of the theme and sub-theme structure; where deemed necessary, they were interpreted by being supported with quotations from participant statements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eReliability and validity strategies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than one strategy was used to increase the reliability of the analysis. Where appropriate, the data were coded by two researchers and inter-coder agreement was checked. In addition, expert opinion was obtained in order to strengthen the consistency of the theme structure, and member checking was conducted in order to check whether the findings accurately reflected participant experiences. Besides this, the decisions taken in the data collection and analysis process were recorded in detail, thereby ensuring the traceability of the research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFindings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe demographic distributions of the university students within the scope of the research in terms of gender, marital status, level of education, age groups, and duration of residence in Turkey are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. No private information was asked in this table. Only information directly related to the subject was asked of the participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemographic characteristics of the participants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSub-category / Statistic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevel of education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUndergraduate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaster\u0026rsquo;s\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDoctorate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u0026ndash;21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u0026ndash;24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuration of residence in Turkey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u0026ndash;3 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u0026ndash;5 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;10 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 years and above\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, it is seen that the number of female participants is lower than the number of male participants. This was preferred in order to be parallel with the distribution of Afghan students studying in Turkey. Indeed, while forming the sample, the current demographic structure of Afghan students studying in higher education institutions in Turkey was taken into consideration. The data show that approximately half of the students are married. In addition, it is understood that more than half of the students have been residing in Turkey for 5 years or longer. This situation indicates that a significant proportion of these students came to the country during the period in which the issue of Syrian refugees was being intensely discussed in Turkey.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency of encountering negative content directed at Syrian refugees\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNever/Almost never\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRarely\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOccasionally\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequently\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVery frequently\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnclear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen the responses given to the question \u0026ldquo;frequency of encountering negative content directed at Syrian refugees\u0026rdquo; in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e are examined, it is seen that 92.5% of the participants encountered such content at least once. This situation can partly be explained by the fact that the participants themselves are also foreigners and therefore may be more sensitive to such content and develop selective perception. Nevertheless, the fact that approximately 34% of the participants stated that they encounter such content frequently or very frequently on social media shows that Afghan students are significantly confronted with negative discourses directed at Syrian refugees. The fact that the rate is this high also reveals how open social media environments are to negative discourses directed at refugees.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReported dominant emotional reactions when encountering negative content\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional reaction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSadness/negative affect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDesensitization/not caring\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnger/resentment/injustice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiscomfort/stress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnxiety/fear/uneasiness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpathy/identification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnclear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShame/guilt/embarrassment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeeling of exclusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHopelessness/helplessness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithdrawal/avoidance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, when the dominant emotional reactions reported upon encountering negative content are examined, it is seen that the most prominent reactions are sadness and being overwhelmed by negative emotions. Although only three participants stated in the interviews that they directly identified these contents with themselves, the findings clearly reveal that these contents create significant psychological effects. In contrast, it is understood that only six participants did not care about such contents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevels of indirect threat, conceptual confusion, security, digital behaviour, and academic impact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDimension\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS3: Perception of indirect threat/exclusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS3: Perception of indirect threat/exclusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePartly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS3: Perception of indirect threat/exclusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS4: Perception of conceptual confusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS4: Perception of conceptual confusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePartly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS4: Perception of conceptual confusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS4: Perception of conceptual confusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnclear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS5: Security/life impact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS5: Security/life impact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePartly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS5: Security/life impact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS6: Change in digital behaviour\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS6: Change in digital behaviour\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePartly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS6: Change in digital behaviour\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS7: Academic motivation/adjustment impact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS7: Academic motivation/adjustment impact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePartly\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS7: Academic motivation/adjustment impact\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e is examined, it is seen that psychological effects clearly emerged among the individuals participating in the research. It is understood that, apart from 6 participants, a total of 34 Afghan university students were affected by negative social media posts directed at Syrians in terms of indirect threat and perception of exclusion. Similarly, it is seen that the perception of conceptual confusion also occurred at the same level. In addition, it was determined that there was a decrease in the perception of security among Afghan students at rates close to this. Besides this, a decline in academic motivation and a change in digital behaviours are also among the findings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoping strategies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoping strategy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlocking/unfollowing/reporting\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot using any method\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIgnoring/not caring\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAvoidance/distancing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSilence/non-engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeking social support\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotion regulation/staying calm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurning to positive activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eActing cautiously/becoming invisible\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnclear\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaking a break from social media\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeking institutional support\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProducing counter-content\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformation verification/confirmation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e is examined, it is seen that the coping strategies of the participants in the research differ considerably. In particular, coping forms such as blocking, unfollowing, reporting, not using any method, and ignoring/not caring are understood to come to the fore more. However, it is seen that these strategies are largely unsupported forms of coping and that most of them are passive in nature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupport mechanisms expected from universities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpected support from universities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation/awareness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstitutional policy/coordination\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInclusiveness and equality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComplaint/reporting mechanism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychological and multilingual support\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLegal/security/administrative protection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial support/peer mentoring\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnclear/no opinion response\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e is examined, it is seen that the participants highlighted education/awareness, institutional policy/coordination, and inclusiveness and equality the most in coping with these negativities. The results obtained from the study reveal, through participant views, that although there are many foreign-national students at universities in Turkey, a sufficiently professional approach is not displayed on this issue and the problem is not given the necessary level of importance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasures expected from social media platforms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpected measure from platforms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLegal/state intervention and banning\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAwareness-raising/ethical language\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRapid content removal/moderation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlgorithmic/AI/multilingual monitoring\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccount sanction/punishment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReporting/complaint system\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUser safety/protection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponse without specific measure/evaluative response\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e is examined, it is seen that the participants expressed quite different views regarding the prevention of such content on social media platforms. Among these views, the most striking are demands for legal/state intervention and banning. The view with the highest rate is in favour of the complete banning of such posts. However, it is understood that approximately half of the participants could not develop any solution proposal and did not make any concrete demand from social media platforms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis research has revealed that Afghan international university students studying in Turkey are affected at a meaningful level by negative discourses directed at Syrian refugees on social media. The findings show that digital discrimination affects not only the target group but also other groups that may similarly be perceived as \u0026ldquo;foreigners,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;migrants,\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;refugees.\u0026rdquo; This result indicates that hate speech directed at migrants and refugees on social media creates not only an exclusion at the level of content, but also a broader social exclusion. In particular, online hate speech has a structure fed by platform policies, political polarization, populist discourses, and threat perceptions. This can also legitimize negative attitudes not only toward the targeted group but also toward broader social categories (Gracia-Caland\u0026iacute;n \u0026amp; Su\u0026aacute;rez-Montoya, 2023; Malmasi \u0026amp; Zampieri, 2017; Matamoros-Fern\u0026aacute;ndez \u0026amp; Farkas, 2021; Rawat et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe first important finding of the research is that almost all of the participants had encountered negative content directed at Syrian refugees on social media. This situation parallels the work of researchers examining digital racism and the creation of online spaces in the Turkish context (\u0026Ouml;zd\u0026uuml;zen, 2020; \u0026Ouml;zd\u0026uuml;zen et al., 2021). These studies show that social media accounts relating to Syrians in Turkey produce exclusionary language; that is, anti-refugee discourse has gained a highly visible structure in the digital sphere rather than being exceptional. Current studies examining xenophobia directed at refugees on social media also reveal similar results to these studies (Amores \u0026amp; Arcila-Calder\u0026oacute;n, 2025; Kentmen-Cin, 2025; Pradel, 2025).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fact that the participants reported exposure at frequent or very frequent levels stems from discussions of algorithmic visibility and the interaction economy. The studies of Matamoros-Fern\u0026aacute;ndez show that content producing anger, provocation, and polarization can become more visible within platform logic (Matamoros-Fern\u0026aacute;ndez \u0026amp; Farkas, 2021; Matamoros-Fern\u0026aacute;ndez et al., 2021). In this context, Afghan students are exposed to negative posts not only accidentally, but repeatedly due to the visibility dynamics of the platforms. Therefore, this study shows that anti-refugee discourse in Turkey becomes part not only of the political or media level, but also of everyday user experience through algorithmic circulation. The findings obtained in terms of emotional effects also overlap significantly with the literature. In the research, the most dominant emotional reactions are seen to be sadness, stress, and anxiety. This is also compatible with studies showing that online hate speech not only produces public debate, but also creates emotional and psychosocial consequences. In particular, it has been shown that negative discourses targeting migrants reinforce negative stereotypes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, it was included in the findings that experiences of discrimination and indirect discrimination weaken the sense of belonging. From this perspective, the findings of sadness and uneasiness in your study weaken the sense of belonging especially among individuals who have lived in Turkey for a long time. However, the fact that some participants in your research responded in the direction of \u0026ldquo;desensitization\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;not caring\u0026rdquo; also constitutes a similar situation in the literature (Li et al., 2017; Nicklin et al., 2020). Although this type of reaction may appear at first glance as not being affected, it may lead to deeper psychological effects. In particular, emotional distancing and ignoring are very frequently seen behaviours among individuals who repeatedly encounter discriminatory content.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the strongest contributions of the study is to show that content directly targeting Syrians produces a perception of exclusion among Afghan students. This finding is highly consistent with the literature on vicarious discrimination, that is, indirect/secondary discrimination (Achiume, 2013; Bell, 2025; Costello \u0026amp; Foster, 2022). Studies show that even if individuals are not the direct victims of discrimination, they can be psychologically affected by exclusionary discourses directed at communities they see as close to their own identity group. Research conducted in the context of higher education also reveals that indirect discrimination is associated with mental health outcomes and can produce negative effects especially on anxiety and well-being (Mickelson, 2003; Pager \u0026amp; Shepherd, 2008). It suggests that Afghan students also experience social media discourse as if it were directed at themselves through the thought that \u0026ldquo;we may look like them too.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe biggest reason why Afghan university students feel social media discourse as if it were directed at themselves stems from the perception of conceptual confusion. They stated that categories such as \u0026ldquo;refugee,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;foreigner,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;illegal,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;guest\u0026rdquo; are confused with one another on social media. This result overlaps with the findings of \u0026Ouml;zd\u0026uuml;zen and colleagues showing that Syrians in Turkey are re-categorized in the digital sphere and that discourse spreads from a specific group to broader out-group categories (\u0026Ouml;zd\u0026uuml;zen et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings regarding perception of security are also largely parallel to the literature and indicate that half of the participants stated that these discourses on social media affect their life experience and sense of security in Turkey. The existing literature has revealed that online exclusionary discourses cause not only emotional reactions in individuals but also more cautious behaviour in public space (Kuneva \u0026amp; Hough, 2023; Sutkutė, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings regarding change in digital behaviour are also supported by the literature. The majority of the participants adopted strategies such as unfollowing, muting, avoidance, not commenting, and becoming invisible. In fact, this also triggers fear of social media. It shows that students think they are not sufficiently protected in the digital sphere and try to secure themselves more through individual defence (Dekker et al., 2018; Udwan et al., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effects on academic motivation and university adjustment are also among the aspects of the research that are strongly connected to the literature. It indicates that a significant proportion of the participants stated that their academic motivation and adjustment to the university were affected. It is seen that these posts weaken the phenomenon of belonging in higher education, namely the student\u0026rsquo;s feeling of being accepted, supported, and recognized as a legitimate member. For this reason, this situation should be read not only as an individual loss of morale, but as the erosion by the digital climate of exclusion of the relationship that the student establishes with the university community (Allen et al., 2018; Caligiuri et al., 2020; Roseth et al., 2011; Tice et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings regarding the support mechanisms expected from universities bring to the fore the participants\u0026rsquo; demands for awareness studies, institutional policy, inclusiveness, complaint mechanisms, and multilingual psychosocial support. In this context, the results are parallel to the recommendations of current studies on migrant and international student well-being. These studies have revealed that belonging and well-being cannot be explained only by individual resilience and that institutional support must definitely exist (Caligiuri et al., 2020; Roseth et al., 2011).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is also noteworthy that a significant proportion of the participants could not produce concrete solutions regarding the measures expected from social media platforms. A considerable number of participants, on the other hand, want harsher measures, banning, and state intervention. Although there are solution proposals in the studies in the literature, in our research participants could not put forward a tangible solution proposal on this issue (Aldamen, 2023; Kuneva \u0026amp; Hough, 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen we evaluate the discussion section of this research in general, it is seen that digital hate speech directed at Syrian refugees in Turkey creates secondary victimization for Afghan international students in many respects. It is seen that this victimization directly affects their university education and daily lives. It adds the international student experience in the position of a \u0026ldquo;secondary target\u0026rdquo; to the digital discrimination literature. Discussions of belonging, security, and adjustment should be reconsidered through the context of social media. Public information studies should be carried out to reduce conceptual ambiguities regarding migration, refugeehood, and international student statuses.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eAt the conclusion of the study, it emerged that Afghan international university students studying in Turkey are affected by negative discourses directed at Syrian refugees on social media. The findings show that posts circulating on social media can create among Afghan students a perception of indirect threat, a sense of exclusion, insecurity, anxiety, discomfort, and loss of belonging. In particular, the confusion of concepts such as \u0026ldquo;refugee\u0026ndash;foreigner\u0026ndash;guest\u0026ndash;illegal\u0026rdquo; causes the discourse to become more effective. Social media broadens the scope of the discourse and makes it more difficult for students to position themselves outside this hostile climate. As a result of the research, it was understood that the discriminatory language produced on social media does not remain limited only to the digital environment. It has been understood that it affects students\u0026rsquo; social media usage habits, daily life experiences, perceptions of security, and academic motivations. A significant portion of the students try to protect themselves through individual means such as becoming invisible on social media, remaining silent, and avoiding. The general result of the study is that negative discourses directed at Syrian refugees on social media produce secondary victimization among Afghan students and that this gives rise to psychosocially significant consequences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this context, universities, social media platforms, and policy makers have responsibilities in eliminating this problem:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1- It may be recommended that adaptation and orientation training be provided for newly enrolled foreign-national students at the university. These trainings may have a positive effect on students\u0026rsquo; adaptation to the university and the new environment they have come to, as well as on their self-confidence.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2- Universities should provide awareness training on this issue and guidance and psychological counselling support can be given to victimized students. With this support, foreign students may be helped in coping with feelings of loneliness, anxiety, stress, and discrimination.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3- Universities may prepare and implement clear and explicit policies and programmes against discrimination and exclusionary behaviours. Within the scope of interaction with society, universities may enable their integration with the local people through volunteering programmes, city introduction programmes, and activities held on special days.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4- Training may be provided at the universities where they study for domestic students and staff on multiculturalism and intercultural communication. In particular, trainings, seminars, and conferences may be organized for domestic students on issues of social acceptance. This may positively affect the communication and interaction of domestic and foreign-national students as well as their adjustment, adaptation, and success.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, in this context, social media platforms and policy makers also have responsibilities in preventing and eliminating this problem:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1- They need to behave more humanely by setting aside commercial concerns. Social media tools are among those that will play the most critical role in this matter.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2- Great responsibility falls on policy makers regarding social media. More effective legal sanctions should be established in combating hate speech in the media.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a result, this study shows that anti-refugee discourse produced in the digital public sphere in Turkey creates a climate of exclusion that affects not only the communities directly targeted, but also a broader group of foreign students. The experiences of Afghan international students reveal that digital discrimination is a problem area in the context of higher education that is invisible but produces powerful consequences. For this reason, universities, policy makers, and social media platforms need to develop more inclusive, protective, and rights-based mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for this study was granted by the Uşak University Social and Human Sciences Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee. The committee reviewed the study titled “The Psychosocial Effects of Negative Social Media Discourses Directed at Syrian Refugees on Afghan International University Students: A Qualitative Study” and approved it as ethically appropriate on 20 November 2025 with Decision No. 2025-330. Ethical principles were observed throughout the research process. The purpose and scope of the study were explained to the participants, and informed consent was obtained on the basis of voluntary participation. The identity information of the participants was kept confidential, and anonymity was ensured in the interview records and transcripts. Since the study included sensitive topics such as hate speech and discriminatory content, the possibility of psychological distress was taken into consideration. Participants were informed that they could terminate the interview at any time and had the right not to answer any questions. When necessary, participants were referred to appropriate psychosocial support services.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbdelaaty, L. (2021). Refugees and guesthood in Turkey. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Refugee Studies, 34\u003c/em\u003e(3), 2827\u0026ndash;2848. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fez097\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAchiume, E. T. (2013). Beyond prejudice: Structural xenophobic discrimination against refugees. Geo. J. Int\u0026apos;l L., 45, 323.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAhmed, S., Chen, V. H.-H., \u0026amp; Chib, A. (2021). 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Refugee sociality, time and the state: social temporalities of displacement in the Germany-Turkey chronotope (Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"social media, hate speech, Syrian refugees, Afghan students, digital discrimination, secondary victimisation","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9137461/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9137461/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examines the psychological effects on Afghan international students legally residing in Turkey of negative social media content directed at Syrian refugees. Although Afghan students are not the direct target of these contents, such discourses may indirectly create feelings of threat, exclusion, insecurity, and weakened sense of belonging. The research was conducted within the framework of a qualitative phenomenological design, and the data collected through semi-structured interviews with 40 Afghan international students studying at different universities in Turkey were analysed using the thematic analysis method. The findings show that most of the participants frequently encounter negative content directed at Syrian refugees on social media. In general, the findings indicate that digital anti-refugee discourse produces significant psychosocial consequences for Afghan international students. In addition, in the conclusion section of the study, solution recommendations were presented for preventing negative content and for reducing the psychological effects on individuals exposed to such content.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Psychosocial Effects of Negative Social Media Discourses Directed at Syrian Refugees on Afghan International University Students: A Qualitative Study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-06 01:33:40","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9137461/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"c4ed4acd-c866-4555-87ee-d10247dbca81","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 6th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"263301495745774571988572546296263474698","date":"2026-05-07T07:53:56+00:00","index":16,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-06T01:33:40+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-06 01:33:40","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9137461","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9137461","identity":"rs-9137461","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}