Anti-obesity Activity of Radish Vinegar Fermented with Acetobacter pasteurianus SRCM102411 in High-Fat Diet–Fed Mice

Anti-obesity Activity of Radish Vinegar Fermented with Acetobacter pasteurianus SRCM102411 in High-Fat Diet–Fed Mice | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Anti-obesity Activity of Radish Vinegar Fermented with Acetobacter pasteurianus SRCM102411 in High-Fat Diet–Fed Mice Ha-Rim Kim, Seung-Hyeon Lee, Eun-Mi Noh, Min Ju Kim, Seung Wha Jo, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8172371/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In recent years, the prevalence of overweight and obesity has continued to rise, largely driven by increased consumption of calorie-dense Western-style foods and reduced physical activity. Fermented vinegars produced from natural ingredients are known to contain a variety of health-promoting components, including vitamins, amino acids, and minerals. Although fruit-based fermented vinegars have been reported to exert beneficial effects on body weight control and bone health, the potential metabolic benefits of radish vinegar fermented with Acetobacter pasteurianus SRCM102411 (KCCM13362P) have not yet been clarified. To address this gap, we examined the effects of daikon-derived fermented vinegar in a mouse model of di-et-induced obesity. Mice receiving a high-fat diet for 12 weeks showed marked increases in body weight, epididymal fat mass, and liver size, whereas these obesity-related changes were noticeably reduced in animals treated with the fermented radish vinegar. Serum lipid markers, including triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol, were significantly elevated in the obese group but were lowered following vinegar administration. In addition, the fermented vinegar reduced circulating leptin and insulin levels, indicating an improvement in obesity-associated hormonal dysregulation. Collectively, these findings suggest that fermented radish vinegar may serve as a promising dietary agent for attenuating obesity and its metabolic consequences. Further mechanistic studies are required to elucidate how this fermented product influences lipid metabolism and endocrine regulation. Biological sciences/Biochemistry Health sciences/Diseases Biological sciences/Microbiology Biological sciences/Physiology Radish vinegar Fermentation Acetobacter pasteurianus SRCM102411 (KCCM13362P) Obesity High-fat diet Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Introduction Obesity has become one of the most pressing global health challenges, driven largely by increased consumption of high calorie foods and reduced physical activity [ 1 ]. Excessive nutrient intake promotes the expansion of adipose tissue through lipid accumulation and adipocyte hypertrophy, ultimately contributing to diverse metabolic disorders, including type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, cardiovascular disease, and fatty liver [ 2 – 4 ]. Although several pharmacological therapies are currently available to support weight management, their use is often limited by side effects, high cost, or restricted long-term applicability. Consequently, there is growing interest in identifying safe, food-derived alternatives that can help regulate body weight and improve metabolic homeostasis. Radish is a commonly consumed vegetable rich in vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals, and fermentation may further enhance its functional properties [ 5 , 6 ]. However, the potential anti-obesity effect of radish vinegar fermented with Acetobacter pasteurianus SRCM102411 (KCCM13362P) has not yet been clarified. To address this gap, the present study evaluated whether fermented radish vinegar can ameliorate obesity-related altera-tions induced by a high-fat diet. Using a mouse model, we examined changes in body weight, adipose tissue morphology, lipid profiles, liver steatosis, and key metabolic biomarkers following long-term administration of the fermented vinegar. Fermentation has been used for centuries as a way to enhance the nutritional and functional value of foods [ 7 ]. During this process, microorganisms transform the original raw materials and generate a variety of new bioactive substances including organic acids, peptides, and antioxidant molecules, which can exert diverse physiological effects [ 8 , 9 ]. These fermentation-derived metabolites are known to modulate lipid metabolism, regulate inflammatory pathways, and influence the composition of the gut microbiota [ 10 , 11 ]. Be-cause fermentation produces compounds and enzymes that are absent in the unprocessed ingredients, fermented products can act as efficient carriers of naturally derived functional components, supporting both bioavailability and long-term consumption [ 12 , 13 ]. In addition, fermented food matrices often contain abundant beneficial microbes and their metabolites, which help maintain gastrointestinal stability by protecting against harmful pathogens and tolerating harsh digestive conditions such as bile salts and gastric acid [ 14 , 15 ]. Lactic acid bacteria are widely recognized as dominant microorganisms in many fermented foods and are closely associated with improvements in metabolic health [ 16 ]. Probiotic or prebiotic intake has been reported to alleviate obesity-related disturbances, including abnormal lipid patterns [ 17 , 18 ]. Foods fermented with Acetobacter include vine-gar, kombucha, and certain sour fermented beverages, all of which typically contain high levels of acetic acid [ 19 ]. The consumption of these products has been linked to improvements in metabolic health. These benefits are thought to result from the microorganisms involved in fermentation and the various metabolites they produce. Among these metabolites, acetic acid and other bioactive compounds are considered major contributors to the observed metabolic effects [ 20 , 21 ]. Among various fermented products, microbially derived vinegar has attracted attention because it contains acetic acid and fermentation associated metabolites that may help control body weight, regulate lipid levels, and support metabolic balance [ 22 ]. Although fruit and grain based vinegars have been relatively well studied [ 23 ], the potential health benefits of radish vinegar produced through microbial fermentation have not been thoroughly examined. Therefore, investigating radish-derived fermented vinegar represents an important step toward understanding its physiological and metabolic effects. This investigation provides foundational evidence for the physiological roles of fermented radish vinegar and contributes to the broader understanding of how fermentation-derived food ingredients may support the prevention and management of obesity. Results Effects of FRV Administration on Body Weight and Food Intake in HFD-Fed Mice At the beginning of the experiment, all groups displayed comparable body weights. From the first week onward, mice in the HFD group began to gain weight more rapidly than those in the N group. By the end of the 12-week feeding period, the HFD group reached a final body weight of 39.68 ± 1.16 g, approximately 1.29-fold higher than that of the N group. In contrast, mice receiving FRV showed a much smaller increase in body weight, and this reduction was statistically significant (Figure 1A). Throughout the study, overall food consumption did not differ markedly among the groups (Figure 1B). Nevertheless, the mean food intake displayed a significant alteration (Figure 1C), and the food efficiency ratio (FER) was markedly lower in the FRV-treated mice compared with the HFD group (Figure 1D). These findings collectively suggest that FRV may exert a beneficial effect on obesity induced by a high-fat diet. FRV Prevents Adipogenesis and Lipid Accumulation in HFD-Fed Mice Following 12 weeks of high-fat feeding, the HFD group displayed a marked elevation in epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT) mass compared with the N group, whereas mice receiving FRV showed a clear reduction in eWAT weight (Figure 2A). Consistently, the ratio of eWAT to total body weight was also lowered by FRV administration (Figure 2B). Histological examination of eWAT was carried out using H&E staining. Obese mice fed the high-fat diet exhibited pronounced adipocyte enlargement and occasional structural damage within the fat tissue (Figure 2C). In contrast, FRV-treated mice showed noticeably smaller and more uniform adipocytes, indicating attenuation of HFD-driven hypertrophy (Figure 2C). To further assess whether FRV mitigated hepatic lipid accumulation, Oil Red O staining was performed on liver sections. The livers of HFD-fed mice contained abundant red lipid droplets and disrupted cellular morphology, confirming severe steatosis (Figure 2D). However, FRV supplementation alleviated lipid deposition and reduced hepatic cell distortion (Figure 2D). Together, these observations indicate that FRV effectively suppresses adipocyte hypertrophy and intrahepatic lipid buildup in mice with diet-induced obesity. Effects of FRV on Serum Lipid Profiles in HFD-Fed Mice To determine whether FRV supplementation improves lipid metabolism in mice subjected to a high-fat diet, serum triglyceride (TG), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels were assessed. HFD feeding markedly elevated TG, LDL and HDL concentrations compared with the normal group. Administration of FRV significantly reduced the HFD-induced rise in TG, LDL and HDL levels, indicating an improvement in circulating lipid status (Figure 3 A–C). Collectively, these findings suggest that FRV supplementation attenuates dyslipidemia associated with high-fat diet-induced obesity. Effects of FRV on Liver Damage in HFD-Fed Mice To assess whether FRV influences glucose homeostasis in diet-induced obesity, fasting blood glucose levels and HbA1c were measured after 12 weeks of treatment. Mice fed a high-fat diet showed elevation in fasting glucose compared with the low-fat diet group. Administration of FRV led to a reduction in fasting glucose, showing improvement relative to the HFD group (Figure 4A). Moreover, HbA1c levels were markedly increased in HFD-fed mice when compared with the controls. FRV supplementation effectively lowered HbA1c, resulting in a significant decrease relative to the untreated HFD group (#P < 0.05) (Figure 4B). These results indicate that FRV ameliorates chronic glucose elevation and may contribute to improved glycemic regulation in HFD-induced obese mice. Effects of FRV on HFD-Induced Insulin Resistance To determine whether FRV improves obesity-associated insulin resistance, serum leptin and insulin concentrations were assessed in mice fed a high-fat diet. As shown in Figure 5A, leptin levels were markedly elevated in the HFD group compared with the normal control, confirming the development of adipose tissue dysfunction. FRV administration significantly reduced circulating leptin, with decreases observed relative to the untreated HFD group, indicating an improvement in leptin dysregulation. A similar pattern was observed for serum insulin (Figure 5B). High-fat diet feeding led to a pronounced rise in insulin levels, whereas treatment with FRV effectively lowered insulin concentrations to levels significantly below those of the HFD group. These findings demonstrate that FRV mitigates key markers of insulin resistance in diet-induced obese mice, suggesting a beneficial role in restoring metabolic homeostasis. Discussion In this study, we demonstrated that radish vinegar fermented with Acetobacter pasteurianus SRCM102411 effectively mitigates multiple obesity-related abnormalities induced by a prolonged high-fat diet. Although all mice consumed similar amounts of food, the group receiving fermented radish vinegar consistently showed lower body weight gain and decreased white adipose tissue expansion compared with untreated obese mice. This indicates that the anti-obesity effects of fermented radish vinegar are not attributable to reduced caloric intake but rather to physiological improvements that limit lipid accumulation or promote lipid utilization. Adipose tissue histology further supported this conclusion. Mice fed only the high-fat diet exhibited enlarged and damaged adipocytes, as well as marked hepatic lipid accumulation, hallmarks of metabolic disturbance associated with obesity. In contrast, fermented radish vinegar supplementation reduced adipocyte hypertrophy and attenuated hepatic steatosis, suggesting that the vinegar influences both peripheral fat deposition and liver lipid handling. These findings align with previous re-ports that certain fermented foods enhance metabolic stability by improving lipid metabolism and reducing inflammation. A key aspect of obesity induced metabolic dysfunction is the elevation of circulating lipids and adipokines. The fermented radish vinegar significantly lowered serum triglyceride, LDL, and HDL levels, all of which were elevated in the high-fat diet group. Although HDL is typically regarded as a protective lipid, increases driven by diet-induced obesity may reflect impaired lipid turnover rather than improved cardiovascular health. Therefore, the reductions observed in the FRV-treated group likely indicate a normalization of dysregulated lipid metabolism. In addition, leptin and insulin which are markers of adipose dysfunction and early contributors to insulin resistance [ 24 , 25 ], were markedly elevated in high-fat diet–fed mice but significantly reduced by fermented radish vinegar. Lower circulating leptin implies a reduction in adipocyte stress and improved energy balance regulation, while decreased insulin levels may reflect enhanced insulin sensitivity. Together, these data indicate that fermented radish vinegar may prevent the progression from obesity to more severe metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes. Fermented foods contain diverse bioactive molecules generated during microbial fermentation, including organic acids, short-chain fatty acids and antioxidant com-pounds [ 26 ]. Such metabolites are known to influence lipid metabolism, inflammation, and gut microbiota composition [ 27 ]. Although this study did not investigate specific mechanisms, it is plausible that compounds produced during radish fermentation, possibly in combination with acetic acid produced by A. pasteurianus , contribute to the observed anti-obesity effects. Future mechanistic studies should explore whether fermented radish vinegar affects pathways such as AMPK signaling, adipogenesis, gut microbial modulation, or fatty acid oxidation. Despite the clear beneficial outcomes, some limitations re-main. The study focused on a single dose of fermented radish vinegar and did not evaluate dose–response relationships or compare it with non-fermented radish preparations. Additionally, molecular markers involved in lipid metabolism, inflammatory signaling, or adipocyte differentiation were not assessed. Investigating these pathways would help clarify whether the vinegar exerts its effects through direct action on metabolic tissues or through systemic metabolic regulation. Overall, our findings suggest that radish vinegar fermented with A. pasteurianus SRCM102411 holds promise as a functional food ingredient capable of improving obesity-related metabolic impairments. Its ability to reduce fat accumulation, normalize lipid profiles, and alleviate early markers of insulin resistance highlights its potential value for preventing obesity-associated diseases. Additional studies are warranted to identify the active components generated during fermentation and to elucidate the mechanisms underlying these beneficial effects. Materials and Methods Preparation of fermented radish vinegar Fresh radishes used for vinegar production were supplied by K&P Food Co. and juiced prior to use. The obtained radish juice was diluted with distilled water at a 1:1 (v/v) ratio to prepare a 50% radish solution. To this diluted juice, sucrose (2%, w/v) and yeast extract (1%, v/v) were added, followed by sterilization at 80 °C for 30 min using an auto-clave to prepare a radish–yeast mixture. White vinegar was then added to adjust the initial acidity of the mixture to 2.5%. Subsequently, ethanol (10%, v/v) was introduced based on the initial radish dilution volume to formulate the acetic acid fermentation medium. The medium was inoculated with Acetobacter pasteurianus SRCM102411 (KCCM13362P) culture (5%, v/v; 8 Log CFU/mL) and incubated at 30 °C with shaking at 150 rpm for 8 days to produce fermented radish vinegar (FRV). Animals Six-week-old male C57BL/6 mice, certified as specific pathogen-free, were obtained from Damul Science (Daejeon, Korea). After arrival, the animals underwent a one-week acclimation period. Throughout the experiment, the mice were maintained under standardized environmental conditions, including a 12-hour light–dark cycle, controlled temperature of 22 ± 2 °C, and relative humidity of 55 ± 5%. All procedures involving animals were reviewed and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the Jeonju AgroBio-Materials Institute (approval number: JAMI IACUC 2022003). The study is reported in accordance with the ARRIVE guidelines (https://arriveguidelines.org) [28]. Experimental Groups The animals were randomly assigned to four experimental conditions: a normal diet group (N), a high-fat diet group (HFD), a positive control group (PC), and a fermented radish vinegar treated group (FRV), with seven mice allocated to each. Obesity was induced in the HFD, PC, and FRV groups by providing a diet in which 60% of the total calories were derived from fat for a period of 12 weeks, while the N group received a standard diet containing 10% kcal from fat. During the same period, the PC group was given orlistat at a dose of 60 mg/kg, and the FRV group received fermented radish vinegar at 5 mL/kg via oral administration. The N and HFD groups were provided with distilled water as a vehicle control. At the end of experiment, anesthesia was performed by intraperitoneal (IP) injection of avertin (250 mg/kg). After anesthesia, mice were euthanized by CO₂ inhalation. And death of mice was confirmed by cessation of heartbeat, respiratory arrest and lack of reflexes. Evaluation of Biomarkers in Serum Serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and leptin were measured using ELISA kits from R&D Systems (Abingdon, UK). Triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), and high-density lipo-protein (HDL) concentrations were determined using kits from Asan Pharm (Seoul, Korea), whereas low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and insulin levels were measured with kits from CrystalChem (Elk Grove, CA, USA). All assays were performed according to the manufacturers’ instructions. Histology Mice liver and adipose tissues were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and embedded in paraffin. Tissue sections (4 μm thick) were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) for adipose tissues and Oil Red O for liver tissues. Statistical Analysis All statistical analyses were performed using Sigmaplot v16.0 (Systat Software Inc., San Jose, CA, USA), and results are presented as mean ± standard deviation. Differences among three or more groups were assessed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan’s multiple comparison test. Statistical significance was defined as p < 0.05. For comparisons between two groups, an unpaired t-test was applied, and results are reported as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM), along with 95% confidence intervals (CI) and p values. Declarations Funding Declaration statement This research was financially supported by the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy (MOTIE), Korea, under the “Infrastructure Program for Smart Specialization, supervised by the Korea In-stitute for Advancement of Technology (KIAT) (P0017238). Acknowledgement This research was financially supported by the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy (MOTIE), Korea, under the “Infrastructure Program for Smart Specialization, supervised by the Korea Institute for Advancement of Technology (KIAT) (P0017238). Author contributions Conceptualization, H.-R.K., S-H.L., S.-Y.K. and M.H.P.; methodology, H.-R.K., S-H.L., E.-M.N. and M.J.K.; software, H.-R.K. and S.-H.L.; validation, H.-R.K. and S.-H.L. E.-M.N. and M.J.K.; formal analysis, H.-R.K. and S.-H.L.; investigation, S.-Y.K. and M.H.P.; resources, S.H.J., D.-Y.J. and S.K.; data curation H.-R.K., S.-H.L., S.-Y.K. and M.H.P.; writing—original draft preparation, H.-R.K., S-H.L., S.-Y.K. and M.H.P..; writing—review and editing, S.-Y.K. and M.H.P.; visualization, H.-R.K. and S.-H.L.; supervision, S.-Y.K. and M.H.P.; project administration, D.-Y.J. and S.-Y.K.; funding acquisition, S.-Y.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Data availability statement The data presented in this study are available in this article. Competing Interests Statement The authors declare no competing interests. References Ahmed, S.K., Mohammed, R.A. 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Our extended microbiome: The human-relevant metabolites and biology of fermented foods. Cell Metab 36 , 684-701. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2024.03.007 (2024). Du Sert, N. P. et al. Reporting animal research: Explanation and elaboration for the ARRIVE guidelines 2.0. PLoS biology 18, e3000411 (2020). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8172371","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":582098731,"identity":"708b415e-18fe-499b-8a7a-411845058193","order_by":0,"name":"Ha-Rim Kim","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Jeonju AgroBio-Materials Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ha-Rim","middleName":"","lastName":"Kim","suffix":""},{"id":582098732,"identity":"986e9539-93d3-4d92-9d1a-8e64e7878310","order_by":1,"name":"Seung-Hyeon Lee","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Jeonju AgroBio-Materials Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Seung-Hyeon","middleName":"","lastName":"Lee","suffix":""},{"id":582098733,"identity":"39e68582-0c28-4c2b-b3da-dae05e6d2974","order_by":2,"name":"Eun-Mi Noh","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Jeonju AgroBio-Materials Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eun-Mi","middleName":"","lastName":"Noh","suffix":""},{"id":582098734,"identity":"a4a3b7dd-330b-4847-b41d-def9da394a23","order_by":3,"name":"Min Ju Kim","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Jeonju AgroBio-Materials Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Min","middleName":"Ju","lastName":"Kim","suffix":""},{"id":582098736,"identity":"64743335-4503-461f-9189-4a8666dcc116","order_by":4,"name":"Seung Wha Jo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Microbial Institute for Fermentation Industry","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Seung","middleName":"Wha","lastName":"Jo","suffix":""},{"id":582098737,"identity":"ff797df9-fb92-4070-990a-a6795118c680","order_by":5,"name":"Do-Youn Jeong","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Microbial Institute for Fermentation Industry","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Do-Youn","middleName":"","lastName":"Jeong","suffix":""},{"id":582098738,"identity":"b2b2a5af-b96c-45e3-ae0e-4ea713f0daba","order_by":6,"name":"Seunghwan kim","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"K\u0026P FOOD CO.,LTD","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Seunghwan","middleName":"","lastName":"kim","suffix":""},{"id":582098742,"identity":"c687bd04-ce38-4884-981e-4ae0f29b60ec","order_by":7,"name":"Seon-Young Kim","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Jeonju AgroBio-Materials Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Seon-Young","middleName":"","lastName":"Kim","suffix":""},{"id":582098743,"identity":"d1e356c2-3c81-4ad9-a396-26893539f121","order_by":8,"name":"Mi Hee Park","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAxUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCRBxwIaZgYGxAcQ0IFZLGulaDsP5hLXozu49+LnizHl2/mmHG5grKhiMzRsIaDG7cy5Z8syN28wStxMbGM+cYTCTOUBIy40cA8mGD7eZGUBaGtsYbCQIOQyoxfhnw4dzzPJgLf+I02Im2XDjALMBWEsDgxkRWvLSLBvOJDMbArUcbDgmYUyEltzDNxuO2SXL3U5/+LChxsZwBiEtDAw8YDIZRByARhNxWuyIUToKRsEoGAUjFAAAE71CgPX7P14AAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Jeonju AgroBio-Materials Institute","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mi","middleName":"Hee","lastName":"Park","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-21 10:11:28","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8172371/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8172371/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":101492360,"identity":"83c03dcb-ea10-4764-b571-29be0055977a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-30 11:09:48","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":83536,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of fermented radish vinegar (FRV) supplementation on body weight and food intake in high-fat diet-fed mice. (A) Body weight, (B) Food intake, (C) Average food intake (g/day), and (D) Food efficiency ratio (FER) for 12 weeks. Data were expressed as mean ± SEM (n=7), and statistical significance are marked by **P \u0026lt; 0.01 versus LFD; #P \u0026lt; 0.05, ##P \u0026lt; 0.01 versus HFD.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8172371/v1/33a7e305b80d3de4da4bd3be.png"},{"id":101492361,"identity":"4922ebfc-d5cd-4868-b416-f915a66052d0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-30 11:09:48","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1584782,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of FRV supplementation on adiposity in high-fat diet-fed mice. (A) After 12 weeks on either the LFD or HFD, weight of eWAT was measured. (B) eWAT-to-body weight was analyzed. (C) eWATs were stained with H\u0026amp;E. (D) Liver tissues were stained with Oil-red-O. Data were expressed as mean ± SEM, and statistical significance was **P \u0026lt; 0.01 versus LFD; #P \u0026lt; 0.05, ##P \u0026lt; 0.01 versus HFD.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8172371/v1/e950787c7fbb28ab287e9b97.png"},{"id":101492364,"identity":"b583efcd-2408-442c-afd6-1ede7e64b864","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-30 11:09:53","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":44290,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of FRV supplementation on lipid profiles in high-fat diet-fed mice. The serum levels of (A) TG, (B) LDL, and (C) HDL were measured. Data were expressed as mean ± SEM, and statistical significance was *P \u0026lt; 0.05, **P \u0026lt; 0.01 versus LFD; #P \u0026lt; 0.05, versus HFD.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8172371/v1/29a90db3d4fe46d289aa7ad5.png"},{"id":101492359,"identity":"a18b31bf-3acc-4ce8-8e1c-de6a66c105b9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-30 11:09:48","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":52492,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of FVD on hyperglycemia in high-fat diet-fed mice. Levels of (A) Fasting glucose level and (B) HbA1c were measured in mouse serum. Data were expressed as mean ± SEM, and statistical significance was **P \u0026lt; 0.01 versus LFD; #P \u0026lt; 0.05 versus HFD.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8172371/v1/733e554028bd0f22d96b85e3.png"},{"id":101492363,"identity":"05e35eb6-01c7-44ee-a24b-f904b7fd9bd6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-30 11:09:51","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":29349,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffects of FVD on leptin and insulin levels in high-fat diet-fed mice. Levels of (A) Leptin and (B) Insulin were measured in mouse serum. Data were expressed as mean ± SEM, and statistical sig-nificance was *P \u0026lt; 0.05, **P \u0026lt; 0.01 versus LFD; #P \u0026lt; 0.05 versus HFD.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8172371/v1/10c647bc1f916066780558e9.png"},{"id":102949819,"identity":"33fb349d-641b-47c0-b8bb-9b7eaaf69729","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-18 20:24:47","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2263210,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8172371/v1/d8f090ae-fe00-42e1-a0ee-4b1f5d329cb6.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Anti-obesity Activity of Radish Vinegar Fermented with Acetobacter pasteurianus SRCM102411 in High-Fat Diet–Fed Mice","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eObesity has become one of the most pressing global health challenges, driven largely by increased consumption of high calorie foods and reduced physical activity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Excessive nutrient intake promotes the expansion of adipose tissue through lipid accumulation and adipocyte hypertrophy, ultimately contributing to diverse metabolic disorders, including type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, cardiovascular disease, and fatty liver [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR3\" citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Although several pharmacological therapies are currently available to support weight management, their use is often limited by side effects, high cost, or restricted long-term applicability. Consequently, there is growing interest in identifying safe, food-derived alternatives that can help regulate body weight and improve metabolic homeostasis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRadish is a commonly consumed vegetable rich in vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals, and fermentation may further enhance its functional properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. However, the potential anti-obesity effect of radish vinegar fermented with \u003cem\u003eAcetobacter pasteurianus\u003c/em\u003e SRCM102411 (KCCM13362P) has not yet been clarified. To address this gap, the present study evaluated whether fermented radish vinegar can ameliorate obesity-related altera-tions induced by a high-fat diet. Using a mouse model, we examined changes in body weight, adipose tissue morphology, lipid profiles, liver steatosis, and key metabolic biomarkers following long-term administration of the fermented vinegar.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFermentation has been used for centuries as a way to enhance the nutritional and functional value of foods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. During this process, microorganisms transform the original raw materials and generate a variety of new bioactive substances including organic acids, peptides, and antioxidant molecules, which can exert diverse physiological effects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. These fermentation-derived metabolites are known to modulate lipid metabolism, regulate inflammatory pathways, and influence the composition of the gut microbiota [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Be-cause fermentation produces compounds and enzymes that are absent in the unprocessed ingredients, fermented products can act as efficient carriers of naturally derived functional components, supporting both bioavailability and long-term consumption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, fermented food matrices often contain abundant beneficial microbes and their metabolites, which help maintain gastrointestinal stability by protecting against harmful pathogens and tolerating harsh digestive conditions such as bile salts and gastric acid [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Lactic acid bacteria are widely recognized as dominant microorganisms in many fermented foods and are closely associated with improvements in metabolic health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Probiotic or prebiotic intake has been reported to alleviate obesity-related disturbances, including abnormal lipid patterns [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Foods fermented with Acetobacter include vine-gar, kombucha, and certain sour fermented beverages, all of which typically contain high levels of acetic acid [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. The consumption of these products has been linked to improvements in metabolic health. These benefits are thought to result from the microorganisms involved in fermentation and the various metabolites they produce. Among these metabolites, acetic acid and other bioactive compounds are considered major contributors to the observed metabolic effects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong various fermented products, microbially derived vinegar has attracted attention because it contains acetic acid and fermentation associated metabolites that may help control body weight, regulate lipid levels, and support metabolic balance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Although fruit and grain based vinegars have been relatively well studied [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], the potential health benefits of radish vinegar produced through microbial fermentation have not been thoroughly examined. Therefore, investigating radish-derived fermented vinegar represents an important step toward understanding its physiological and metabolic effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis investigation provides foundational evidence for the physiological roles of fermented radish vinegar and contributes to the broader understanding of how fermentation-derived food ingredients may support the prevention and management of obesity.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects of FRV Administration on Body Weight and Food Intake in HFD-Fed Mice\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the beginning of the experiment, all groups displayed comparable body weights. From the first week onward, mice in the HFD group began to gain weight more rapidly than those in the N group. By the end of the 12-week feeding period, the HFD group reached a final body weight of 39.68 \u0026plusmn; 1.16 g, approximately 1.29-fold higher than that of the N group. In contrast, mice receiving FRV showed a much smaller increase in body weight, and this reduction was statistically significant (Figure 1A). Throughout the study, overall food consumption did not differ markedly among the groups (Figure 1B). Nevertheless, the mean food intake displayed a significant alteration (Figure 1C), and the food efficiency ratio (FER) was markedly lower in the FRV-treated mice compared with the HFD group (Figure 1D). These findings collectively suggest that FRV may exert a beneficial effect on obesity induced by a high-fat diet.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFRV Prevents Adipogenesis and Lipid Accumulation in HFD-Fed Mice\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFollowing 12 weeks of high-fat feeding, the HFD group displayed a marked elevation in epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT) mass compared with the N group, whereas mice receiving FRV showed a clear reduction in eWAT weight (Figure 2A). Consistently, the ratio of eWAT to total body weight was also lowered by FRV administration (Figure 2B). Histological examination of eWAT was carried out using H\u0026amp;E staining. Obese mice fed the high-fat diet exhibited pronounced adipocyte enlargement and occasional structural damage within the fat tissue (Figure 2C). In contrast, FRV-treated mice showed noticeably smaller and more uniform adipocytes, indicating attenuation of HFD-driven hypertrophy (Figure 2C). To further assess whether FRV mitigated hepatic lipid accumulation, Oil Red O staining was performed on liver sections. The livers of HFD-fed mice contained abundant red lipid droplets and disrupted cellular morphology, confirming severe steatosis (Figure 2D). However, FRV supplementation alleviated lipid deposition and reduced hepatic cell distortion (Figure 2D). Together, these observations indicate that FRV effectively suppresses adipocyte hypertrophy and intrahepatic lipid buildup in mice with diet-induced obesity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects of FRV on Serum Lipid Profiles in HFD-Fed Mice\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo determine whether FRV supplementation improves lipid metabolism in mice subjected to a high-fat diet, serum triglyceride (TG), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels were assessed. HFD feeding markedly elevated TG, LDL and HDL concentrations compared with the normal group. Administration of FRV significantly reduced the HFD-induced rise in\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTG, LDL and HDL levels, indicating an improvement in circulating lipid status (Figure 3 A\u0026ndash;C). Collectively, these findings suggest that FRV supplementation attenuates dyslipidemia associated with high-fat diet-induced obesity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects of FRV on Liver Damage in HFD-Fed Mice\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo assess whether FRV influences glucose homeostasis in diet-induced obesity, fasting blood glucose levels and HbA1c were measured after 12 weeks of treatment. Mice fed a high-fat diet showed elevation in fasting glucose compared with the low-fat diet group. Administration of FRV led to a reduction in fasting glucose, showing improvement relative to the HFD group (Figure 4A). Moreover, HbA1c levels were markedly increased in HFD-fed mice when compared with the controls. FRV supplementation effectively lowered HbA1c, resulting in a significant decrease relative to the untreated HFD group (#P \u0026lt; 0.05) (Figure 4B). These results indicate that FRV ameliorates chronic glucose elevation and may contribute to improved glycemic regulation in HFD-induced obese mice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEffects of FRV on HFD-Induced Insulin Resistance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo determine whether FRV improves obesity-associated insulin resistance, serum leptin and insulin concentrations were assessed in mice fed a high-fat diet. As shown in Figure 5A, leptin levels were markedly elevated in the HFD group compared with the normal control, confirming the development of adipose tissue dysfunction. FRV administration significantly reduced circulating leptin, with decreases observed relative to the untreated HFD group, indicating an improvement in leptin dysregulation. A similar pattern was observed for serum insulin (Figure 5B). High-fat diet feeding led to a pronounced rise in insulin levels, whereas treatment with FRV effectively lowered insulin concentrations to levels significantly below those of the HFD group. These findings demonstrate that FRV mitigates key markers of insulin resistance in diet-induced obese mice, suggesting a beneficial role in restoring metabolic homeostasis.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we demonstrated that radish vinegar fermented with Acetobacter pasteurianus SRCM102411 effectively mitigates multiple obesity-related abnormalities induced by a prolonged high-fat diet. Although all mice consumed similar amounts of food, the group receiving fermented radish vinegar consistently showed lower body weight gain and decreased white adipose tissue expansion compared with untreated obese mice. This indicates that the anti-obesity effects of fermented radish vinegar are not attributable to reduced caloric intake but rather to physiological improvements that limit lipid accumulation or promote lipid utilization. Adipose tissue histology further supported this conclusion. Mice fed only the high-fat diet exhibited enlarged and damaged adipocytes, as well as marked hepatic lipid accumulation, hallmarks of metabolic disturbance associated with obesity. In contrast, fermented radish vinegar supplementation reduced adipocyte hypertrophy and attenuated hepatic steatosis, suggesting that the vinegar influences both peripheral fat deposition and liver lipid handling. These findings align with previous re-ports that certain fermented foods enhance metabolic stability by improving lipid metabolism and reducing inflammation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA key aspect of obesity induced metabolic dysfunction is the elevation of circulating lipids and adipokines. The fermented radish vinegar significantly lowered serum triglyceride, LDL, and HDL levels, all of which were elevated in the high-fat diet group. Although HDL is typically regarded as a protective lipid, increases driven by diet-induced obesity may reflect impaired lipid turnover rather than improved cardiovascular health. Therefore, the reductions observed in the FRV-treated group likely indicate a normalization of dysregulated lipid metabolism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition, leptin and insulin which are markers of adipose dysfunction and early contributors to insulin resistance [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e], were markedly elevated in high-fat diet\u0026ndash;fed mice but significantly reduced by fermented radish vinegar. Lower circulating leptin implies a reduction in adipocyte stress and improved energy balance regulation, while decreased insulin levels may reflect enhanced insulin sensitivity. Together, these data indicate that fermented radish vinegar may prevent the progression from obesity to more severe metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFermented foods contain diverse bioactive molecules generated during microbial fermentation, including organic acids, short-chain fatty acids and antioxidant com-pounds [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Such metabolites are known to influence lipid metabolism, inflammation, and gut microbiota composition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Although this study did not investigate specific mechanisms, it is plausible that compounds produced during radish fermentation, possibly in combination with acetic acid produced by \u003cem\u003eA. pasteurianus\u003c/em\u003e, contribute to the observed anti-obesity effects. Future mechanistic studies should explore whether fermented radish vinegar affects pathways such as AMPK signaling, adipogenesis, gut microbial modulation, or fatty acid oxidation. Despite the clear beneficial outcomes, some limitations re-main. The study focused on a single dose of fermented radish vinegar and did not evaluate dose\u0026ndash;response relationships or compare it with non-fermented radish preparations. Additionally, molecular markers involved in lipid metabolism, inflammatory signaling, or adipocyte differentiation were not assessed. Investigating these pathways would help clarify whether the vinegar exerts its effects through direct action on metabolic tissues or through systemic metabolic regulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, our findings suggest that radish vinegar fermented with \u003cem\u003eA. pasteurianus\u003c/em\u003e SRCM102411 holds promise as a functional food ingredient capable of improving obesity-related metabolic impairments. Its ability to reduce fat accumulation, normalize lipid profiles, and alleviate early markers of insulin resistance highlights its potential value for preventing obesity-associated diseases. Additional studies are warranted to identify the active components generated during fermentation and to elucidate the mechanisms underlying these beneficial effects.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePreparation of fermented radish vinegar\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFresh radishes used for vinegar production were supplied by K\u0026amp;P Food Co. and juiced prior to use. The obtained radish juice was diluted with distilled water at a 1:1 (v/v) ratio to prepare a 50% radish solution. To this diluted juice, sucrose (2%, w/v) and yeast extract (1%, v/v) were added, followed by sterilization at 80 \u0026deg;C for 30 min using an auto-clave to prepare a radish\u0026ndash;yeast mixture. White vinegar was then added to adjust the initial acidity of the mixture to 2.5%. Subsequently, ethanol (10%, v/v) was introduced based on the initial radish dilution volume to formulate the acetic acid fermentation medium. The medium was inoculated with \u003cem\u003eAcetobacter pasteurianus\u003c/em\u003e SRCM102411 (KCCM13362P) culture (5%, v/v; 8 Log CFU/mL) and incubated at 30 \u0026deg;C with shaking at 150 rpm for 8 days to produce fermented radish vinegar (FRV).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnimals\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSix-week-old male C57BL/6 mice, certified as specific pathogen-free, were obtained from Damul Science (Daejeon, Korea). After arrival, the animals underwent a one-week acclimation period. Throughout the experiment, the mice were maintained under standardized environmental conditions, including a 12-hour light\u0026ndash;dark cycle, controlled temperature of 22 \u0026plusmn; 2 \u0026deg;C, and relative humidity of 55 \u0026plusmn; 5%. All procedures involving animals were reviewed and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the Jeonju AgroBio-Materials Institute (approval number: JAMI IACUC 2022003). The study is reported in accordance with the ARRIVE guidelines (https://arriveguidelines.org) [28].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExperimental Groups\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe animals were randomly assigned to four experimental conditions: a normal diet group (N), a high-fat diet group (HFD), a positive control group (PC), and a fermented radish vinegar treated group (FRV), with seven mice allocated to each. Obesity was induced in the HFD, PC, and FRV groups by providing a diet in which 60% of the total calories were derived from fat for a period of 12 weeks, while the N group received a standard diet containing 10% kcal from fat. During the same period, the PC group was given orlistat at a dose of 60 mg/kg, and the FRV group received fermented radish vinegar at 5 mL/kg via oral administration. The N and HFD groups were provided with distilled water as a vehicle control.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the end of experiment, anesthesia was performed by intraperitoneal (IP) injection of avertin (250 mg/kg). After anesthesia, mice were euthanized by CO₂ inhalation. And death of mice was confirmed by cessation of heartbeat, respiratory arrest and lack of reflexes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEvaluation of Biomarkers in Serum\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSerum levels of TNF-\u0026alpha;, IL-6, and leptin were measured using ELISA kits from R\u0026amp;D Systems (Abingdon, UK). Triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), and high-density lipo-protein (HDL) concentrations were determined using kits from Asan Pharm (Seoul, Korea), whereas low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and insulin levels were measured with kits from CrystalChem (Elk Grove, CA, USA). All assays were performed according to the manufacturers\u0026rsquo; instructions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHistology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMice liver and adipose tissues were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and embedded in paraffin. Tissue sections (4 \u0026mu;m thick) were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H\u0026amp;E) for adipose tissues and Oil Red O for liver tissues.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll statistical analyses were performed using Sigmaplot v16.0 (Systat Software Inc., San Jose, CA, USA), and results are presented as mean \u0026plusmn; standard deviation. Differences among three or more groups were assessed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan\u0026rsquo;s multiple comparison test. Statistical significance was defined as p \u0026lt; 0.05. For comparisons between two groups, an unpaired t-test was applied, and results are reported as mean \u0026plusmn; standard error of the mean (SEM), along with 95% confidence intervals (CI) and p values.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Declaration statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was financially supported by the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy (MOTIE), Korea, under the \u0026ldquo;Infrastructure Program for Smart Specialization, supervised by the Korea In-stitute for Advancement of Technology (KIAT) (P0017238).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was financially supported by the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy (MOTIE), Korea, under the \u0026ldquo;Infrastructure Program for Smart Specialization, supervised by the Korea Institute for Advancement of Technology (KIAT) (P0017238).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization, H.-R.K., S-H.L., S.-Y.K. and M.H.P.; methodology, H.-R.K., S-H.L., E.-M.N. and M.J.K.; software, H.-R.K. and S.-H.L.; validation, H.-R.K. and S.-H.L. E.-M.N. and M.J.K.; formal analysis, H.-R.K. and S.-H.L.; investigation, S.-Y.K. and M.H.P.; resources, S.H.J., D.-Y.J. and S.K.; data curation H.-R.K., S.-H.L., S.-Y.K. and M.H.P.; writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, H.-R.K., S-H.L., S.-Y.K. and M.H.P..; writing\u0026mdash;review and editing, S.-Y.K. and M.H.P.; visualization, H.-R.K. and S.-H.L.; supervision, S.-Y.K. and M.H.P.; project administration, D.-Y.J. and S.-Y.K.; funding acquisition, S.-Y.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data presented in this study are available in this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAhmed, S.K., Mohammed, R.A. Obesity: Prevalence, causes, consequences, management, preventive strategies and future research directions. \u003cem\u003eMetabol Open\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cstrong\u003e27\u003c/strong\u003e, 100375. doi: 10.1016/j.metop.2025.100375 (2025).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBotchlett, R. \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e Nutritional approaches for managing obesity-associated metabolic diseases\u003cem\u003e. 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PLoS biology 18, e3000411 (2020).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Radish vinegar, Fermentation, Acetobacter pasteurianus SRCM102411 (KCCM13362P), Obesity, High-fat diet","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8172371/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8172371/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn recent years, the prevalence of overweight and obesity has continued to rise, largely driven by increased consumption of calorie-dense Western-style foods and reduced physical activity. Fermented vinegars produced from natural ingredients are known to contain a variety of health-promoting components, including vitamins, amino acids, and minerals. Although fruit-based fermented vinegars have been reported to exert beneficial effects on body weight control and bone health, the potential metabolic benefits of radish vinegar fermented with \u003cem\u003eAcetobacter pasteurianus\u003c/em\u003e SRCM102411 (KCCM13362P) have not yet been clarified. To address this gap, we examined the effects of daikon-derived fermented vinegar in a mouse model of di-et-induced obesity. Mice receiving a high-fat diet for 12 weeks showed marked increases in body weight, epididymal fat mass, and liver size, whereas these obesity-related changes were noticeably reduced in animals treated with the fermented radish vinegar. Serum lipid markers, including triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol, were significantly elevated in the obese group but were lowered following vinegar administration. In addition, the fermented vinegar reduced circulating leptin and insulin levels, indicating an improvement in obesity-associated hormonal dysregulation. Collectively, these findings suggest that fermented radish vinegar may serve as a promising dietary agent for attenuating obesity and its metabolic consequences. Further mechanistic studies are required to elucidate how this fermented product influences lipid metabolism and endocrine regulation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Anti-obesity Activity of Radish Vinegar Fermented with Acetobacter pasteurianus SRCM102411 in High-Fat Diet–Fed Mice","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-30 11:09:43","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8172371/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"05b1b64f-689e-400b-920d-464724043511","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 30th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":61930070,"name":"Biological sciences/Biochemistry"},{"id":61930071,"name":"Health sciences/Diseases"},{"id":61930072,"name":"Biological sciences/Microbiology"},{"id":61930073,"name":"Biological sciences/Physiology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-18T20:24:10+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-30 11:09:43","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8172371","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8172371","identity":"rs-8172371","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}