Health risks associated with trace elements and macrominerals in cultivars grown on Yamuna floodplain using various soil amendments: a correlation analysis

Health risks associated with trace elements and macrominerals in cultivars grown on Yamuna floodplain using various soil amendments: a correlation analysis | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Health risks associated with trace elements and macrominerals in cultivars grown on Yamuna floodplain using various soil amendments: a correlation analysis Pooja Sharma, Sophayo Mahongnao, Sarita Nanda This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4885311/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study addresses the contamination challenges in the agricultural sector of the Yamuna Floodplain, a vital region for supplying vegetables to the National Capital Region (NCR). The research involved cultivating spinach, green amaranth, and red amaranth over two consecutive seasons, with various waste compost amendments applied to the soil, while groundwater was used for irrigation. The quality of these organically grown vegetables was assessed by analyzing macro-minerals and trace elements using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Results indicated that the mean concentrations (mg/100g) of phosphorus, sulfur, manganese, and potassium were significantly enhanced in compost-amended crops, leading to improvements in their respective percentages of Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) and Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) compared to those grown with chemical fertilizers. Health risk assessments revealed that both the hazard quotient (HQ) and the health index (sum of Target Hazard Quotients, THQ) were below 1, indicating minimal non-carcinogenic risk. Furthermore, compost amendments were found to significantly reduce the non-carcinogenic risks associated with manganese, iron, copper, zinc, and selenium, compared to conventional chemical fertilizers. Notably, trace elements such as zinc and molybdenum exhibited a significant negative correlation with macro-minerals like magnesium and calcium in compost-amended crops. Based on these findings, we recommend the use of urban organic compost in cultivating vegetables on the Yamuna Floodplain, combined with groundwater irrigation, as a sustainable approach to producing high-quality crops with minimal health risks for human consumption. Trace elements health risk assessment macrominerals %RDA %EAR Yamuna floodplain Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Introduction Urbanization in Delhi has brought about a complex interplay of benefits and drawbacks, notably impacting the once-vital Yamuna River. Regrettably, this lifeline of the national capital now bears the ignominious title of the most polluted river, as reported by the Centre for Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The rapid urban sprawl, marked by increased migration, unauthorized settlements, and industrialization, has ushered in a host of challenges synonymous with urban expansion [ 1 , 2 ]. A large portion of the Yamuna's waters in Delhi serves the grim purpose of diluting wastewater from myriad drains disgorging into the river between the Tajewala and Okhla Barrage. Astonishingly, despite constituting a mere 2% of the river's flow, this stretch shoulders around 80% of its pollution burden. The contents of these drains, ranging from domestic to industrial and even religious waste, mingle to poison the Yamuna's once pristine waters [ 3 ]. The fertile floodplains lining the Yamuna, crucial for agriculture, inadvertently contribute to the river's contamination. These lands, heavily cultivated, leach organic and inorganic substances, including heavy metals and harmful microbes, into the water [ 4 ]. While trace elements are essential for human nutrition, their accumulation beyond safe thresholds poses health risks, as highlighted by alarming quantities of heavy metals and pesticides found in the river [ 5 , 6 ]. Furthermore, the floodplains, characterized by dense populations and bustling with industrial and agricultural practices, accumulate trace elements extensively, primarily through the process of sedimentation [ 7 , 8 ]. Current research highlights the buildup of trace elements in vegetables grown in contaminated soils, which poses significant risks to food safety and public health [ 7 ]. In response to these challenges, composts from diverse origin, emerge as promising strategies to mitigate trace elements contamination [ 9 ]. Conflicting evidences regarding the effectiveness of these strategies in lowering trace elements levels in contaminated soils adds to the complexity of understanding soil health and agricultural produce quality [ 10 – 12 ]. Moreover, there is a lack of extensive data regarding the health effects of eating crops cultivated with compost additives, especially in a contamination sensitive river floodplain zone, highlighting the necessity for thorough research. To address these knowledge gaps, we propose a hypothesis: " Incorporating compost amendments into soil can improve the nutritional quality of crops and may lower trace elements’ content in cultivars grown on floodplains, thereby lessening related health hazards." This study aims to evaluate the nutrient content, including minerals, and trace elements in vegetables cultivated along the Yamuna floodplains near urban areas. Specifically, the investigation focuses on analyzing the health risks associated with levels of trace elements in leafy vegetable cultivars. This study aims to illuminate the complex interplay between urbanization, farming methods, and ecological well-being, thereby fostering informed strategies and sustainable interventions. Methodology with materials Cultivar plantation and collection Winter and summer season grown cultivars A couple of locations were chosen to collect samples of soil, one from river floodplain of Yamuna and other from the garden of the institution in University of Delhi. The experimentation was spread across two seasons. The location coordinates for the floodplain soil of the river were noted as [27.50, 78.30] and [28.87643, 77.204783] during winter and summer, respectively. For the garden soil, the coordinates were [27.53, 78.40] and [28.704753, 77.2330234] during the winter and summer seasons, respectively ( Fig. 1 ). The study utilized locally sourced organic compost from the Delhi itself. Leaf waste compost was collected from the Daulat Ram College campus’ recycle unit [ 13 ]. Kitchen waste compost was sourced from the resident welfare association. Cow dung manure and vermicompost were procured from local farmers, while municipal waste compost was acquired from the Municipal Corporation of Delhi. DAP fertilizer was obtained from a general store. Amaranthus cruentus (red amaranth, RA), Trigonella foenum graecum (fenugreek, FK), Amaranthus viridis (green amaranth, GA), Spinacia oleracea (spinach, SP) seeds were obtained from Krishi Vigyan Kendra, National Horticulture Research and Development Foundation, Ujwa, New Delhi. After collecting the soil samples were dried, sieved and uniformly mixed with the different compost to create a soil mix such as Vermicompost Soil mix (VCS), Cow Dung Manure Soil mix (CDMS), Leaf Waste Compost Soil mix (LWCS), Kitchen Waste Compost Soil mix (KWCS), Municipal Waste Compost Soil mix (MWCS). Also a conventional soil mix was prepared with DAP fertilizer (FS). The ratio of soil to compost was 1:0.25, while that of the chemical additives (DAP, calcium, and phosphate) in a 4:1:1 ratio (in grams) for a kg of soil. In the winter, the cultivation of green leafy vegetables began in December, with harvesting taking place during the first week of March. The recorded temperature and humidity ranged between 23.6–27.4 degrees Celsius and 49.4–76.5%, respectively. Leafy vegetable cultivars for the summer were sown in early April when the temperature ranged from 29 to 40 degrees Celsius and the humidity averaged between 34 and 44 percent. These plants were collected in June. The experimental design included three pots for each amendment type, maintaining consistent environmental conditions throughout the study. Cultivars treated with Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) fertilizer served as the control group. Vegetable leaves were collected post-harvest, washed thoroughly, air-dried, and ground into a fine powder before being stored at four degrees Celsius in dark glass bottles for later analysis [ 14 ]. Experiments were performed in triplicate for each cultivar sample derived from both soil types, and the reported results were the average values. Soil Analysis A 10-gram soil sample was combined with 20 ml of distilled water for the purpose of determining pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC). Measurements were subsequently taken using respective pH and EC meters. Elemental Analysis Preparation of Sample Soil and soil mix samples were digested using Aqua Regia, a 3:1 ratio of HCl to HNO 3 , to explore the available elements. The preparation of the cultivar leaf samples was conducted by finely grinding the leaf powder and digesting it following the protocol by Ali and Al-Qahtani (2012). One gram of this powder was subjected to overnight triacid digestion with 10 ml of H 2 SO 4 , HNO 3 , and HClO 4 in a 1:5:1 ratio within a volumetric flask, aiming to extract analytes from the complex organic plant matrix. The following day, heating the sample on a hot plate continued until the solution's color changed. The concentrate was then diluted to 100 ml with MilliQ water [ 15 ]. All solutions underwent filtration using Whatman filter paper no.2, and plant samples received additional filtration through a 0.45-micron filter paper under vacuum pressure. These samples were stored at 4°C until analyzed using an Ion-Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS). For water sample preparation, 1 ml of HNO 3 was added to 100 ml of groundwater that was used for irrigating the cultivars. Machine calibration and Quality assurance Soil samples' certified reference material (CRM: SQC001) and the cultivar leaf samples' standard reference material (SRM: ERM-CD281 RYE GRASS) from Sigma Aldrich underwent the same preparation as the respective soil and leaf samples. Serial dilutions of the CRM and SRM were prepared at varying concentrations to generate the calibration curve. Elemental analysis of the standard reference material was performed as a quality control measure. Analysis included nineteen minerals: six macro-minerals (Na, Mg, Ca, K, P, S), seven trace elements (Mn, Fe, Mo, Zn, Cu, B, Se) in the cultivars, and six potentially toxic elements (PTEs: Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Pb, Hg) in soils, soil mixes, and cultivars, using the iCAP-Q ICP-MS and QTEGRA ISDS software with the Kinetic Energy Discrimination (KED) interface. The internal standard, 129 Xe in the argon gas, had a recovery rate between 80 and 120 percent. CRM and SRM were measured as unknowns every ten samples to ensure data validation, showing an average offset of less than 10% for all elements. Correlation coefficients (R 2 ) for all elements were above 99.0%. Soil and soil mix samples, including CRM, were diluted 20 times for mineral and PTE analysis, while leaf samples, including SRM, were diluted 100 times with 1% HNO 3 for macro-mineral analysis. For micro-minerals and trace elements, the solution was analyzed directly without dilution. A 1% HNO 3 solution served as the wash matrix, and each sample was replicated three times to improve statistical accuracy. Analysis of Data Health risk indices were determined by analyzing the mean results from the three replicates of each cultivar. %RDA and %EAR $$\:\%RDA=\:actual\:content\:in\:100g\:of\:food/RDA\times\:100\:$$ 1 $$\:\%EAR=\:actual\:content\:in\:100g\:of\:food/EAR\times\:100\:$$ 2 Where RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance and EAR = Expected Average Requirement. The RDA and EAR values taken from Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) guidelines. Assessment of Health Risk Daily Intake of Metals (DIM) The concentration of heavy metals available from vegetable consumption is defined by the equation for the Daily Intake of Metals (DIM): $$\:DIM=\:({C}_{metal}\times\:{C}_{factor}\times\:{C}_{intake})/BW$$ 3 This study investigated C metal , the heavy metal concentration in vegetables, along with C factor , the conversion coefficient from fresh to dry weight, and IR, the ingestion rate. Specifically, C factor was fixed at 0.085 for leafy vegetables, and IR was assumed to be 0.0385 kg/person/day for adults weighing an average (BW) of 70 kg. Health Risk Index (HRI) The Health Risk Index (HRI) denotes the health implications linked to ongoing exposure to heavy metals, which can cause chronic health issues. This is mathematically formulated as: $$\:HRI=\:DIM\:/{R}_{f}D\:\:$$ 4 R f D values were determined for the investigated toxic elements (Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Hg, and Pb) are 1.5, 0.02, 0.001, 0.0003, 0.0001, and 0.04 mg/kg/day, respectively. An HRI below one suggests safety, while a value between one and five indicates potential concern [ 16 , 17 ]. The HRI is also associated with non-carcinogenic risk. For the continuation, regarding the Hazard Quotient (HQ) calculation: \(\:HQ=\:EDI\:/{R}_{f}D\:\:\) ​ (5) Where EDI is the estimated daily intake, further calculated as: $$\:EDI=\:{C}_{m}\times\:IR\times\:EF\times\:ED/\:BW\times\:AT\:$$ 6 In this context, C m denotes the concentration of potentially toxic elements in the cultivar, IR represents the ingestion rate (0.0385 kg/person/day), EF refers to exposure frequency (365 days/year), ED indicates exposure duration (72 years for adults), BW stands for average body weight (70 kg), and AT signifies average exposure time for non-carcinogenic effects (26280 days). By adding the Hazard Quotients (HQ) for individual heavy metals, the Hazard Index (HI) is determined as: $$\:HI=\sum\:HQ\:\:\:\:\:\:\:\:$$ 7 HI indicates different levels of health risk: less hazardous, concerning, and chronic effects are associated with HI values of 10, respectively [ 18 , 19 ]. Statistical Analysis Graph Pad Prism 10.2.1 software was utilized to determine statistical significance. Ordinary one-way ANOVA was employed to examine variation in relation to each macro-minerasl and trace elements. Dunnett's test was used for multiple comparisons across all leafy vegetable cultivars amended with compost. Results Mineral assessment Macro-minerals in cultivars The impact of adding composts on macro-minerals' levels in winter season cultivars was investigated across two distinct soil types. Findings indicated that organic cultivars in YFP soil exhibited higher mean levels of Mg (50 mg/100g), P (65 mg/100g), K (545 mg/100g), and S (59 mg/100g) compared to cultivars treated with chemical fertilizer amendments (Mg: 41.44 mg/100g; P: 59 mg/100g; K: 515 mg/100g; S: 49 mg/100g). However, levels of Na and Ca (128 mg/100g and 145 mg/100g, respectively) in bio-compost amended cultivars were lower than those treated with fertilizer amendments (Na: 143 mg/100g; Ca: 226 mg/100g) (Fig. S1 ; S2). Conversely, garden cultivars treated with bio-compost amendments displayed higher mean levels of most macro-minerals - Mg, P, S, K, Ca (118 mg/100g, 172 mg/100g, 76 mg/100g, 845 mg/100g, 315 mg/100g) except for Na, which was slightly lower (212 mg/100g) compared to those treated with fertilizer amendments (Mg: 82 mg/100g; P: 126 mg/100g; S: 72 mg/100g; K: 814 mg/100g; Ca: 247 mg/100g; Na: 215 mg/100g). Notably, organic produce from YFP soil had significantly higher (p < 0.05) levels of P, S, and K (8.7%, 17%, and 5.4%, respectively) but lower levels of Na and Ca (11% and 56%, respectively). Conversely, garden soil cultivars had significantly higher levels of Mg and Ca (30% and 21%, respectively) (Fig. S3; S4) . The net effect revealed an average of approximately 3.6% higher levels of macro-minerals in organic cultivars than in conventional ones. This effect varied slightly between YFP soil cultivars (1.8% lower) and garden soil cultivars (9% higher). For summer season cultivars, results revealed that in the YFP soil, organic cultivars exhibited notably higher mean levels of Na (106 mg/100g), P (42.3 mg/100g), K (420 mg/100g), and S (33.9 mg/100g) compared to cultivars treated with chemical fertilizer amendments (Na: 91.6 mg/100g; P: 39.6 mg/100g; K: 399.6 mg/100g; S: 26.7 mg/100g). Conversely, levels of Mg and Ca (69.6 mg/100g and 161.8 mg/100g, respectively) in bio-compost amended cultivars were slightly lower than those treated with fertilizer (Mg: 71 mg/100g; Ca: 163.4 mg/100g) (Fig. S5; S6) . In contrast, garden cultivars treated with bio-compost amendments displayed higher mean levels of all macro-minerals, Na (86.2 mg/100g), P(56.9 mg/100g), K(424.5 mg/100g), S(31.3 mg/100g), Mg (133.5 mg/100g), and Ca 175 mg/100g), compared to those treated with fertilizer amendments (Na: 78.8 mg/100g; Mg: 118.3 mg/100g; P: 45.4 mg/100g; S: 28.2 mg/100g; K: 396.5 mg/100g; Ca: 161.3 mg/100g). Notably, organic produce from garden soil exhibited significantly higher (p < 0.05) levels of Na, Mg, and P (8.9%, 11%, and 22.2% higher, respectively). Overall, the net effect revealed approximately 5% and 8.8% (on average 7%) higher levels of macro-minerals in organic produce compared to conventional produce from YFP and garden soil, respectively (Fig. S7; S8) . Trace elements in soils and water The floodplain soil exhibited an alkaline characteristic with a pH of 8.2 and an electrical conductivity of 0.90 mS/cm. Among the trace elements analyzed—Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), and Selenium (Se)—only Copper and Selenium concentrations exceeded the permissible limits of 20 mg/kg and 0.2 mg/kg, respectively, in soil samples amended with additional substances. However, the concentrations of these elements in groundwater remained below the toxicity thresholds established by the European Union, which are 0.05 mg/L for Mn, 0.1 mg/L for Cu, 0.1 mg/L for Zn, and 0.01 mg/L for Se ( Table 1 ). Trace elements in cultivars During the winter, trace element levels in organic cultivars varied compared to conventional produce, with variations dependent on soil type. Results showed that in YFP soil, organic cultivars exhibited lower mean levels of B (by 33%), Mn (by 11%), Fe (by 60%), Cu (by 19%), and Se (by 20%) compared to cultivars grown with chemical fertilizer amendments (Fig. S9; S10) . Conversely, in garden soil cultivars, trace element levels (B, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, and Se) were higher in organic produce (by 49%, 34%, 10%, 58%, 44%, and 13%, respectively) except for Fe. Organic cultivars had reduced levels of Fe in both soils (by 60% in YFP cultivars and 0.2% in garden cultivars) (Fig. S11; S12) . Notably, the concentration of Fe and Mn in organic produce from YFP soil was significantly lower le(p < 0.05). In contrast, garden soil cultivars had significantly higher concentrations of Mo and Mn. Overall, the analysis revealed an average of approximately 9.6% lower levels of trace elements in organic cultivars compared to conventional cultivars, with YFP soil cultivars exhibiting a 43% lower level and garden soil cultivars showing a 24% higher level. Table 1 Trace elements (mean ± standard deviation) in water (mg/L) and soil mix (mg/kg) of various compost amendments (n = 3) Soil Trace elements (mg/kg) Mn Cu Zn Se Limits a (mg/kg) 850 20 50 0.2 Yamuna b Floodplain soil mix FS 403.49 ± 0.4 55.79 ± 0 34.93 ± 0.5 00.41 ± 0 LWCS 351.0 ± 0.1 57.68 ± 0.1 39.97 ± 0.3 00.47 ± 0 MWCS 453.62 ± 0.4 94.39 ± 0.2 51.49 ± 1.1 00.41 ± 0 CDMS 363.27 ± 0.2 53.58 ± 0.1 32.23 ± 0.3 00.37 ± 0 KWCS 368.51 ± 0.9 67.56 ± 0.2 42.14 ± 1.1 00.35 ± 0 VCS 588.02 ± 0.7 47.88 ± 0 30.27 ± 0.6 00.53 ± 0 Garden soil mix b FS 500.29 ± 0.0 28.31 ± 0 16.49 ± 0.2 00.39 ± 0 LWCS 496.4 ± 0.0 28.43 ± 0.1 17.48 ± 0.3 00.41 ± 0 MWCS 422.8 ± 0.4 62.20 ± 0.0 31.05 ± 0.1 00.37 ± 0 CDMS 450.7 ± 0.2 24.31 ± 0.0 15.34 ± 0.0 00.31 ± 0 KWCS 448.1 ± 0.0 24.27 ± 0.2 16.19 ± 0.1 00.27 ± 0 VCS 456.6 ± 0.3 26.96 ± 0 16.09 ± 0.4 00.19 ± 0 Groundwater Trace elements (mg/L) 0.04 ± 0.2 0.006 ± 0.0 0.06 ± 0.0 0.0004 ± 0 Limits c (mg/L) 0.05 0.1 0.1 0.01 a Agarwal 2009 [ 44 ] b FS: fertilizer soil mix; LWCS: leaf waste compost soil mix; MWCS: municipal waste compost soil mix; CDMS: cow dung manure soil mix; KWCS: kitchen waste compost soil mix; VCS: vermicompost soil mix c EU 1997 [ 18 ] For summer season cultivars, in YFP soil, most trace elements, such as Zn, B, Mo, and Cu, were lower in organic produce (2.5%, 20%, 36.6%, 22.8%) than conventional produce. However, in garden soil cultivars, the levels of these trace elements were higher in organic produce (40%, 32.8%, 86.6%, and 20%) than in conventional produce. The level of Fe was lower in both soils for organic cultivars (6.34% in YFP cultivars and 19.67% in garden cultivars). On the other hand, the level of Mn was higher in YFP cultivars (12.6%) but lower in garden cultivars (10.4%) (Fig. S13; S14; S15; S16) . The results of the one-way ANOVA revealed significant differences in the levels of trace elements (such as Mn, Cu, Zn, and Mo) among the cultivars of YFP soil. Specifically, all trace elements, except for Mn, showed significant differences among the cultivars of garden soil. Further analysis using the Dunnett test in YFP indicated that the levels of Mn in the cultivars of leaf waste compost amendment (LWCP) were significantly higher (p < 0.01) compared to the cultivars of the chemical fertilizer amendment. Conversely, the levels of Mo in the MWCP, CDMP, KWCP, and VCP were significantly lower (p < 0.05) than in FP. In garden produce, significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in the overall levels of Fe in CDMP and KWCP and Mn in CDMP, which were lower than the FP. On the other hand, the levels of B, Zn, and Mo in LWCP and Cu in MWCP and KWCP were significantly higher (p < 0.01) than the conventional produce. % RDA and % EAR Our investigation unveiled that consuming 100g of leafy vegetable cultivars grown in both winter and summer can provide adults with abundant minerals, including sodium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, potassium, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, boron, and selenium. We referenced RDA and EAR values from the 2020 guidelines of the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) for adult males. Compared to the Recommended Dietary Allowance, the %RDA values for magnesium, sulfur, and molybdenum were notably higher in winter organic cultivars than in fertilizer cultivars. YFP cultivars exhibited higher average %RDA values for six minerals—magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, sulfur, and molybdenum—than fertilizer cultivars. For garden cultivars, the %RDA was higher for eleven minerals in organic cultivars than fertilizer ones, with all thirteen studied minerals showing a higher average %RDA in organic cultivars. The %EAR indicated that consuming 100g of leafy vegetable cultivars could meet half of the population's dietary requirements. The mean %EAR was lower for macro minerals and trace elements (about 24% and 15% lower, respectively) in compost-enriched YFP cultivars than FP. Conversely, the average %EAR was higher for both macro-minerals (25%) and trace elements (28%) in compost-amended garden cultivars than fertilizer ones. In the case of the summer season, the mineral intake concerning the Recommended Dietary Allowance (%RDA) for Na and S in all three cultivars was comparatively higher in organic cultivars than in fertilizer cultivars. The average % RDA value was higher in four of the thirteen minerals (Na, P, S, K, and Mn) studied than in the cultivars grown with chemical fertilizer. The % RDA concerning different compost amendments followed VCP > LWCP > CDMP > MWCP > KWCP. The vermicompost amended cultivars improved the %RDA for eleven elements: protein, Na, Ca, B, P, Fe, K, Mg, S, Zn, and Mn. Similarly, Na, P, S, K, Fe, Cu, and Mn were improved in LWCP. The CDMP improved with respect to protein, Na, Mg, P, S, and K. Na, S, Cu, and Mn were improved in MWCP, and the KWCP showed improvement in Na, S, and Se. The % EAR remained mostly similar to chemical fertilizer-affected cultivars, which were mostly lower than 1% ( Fig. 2 ; 3 ) . Health risk assessment of trace elements Daily Intake of Metal (DIM) The potential health risks linked to the daily consumption of contaminated crops are assessed using the Daily Intake of Metal (DIM). During the winter season, among the YFP cultivars, fenugreek exhibited the highest DIM value, while spinach ranked highest among the garden cultivars, with the following sequence: Mn > Fe > Zn > Cu > Se for both types of soil cultivars. In river floodplains, KWCP showed lower DIM values than those amended with chemical fertilizers, In the summer season, regardless of soil type, spinach consistently displayed the highest DIM values. For YFP cultivars, the order was Fe > Mn > Cu > Zn > Se, while for garden cultivars, it was Mn > Zn > Cu > Fe > Se. Generally, cultivars grown with compost exhibited lower DIM values than those amended with fertilizer. The sequence for YFP cultivars was LWCP > FWCP > MWCP > VCP > KWCP > CDMP, and for garden cultivars, it was FWCP > VCP > MWCP > LWCP > KWCP > CDMP ( Fig. 4 ) . The lowest intake was recorded among the three cultivars: Amaranthus viridis cultivars, particularly YFP’s KWCP and garden’s VCP. Health Risk Index (HRI) The Health Risk Index evaluates potential health risks associated with ingesting polluted food. HRI values across all cultivars stayed below 1, regardless of soil amendments or seasons. In the summer season, YFP cultivars with specific amendments ranked in order of HRI values: CDMP (0.032) > FP (0.031) > KWCP (0.030), while for garden cultivars, the order was CDMP (0.020) > KWCP (0.019) > FP (0.012). Manganese notably contributed the most to the HRI index value in both soil types. For YFP cultivars, fenugreek had the highest HRI (0.1), followed by spinach (0.05), whereas, for garden cultivars, the order reversed (spinach (0.08) > fenugreek (0.03)). In another scenario, the mean HRI values for YFP cultivars with specific amendments in the summer season were ranked as follows: MWCP (0.014) > LWCP (0.013) > FP (0.011) > VCP (0.008) > KWCP (0.006) > CDMP (0.006), while for garden cultivars, the order was FP (0.0103) > MWCP (0.0102) > VCP (0.0100) > KWCP (0.0098) > LWCP (0.0094) > CDMP (0.0082). In every river floodplain cultivar, the HRI values were highest for copper (RA (0.023), SP (0.18), and GA (0.15)), while manganese dominated in all garden cultivars (RA (0.23), SP (0.18), and GA (0.12)). In river floodplain soil, three of the five cultivars treated with compost exhibited comparatively lower HRI values than those treated with chemical fertilizers, whereas two compost-amended cultivars, MWCP and KWCP, in garden soil exhibited lower HRI values compared to fertilizer-amended ones ( Fig. 5 ) . Non-cancer risk assessment Using the Hazard Quotient (HQ) and Health Index (HI), the study evaluated how trace elements might affect the local population consuming these crops regarding non-carcinogenic risks. Throughout both seasons and across cultivars from various soil types, all pertinent trace elements demonstrated HQ values that were consistently below 1. In the winter season YFP cultivars, the mean HI value (1.8) of the cultivars enriched with compost paralleled that of cultivars treated with fertilizer. However, compost-amended garden cultivars showed a notably higher mean HI value (1.3) than fertilizer-amended ones (0.9). During the summer months, floodplain cultivars amended with compost had an average HI of 0.56, which was lower than the 0.69 average for those receiving chemical fertilizers. Similarly, garden cultivars with compost addition had an HI of 0.52, compared to 0.56 for those treated with chemical fertilizers. ( Fig. 6 ) . Pearson Correlation of macrominerals with trace elements The macrominerals Mg, P, S, K, and Ca exhibited a significant (p < 0.05) positive correlation with Fe, B, and Mn trace elements. Additionally, Mg and Ca exhibited a significantly negative correlation with Zn and Mo in compost-amended cultivars ( Fig. 7 ; 8 ). Discussion Trace metals, introduced into the atmosphere through both natural sources and human activities like industrial processes, fossil fuel combustion, and waste incineration, have seen their environmental concentrations rise significantly due to human exploitation. These metals, particularly in "accumulation mode" particles (0.1–1.0 µm), can travel over long distances and exert considerable effects on ecosystems, with plant leaves serving as crucial absorbers of these pollutants. The contamination of agricultural soils with toxic trace elements (TEs) has emerged as a pressing concern, given their harmful impact on plant health and the subsequent threat of food contamination. The widespread use of TEs in industry and agriculture has led to their buildup in soils, posing serious health risks to humans, including kidney failure, respiratory issues, genetic mutations, and cancer. In plants, TEs can impair growth, disrupt photosynthesis, alter morphology, reduce nutrient uptake, and cause oxidative stress. Leafy vegetables are crucial mineral sources for human consumption, but understanding their mineral content in floodplain soil near a polluted river, particularly in a densely populated metropolitan area, is limited [ 20 ]. This research investigated the nutritional composition of leafy vegetables grown in winter and summer on Yamuna River floodplain soil and garden soil amended with different types of compost. It assessed potential health implications and compared nutrient levels with Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Expected Average Rates (EAR). Two compost types, cow dung manure and kitchen waste compost, were utilized for winter cultivation. On the other hand, five different compost types were used for summer cultivation: vermicompost, cow dung manure, kitchen waste compost, municipal organic, and leaf waste compost. Mineral content of cultivars The findings indicated that the nutritional quality of the vegetables varied depending on the soil type and compost amendments employed for cultivation. The CDMP and KWCP showed significantly higher average macro-mineral levels than those using chemical fertilizer amendments in both seasons. This trend was consistent across summer season cultivars from leaf waste compost (LWCP), vermicompost (VCP), and urban waste composts like municipal organic waste compost (MWCP). This finding supports existing research suggesting that organic produce tends to display increased levels of essential macromolecules such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and phosphorus (P) [ 21 , 22 ]. Bio-compost-enriched soil is expected to have higher concentrations of trace elements, likely attributable to the expanded microbial diversity associated with its application [ 23 ]. However, most trace element levels in leafy vegetables from compost-amended river floodplain soil were lower (43% in winter season; 12% in summer) than those from chemical fertilizer cultivars (FP). Contrary to this, the garden soil cultivars from both seasons showed higher trace elements in organic cultivars (24% in the winter and 9% in the summer) compared to the fertilizer cultivars. This was suggested by some earlier studies that organically grown cultivars exhibit higher trace element levels [ 24 ]. Also, their levels varied among cultivars of different bio-compost amendments, which suggested that composts might have varied metal chelating potentials. Studies have shown that composts differ in their metal chelating effect based on the fulvic and humic acid ratio [ 25 ]. The metal chelating was also observed in the present study as Mg and Ca exhibited a significantly negative correlation with Zn and Mo as the concentration of the trace elements viz. Zn and Mo were reduced while the concentration of Mg and Ca increased in compost-administered cultivars. Additionally, most of the macrominerals and trace elements had a significantly positive association, suggesting their effective co-translocation. The macrominerals and trace elements have been observed to have some cross-talks among them through interconnected signalling pathways to maintain the homeostasis required for the growth and development of the plant, though required in different concentrations [ 26 ]. Health risk assessment of minerals Macro-minerals Sodium, magnesium, potassium, sulphur, potassium and calcium are essential macro-minerals for a healthy diet [ 27 ]. %RDA values provided by 100g of the cultivars for an adult man for these minerals consistently exceeded 1%, indicating that leafy vegetable cultivars meet the Recommended Dietary Allowances set by the ICMR norm [ 28 ]. %EAR values, representing nutrient concentration needed to meet dietary requirements for 50% of the population, generally fell below 1% for most nutrients. Leafy vegetable cultivars in the Yamuna floodplain can serve as a supplemental source of these nutrients. Additionally, while %RDA values were notably higher in cultivars treated with compost grown in both soils in both seasons, %EAR values exhibited minimal deviation from those treated with fertilizer. Nevertheless, the levels were elevated in the winter cultivars treated with compost. Trace elements Besides the bulk minerals, trace minerals like Mn, Fe, Cu, and Zn are needed in relatively small quantities, typically less than 100 mg/day [ 27 ]. While crucial for essential bodily functions, their presence above certain limits can be toxic. These elements contribute to significant metal-protein complexes vital for regular growth and development. Both excess and deficiency of these minerals have been linked to various pathophysiological conditions [ 29 ]. For instance, an excess of manganese, crucial for bone development and metabolic processes, could induce symptoms similar to Parkinson's syndrome [ 30 , 31 ]. Similarly, iron, vital for metalloprotein complexes like haemoglobin and myoglobin, may lead to poisoning or chronic intoxication when overloaded [ 32 , 33 ]. Copper, essential for connective tissue development and iron metabolism, can cause liver damage and gastrointestinal issues when consumed excessively [ 34 , 35 ]. Zinc, crucial for various enzymes and genetic material synthesis, can adversely affect the immune system in toxic concentrations [ 36 – 38 ]. Selenium, forming complexes with metal enzymes, can impact the heart, gastrointestinal system, and immune functions when its levels become toxic [ 39 ]. The current research found that each cultivar surpassed 1% of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for trace elements. Nevertheless, in both seasons, cultivars treated with compost exhibited a lower mean %RDA than those treated with chemical fertilizer among river floodplain cultivars. To assess the health risk, this study utilized oral reference dosages (R f D) for studies of trace elements in adult humans, set at 0.14, 0.7, 0.04, 0.3 and 0.055 mg/kg/day for Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn and Se respectively, following the standards outlined by the USEPA [ 40 , 41 ]. These values indicate the level at which there is no adverse effect during an individual's lifetime. Winter spinach varieties exhibited elevated copper levels exceeding allowable thresholds. In the case of summer season cultivars, the copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) levels surpassed the permissible limits among the concerned minerals in select cultivars. Cu exceeded the limits in spinach treated with leaf waste amendment, green amaranth with chemical fertilizer amendment, and red amaranth with municipal organic waste compost amendment. Zn levels only crossed the permissible threshold in spinach treated with vermicompost. The acceptable limits, set by the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) of 1954, stand at 30mg/kg for Cu and 50mg/kg for Zn [ 42 ]. The soil and the groundwater had trace elements below the acceptable threshold values [ 18 , 43 , 44 ]. The elevated Cu and Zn levels in specific cultivars hint at specific bioaccumulation potential along with the contamination from external sources like soil, air, or water [ 45 – 47 ]. Also the Cu and Se concentration in the present study was above the allowed limits in all the soil mix prepared with specific amendments indicating the higher levels in the base soil itself. Furthermore, research discovered higher concentrations of Zn, Fe, Cu, and Mn in the sediment along the Delhi stretch of Yamuna. This increase primarily links to industrial activities in that area [ 1 ]. Differences in metal levels across various bio-compost amendments imply varying abilities of composts to bind metals. Research indicates that the effectiveness of composts in binding metals can fluctuate depending on the proportion of fulvic to humic acids [ 25 ]. Additionally, the accumulation of metals can be influenced by the specific species of the cultivar. In line with our findings, previous studies have identified spinach as a plant capable of accumulating heavy metals [ 40 ]. Moreover, the different plant parts vary in heavy metal accumulation, such as the leaves and the shoots, which are more potent accumulators than the roots [ 1 ]. The assessment of potential health risks involved calculating several factors such as daily availability, exposure rates, Daily Intake of Metal (DIM), and Health Risk Index (HRI) for each trace element [ 48 ]. Fortunately, the index values for all these parameters remained well below the levels of concern across all cultivars in both seasons. Moreover, the evaluation of non-carcinogenic impacts, assessed using the Hazard Index (HI), did not indicate any issues for the floodplain or garden soil varieties during the summer growing period. However, in the case of winter season cultivars, the HI index values indicated the most minor health hazard for both the soil cultivars. Furthermore, compost treated summer cultivars showcased reduced health risks associated with prolonged consumption compared to those grown utilizing chemical fertilizers. Particularly noteworthy were the river floodplain varieties that, after being treated with compost made from kitchen waste, displayed the most minimal values across all these indices compared to other varieties. Correlation between trace elements and macrominerals Trace elements and macrominerals are fundamental to both plant and animal physiology, exerting crucial influences on a wide array of biological processes. The interplay between these elements is intricate, characterized by synergistic and antagonistic interactions that affect nutrient absorption, metabolic functions, and overall health [ 49 ]. In plants, trace elements and macrominerals are primarily absorbed from the soil, with their availability modulated by factors such as soil pH, organic matter content, and the presence of other minerals. An excess of one element can inhibit the uptake of another; for instance, elevated levels of phosphorus can decrease the availability of zinc, leading to deficiency symptoms in plants despite sufficient zinc concentrations in the soil [ 50 ]. Similarly, in animals, the interrelationship between trace elements and macrominerals is essential for physiological functions, including growth, reproduction, and overall health. Calcium and phosphorus collaborate in the formation of bones and teeth, with magnesium serving as a cofactor for enzymes regulating these processes. Zinc is critical for the synthesis of calcitonin, a hormone that modulates calcium levels in the blood [ 51 ]. However, high dietary calcium intake can interfere with the absorption of magnesium and zinc in the intestines, potentially leading to deficiencies if dietary intake of these trace elements is inadequate [ 52 ]. The bioavailability of trace elements and macrominerals, which can be modulated by factors such as chelation, plays a crucial role in determining their efficacy within biological systems. For example, chelation of trace elements with organic molecules can enhance their bioavailability, while excessive application of macrominerals like potassium can impede the uptake of magnesium and calcium, adversely affecting plant growth [ 53 ]. The homeostatic mechanisms governing mineral balance are highly complex. In ruminants, dietary sulfur is necessary for the synthesis of sulfur-containing amino acids, yet excessive sulfur can reduce the bioavailability of selenium, potentially resulting in deficiency-related conditions such as white muscle disease [ 54 ]. In the present study, we investigated the correlations among macrominerals and trace elements in leafy vegetable samples. The correlation coefficients ranged from − 1 to + 1, signifying negative and positive correlations, respectively. The findings corroborated previous research, showing that macrominerals such as Na, Mg, K, Ca, P, and S exhibited positive correlations among each other, independent of soil amendments. Notably, magnesium, calcium, and phosphorus displayed significant positive correlations (p < 0.0001) compared to fertilizer-amended cultivars. Similarly, trace elements like manganese, iron, boron, and selenium showed significant positive correlations in compost-amended cultivars, indicating co-translocation. In contrast, macrominerals such as magnesium and calcium were negatively correlated with trace elements like zinc and molybdenum, with the negative correlation being statistically significant (p < 0.05) in compost-amended cultivars. This aligns with previous findings where milk from organic and conventional dairy herds exhibited higher concentrations of macrominerals (Ca, K, P) but lower levels of trace elements (Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn). Similarly, the administration of 25 minerals in sheep and goats resulted in elevated serum potassium levels and reduced zinc concentrations. Remediation of trace element contamination often depends on the strategic application of soil amendments, which are instrumental in reducing the mobility and bioavailability of contaminants [ 55 ]. By integrating materials such as lime, phosphates, and biochar into contaminated soils, trace elements can be immobilized, minimizing their uptake by plants and reducing their potential to leach into groundwater [ 56 ]. This method is particularly effective as it addresses immediate contamination concerns while providing long-term stability, thereby enhancing the safety of soils for agricultural use and reducing the risk of further degradation. In addition to soil amendments, complementary strategies such as phytoremediation, bioremediation, and chemical remediation are also employed. Phytoremediation leverages plants to extract or stabilize trace elements, while bioremediation utilizes microorganisms capable of transforming or adsorbing contaminants [ 57 ]. Chemical methods, including precipitation and ion exchange, further contribute to lowering trace element concentrations [ 58 ]. Advanced techniques like electrokinetic remediation and thermal treatment, along with advanced oxidation processes, offer additional tools for addressing complex sites and neutralizing contaminants [ 59 ]. Nevertheless, soil amendments remain a cornerstone of remediation strategies, often serving as the foundation for other methods, providing a sustainable and cost-effective approach to managing trace element contamination in the environment. Conclusion The current research demonstrates that the percentage of recommended dietary allowance of macro-minerals per 100g of cultivars and their corresponding percentage of the estimated average requirement was lower in those grown in floodplain soil compared to those cultivated in garden soil. However, adding waste compost amendments improved the %RDA and %EAR of macro-minerals in cultivars from both soil types and across seasons. Conversely, the %RDA and %EAR of trace elements per 100g of cultivars were higher in cultivars grown on floodplain than in garden soil but decreased on compost treatment compared to chemical fertilizers. Moreover, the %RDA for all nutrients in Yamuna floodplain cultivars was adequate for adult dietary needs. In contrast, the %EAR suggests that green leafy vegetable cultivars could only supplement diets for about half the population. The risk to health posed by daily intake of trace elements in floodplain soil-grown cultivars was lower, including a lower non-cancer health risk, with even lower risks observed in cultivars treated with organic waste compost amendments. The relationship between trace elements and macrominerals is one of balance and interaction. Understanding these interactions is crucial for optimizing plant growth, animal health, and overall ecosystem productivity. Ensuring adequate but not excessive levels of these minerals through soil management, dietary supplementation, and other interventions is key to maintaining this delicate balance. Declarations Conflict of Interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Ethics Approval: Not applicable Funding Source The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Author Contribution P.S. handled sample collection, data generation, and analysis. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4885311","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":348714570,"identity":"bf6b100f-5a08-41e3-b6f4-1197a342d830","order_by":0,"name":"Pooja Sharma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Delhi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Pooja","middleName":"","lastName":"Sharma","suffix":""},{"id":348714571,"identity":"5d7a4023-3a73-4cc2-89f1-97f561ab5036","order_by":1,"name":"Sophayo Mahongnao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Delhi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sophayo","middleName":"","lastName":"Mahongnao","suffix":""},{"id":348714573,"identity":"be8e8f88-4c90-427f-a36a-e8be04bd3c18","order_by":2,"name":"Sarita Nanda","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABC0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJCCAxAqgeHAhx82QAZj4wGCWiAqEhgPzuxJA2lpIKgFak0C82EetsPI9mIH8u1nHx7+UHNH3pw9+cEBHp7zdmvbDwNtqbGJxqXF4Ey6wYEDx54Z7ux5ZnBAwuJ28rYziUAtx9JyG3BpYUgD+oXtMOOGGwkGBwx4biebHQBqYWw4jFOLfP8zoJZ/h+033Ej/cCCB7Vyy2fmH+LUw3ADacrDtcOKGGzlAF7IdsDO7QcAWgxtAW872HU7ecOZNwcHGnuQEsxtAWxLw+EW+P435Q8W3w7Ybjqdv/vznh5292fn0hw8+1Njgdhg6SASrTCBWOQjYk6J4FIyCUTAKRgYAAEDedauSOG6GAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"University of Delhi","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sarita","middleName":"","lastName":"Nanda","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-08-09 07:59:18","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4885311/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4885311/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":64029682,"identity":"349d698b-ede3-47b0-97da-9b25d59ef8f8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-05 08:48:10","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":115221,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMap of sample collection site\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4885311/v1/05f9db516b25bae7ab13fcce.jpg"},{"id":64030790,"identity":"9a961413-3057-4702-9279-6102ccef08ed","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-05 09:04:10","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62050,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMacro-mineral intake (mean ± standard error) 100g of YFP and garden cultivars\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese graphs show (a) % RDA of macrominerals in winter cultivars (n=6). (b) % RDA of macrominerals in summer cultivars (n=9). (c) % EAR of macrominerals in winter cultivars (n=6). (d) % EAR of macrominerals in summer cultivars (n=9)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4885311/v1/edaf21d678a75f5264299305.jpg"},{"id":64031254,"identity":"d22ee8f8-6144-447f-956b-51b95e1d820a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-05 09:12:10","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":59847,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTrace element intake (mean ± standard error) of YFP and garden cultivars\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese graphs show (a) % RDA of trace elements in winter cultivars (n=6). (b) % RDA of trace elements in summer cultivars (n=9). (c) % EAR of trace elements in winter cultivars (n=6). (d) % EAR of trace elements in summer cultivars (n=9)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4885311/v1/540ce6e0dbc1be737223cd13.jpg"},{"id":64030396,"identity":"ad7e4dca-d238-445b-bad7-fa40c5617118","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-05 08:56:10","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":41852,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean daily intake (DIM) of trace elements (mean ± standard error) of compost amended YFP and garden cultivars\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese graphs show (a) DIM of trace elemnets in winter cultivars (n=6). (b) DIM of trace elemnets in summer cultivars (n=9)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4885311/v1/905f2de22ebb1b1a0f3013bb.jpg"},{"id":64030398,"identity":"e1d56143-6744-4262-9997-465c78fd4f96","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-05 08:56:10","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":46893,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHealth risk index (HRI) of trace elements (mean ± standard error) of winter and summer season compost amended YFP and garden cultivars\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese graphs show (a) HRI of trace elemnets in winter cultivars (n=6). (b) HRI of trace elemnets in summer cultivars (n=9)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4885311/v1/21d57e3e5de95b97714e0ef1.jpg"},{"id":64029687,"identity":"66371303-9067-45ee-99e8-61665b8babe1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-05 08:48:10","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":43180,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHazard index (HI) of trace elements (mean ± standard error) of winter and summer season compost amended YFP and garden cultivars\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese graphs show (a) HI of trace elemnets in winter cultivars (n=6). (b) HI of trace elemnets in summer cultivars (n=9)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4885311/v1/62bab287c2cb6f39db07fc69.jpg"},{"id":64029690,"identity":"8cbd2224-cfc3-4fd7-8e73-86b7d7b086d0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-05 08:48:10","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":103059,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePearson \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrelation of mean of trace elements with mean of macrominerals of all the fertilizer-amended cultivars from each soil. Asterisk (*) indicates statistical significance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4885311/v1/c90d935415249f7d33f73ea4.jpg"},{"id":64029686,"identity":"5d12f8fd-a59f-4e36-9850-3cae772d5617","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-05 08:48:10","extension":"jpg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":106069,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePearson \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrelation of mean of trace elements with mean of macrominerals of all the compost-amended\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003ecultivars from each soil. Asterisk (*) indicates statistical significance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4885311/v1/f5c6076b3707d504aef8b586.jpg"},{"id":67516950,"identity":"bf6ed712-ca33-490f-a228-464ad940c944","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-10-26 02:01:28","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1564089,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4885311/v1/caaab26c-cb04-4255-921e-fff4ebc74fcf.pdf"},{"id":64030400,"identity":"a5b36867-44d4-4e7e-89f4-9a1f818303d5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-05 08:56:10","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":1932649,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"supplementaryfile.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4885311/v1/178121441f8e9c670c007f58.docx"},{"id":64030792,"identity":"df7744ff-742c-4f19-a857-811b3ff37810","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-09-05 09:04:10","extension":"jpeg","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":331545,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGraphical abstract\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4885311/v1/c9285976da4cdd2366879951.jpeg"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Health risks associated with trace elements and macrominerals in cultivars grown on Yamuna floodplain using various soil amendments: a correlation analysis","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eUrbanization in Delhi has brought about a complex interplay of benefits and drawbacks, notably impacting the once-vital Yamuna River. Regrettably, this lifeline of the national capital now bears the ignominious title of the most polluted river, as reported by the Centre for Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The rapid urban sprawl, marked by increased migration, unauthorized settlements, and industrialization, has ushered in a host of challenges synonymous with urban expansion [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA large portion of the Yamuna's waters in Delhi serves the grim purpose of diluting wastewater from myriad drains disgorging into the river between the Tajewala and Okhla Barrage. Astonishingly, despite constituting a mere 2% of the river's flow, this stretch shoulders around 80% of its pollution burden. The contents of these drains, ranging from domestic to industrial and even religious waste, mingle to poison the Yamuna's once pristine waters [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fertile floodplains lining the Yamuna, crucial for agriculture, inadvertently contribute to the river's contamination. These lands, heavily cultivated, leach organic and inorganic substances, including heavy metals and harmful microbes, into the water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. While trace elements are essential for human nutrition, their accumulation beyond safe thresholds poses health risks, as highlighted by alarming quantities of heavy metals and pesticides found in the river [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the floodplains, characterized by dense populations and bustling with industrial and agricultural practices, accumulate trace elements extensively, primarily through the process of sedimentation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Current research highlights the buildup of trace elements in vegetables grown in contaminated soils, which poses significant risks to food safety and public health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. In response to these challenges, composts from diverse origin, emerge as promising strategies to mitigate trace elements contamination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Conflicting evidences regarding the effectiveness of these strategies in lowering trace elements levels in contaminated soils adds to the complexity of understanding soil health and agricultural produce quality [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR11\" citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, there is a lack of extensive data regarding the health effects of eating crops cultivated with compost additives, especially in a contamination sensitive river floodplain zone, highlighting the necessity for thorough research. To address these knowledge gaps, we propose a hypothesis: \" Incorporating compost amendments into soil can improve the nutritional quality of crops and may lower trace elements\u0026rsquo; content in cultivars grown on floodplains, thereby lessening related health hazards.\" This study aims to evaluate the nutrient content, including minerals, and trace elements in vegetables cultivated along the Yamuna floodplains near urban areas. Specifically, the investigation focuses on analyzing the health risks associated with levels of trace elements in leafy vegetable cultivars. This study aims to illuminate the complex interplay between urbanization, farming methods, and ecological well-being, thereby fostering informed strategies and sustainable interventions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology with materials","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCultivar plantation and collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWinter and summer season grown cultivars\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA couple of locations were chosen to collect samples of soil, one from river floodplain of Yamuna and other from the garden of the institution in University of Delhi. The experimentation was spread across two seasons. The location coordinates for the floodplain soil of the river were noted as [27.50, 78.30] and [28.87643, 77.204783] during winter and summer, respectively. For the garden soil, the coordinates were [27.53, 78.40] and [28.704753, 77.2330234] during the winter and summer seasons, respectively \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study utilized locally sourced organic compost from the Delhi itself. Leaf waste compost was collected from the Daulat Ram College campus\u0026rsquo; recycle unit [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Kitchen waste compost was sourced from the resident welfare association. Cow dung manure and vermicompost were procured from local farmers, while municipal waste compost was acquired from the Municipal Corporation of Delhi. DAP fertilizer was obtained from a general store. \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus cruentus\u003c/em\u003e (red amaranth, RA), \u003cem\u003eTrigonella foenum graecum\u003c/em\u003e (fenugreek, FK), \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus viridis\u003c/em\u003e (green amaranth, GA), \u003cem\u003eSpinacia oleracea\u003c/em\u003e (spinach, SP) seeds were obtained from Krishi Vigyan Kendra, National Horticulture Research and Development Foundation, Ujwa, New Delhi.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter collecting the soil samples were dried, sieved and uniformly mixed with the different compost to create a soil mix such as Vermicompost Soil mix (VCS), Cow Dung Manure Soil mix (CDMS), Leaf Waste Compost Soil mix (LWCS), Kitchen Waste Compost Soil mix (KWCS), Municipal Waste Compost Soil mix (MWCS). Also a conventional soil mix was prepared with DAP fertilizer (FS). The ratio of soil to compost was 1:0.25, while that of the chemical additives (DAP, calcium, and phosphate) in a 4:1:1 ratio (in grams) for a kg of soil.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the winter, the cultivation of green leafy vegetables began in December, with harvesting taking place during the first week of March. The recorded temperature and humidity ranged between 23.6\u0026ndash;27.4 degrees Celsius and 49.4\u0026ndash;76.5%, respectively. Leafy vegetable cultivars for the summer were sown in early April when the temperature ranged from 29 to 40 degrees Celsius and the humidity averaged between 34 and 44 percent. These plants were collected in June. The experimental design included three pots for each amendment type, maintaining consistent environmental conditions throughout the study. Cultivars treated with Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) fertilizer served as the control group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVegetable leaves were collected post-harvest, washed thoroughly, air-dried, and ground into a fine powder before being stored at four degrees Celsius in dark glass bottles for later analysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Experiments were performed in triplicate for each cultivar sample derived from both soil types, and the reported results were the average values.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSoil Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA 10-gram soil sample was combined with 20 ml of distilled water for the purpose of determining pH and Electrical Conductivity (EC). Measurements were subsequently taken using respective pH and EC meters.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eElemental Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreparation of Sample\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil and soil mix samples were digested using Aqua Regia, a 3:1 ratio of HCl to HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, to explore the available elements. The preparation of the cultivar leaf samples was conducted by finely grinding the leaf powder and digesting it following the protocol by Ali and Al-Qahtani (2012). One gram of this powder was subjected to overnight triacid digestion with 10 ml of H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e, HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, and HClO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e in a 1:5:1 ratio within a volumetric flask, aiming to extract analytes from the complex organic plant matrix. The following day, heating the sample on a hot plate continued until the solution's color changed. The concentrate was then diluted to 100 ml with MilliQ water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. All solutions underwent filtration using Whatman filter paper no.2, and plant samples received additional filtration through a 0.45-micron filter paper under vacuum pressure. These samples were stored at 4\u0026deg;C until analyzed using an Ion-Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS). For water sample preparation, 1 ml of HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e was added to 100 ml of groundwater that was used for irrigating the cultivars.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMachine calibration and Quality assurance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil samples' certified reference material (CRM: SQC001) and the cultivar leaf samples' standard reference material (SRM: ERM-CD281 RYE GRASS) from Sigma Aldrich underwent the same preparation as the respective soil and leaf samples. Serial dilutions of the CRM and SRM were prepared at varying concentrations to generate the calibration curve. Elemental analysis of the standard reference material was performed as a quality control measure. Analysis included nineteen minerals: six macro-minerals (Na, Mg, Ca, K, P, S), seven trace elements (Mn, Fe, Mo, Zn, Cu, B, Se) in the cultivars, and six potentially toxic elements (PTEs: Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Pb, Hg) in soils, soil mixes, and cultivars, using the iCAP-Q ICP-MS and QTEGRA ISDS software with the Kinetic Energy Discrimination (KED) interface. The internal standard, \u003csup\u003e129\u003c/sup\u003eXe in the argon gas, had a recovery rate between 80 and 120 percent. CRM and SRM were measured as unknowns every ten samples to ensure data validation, showing an average offset of less than 10% for all elements. Correlation coefficients (R\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) for all elements were above 99.0%. Soil and soil mix samples, including CRM, were diluted 20 times for mineral and PTE analysis, while leaf samples, including SRM, were diluted 100 times with 1% HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e for macro-mineral analysis. For micro-minerals and trace elements, the solution was analyzed directly without dilution. A 1% HNO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e solution served as the wash matrix, and each sample was replicated three times to improve statistical accuracy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAnalysis of Data\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth risk indices were determined by analyzing the mean results from the three replicates of each cultivar.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e%RDA and %EAR\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e \u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\%RDA=\\:actual\\:content\\:in\\:100g\\:of\\:food/RDA\\times\\:100\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e \u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\%EAR=\\:actual\\:content\\:in\\:100g\\:of\\:food/EAR\\times\\:100\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere RDA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Recommended Dietary Allowance and EAR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Expected Average Requirement. The RDA and EAR values taken from Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssessment of Health Risk\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDaily Intake of Metals (DIM)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe concentration of heavy metals available from vegetable consumption is defined by the equation for the Daily Intake of Metals (DIM):\u003cdiv id=\"Equ3\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ3\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:DIM=\\:({C}_{metal}\\times\\:{C}_{factor}\\times\\:{C}_{intake})/BW$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study investigated C\u003csub\u003emetal\u003c/sub\u003e, the heavy metal concentration in vegetables, along with C\u003csub\u003efactor\u003c/sub\u003e, the conversion coefficient from fresh to dry weight, and IR, the ingestion rate. Specifically, C\u003csub\u003efactor\u003c/sub\u003e was fixed at 0.085 for leafy vegetables, and IR was assumed to be 0.0385 kg/person/day for adults weighing an average (BW) of 70 kg.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHealth Risk Index (HRI)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Health Risk Index (HRI) denotes the health implications linked to ongoing exposure to heavy metals, which can cause chronic health issues. This is mathematically formulated as:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ4\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ4\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:HRI=\\:DIM\\:/{R}_{f}D\\:\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e4\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003csub\u003ef\u003c/sub\u003eD values were determined for the investigated toxic elements (Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Hg, and Pb) are 1.5, 0.02, 0.001, 0.0003, 0.0001, and 0.04 mg/kg/day, respectively. An HRI below one suggests safety, while a value between one and five indicates potential concern [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. The HRI is also associated with non-carcinogenic risk.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the continuation, regarding the Hazard Quotient (HQ) calculation:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:HQ=\\:EDI\\:/{R}_{f}D\\:\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cem\u003e​\u003c/em\u003e (5)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere EDI is the estimated daily intake, further calculated as:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ5\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ5\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:EDI=\\:{C}_{m}\\times\\:IR\\times\\:EF\\times\\:ED/\\:BW\\times\\:AT\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e6\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this context, C\u003csub\u003em\u003c/sub\u003e denotes the concentration of potentially toxic elements in the cultivar, IR represents the ingestion rate (0.0385 kg/person/day), EF refers to exposure frequency (365 days/year), ED indicates exposure duration (72 years for adults), BW stands for average body weight (70 kg), and AT signifies average exposure time for non-carcinogenic effects (26280 days). By adding the Hazard Quotients (HQ) for individual heavy metals, the Hazard Index (HI) is determined as:\u003cdiv id=\"Equ6\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ6\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:HI=\\sum\\:HQ\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e7\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHI indicates different levels of health risk: less hazardous, concerning, and chronic effects are associated with HI values of \u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;1, 1\u0026ndash;5, and \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10, respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGraph Pad Prism 10.2.1 software was utilized to determine statistical significance. Ordinary one-way ANOVA was employed to examine variation in relation to each macro-minerasl and trace elements. Dunnett's test was used for multiple comparisons across all leafy vegetable cultivars amended with compost.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMineral assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMacro-minerals in cultivars\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe impact of adding composts on macro-minerals' levels in winter season cultivars was investigated across two distinct soil types. Findings indicated that organic cultivars in YFP soil exhibited higher mean levels of Mg (50 mg/100g), P (65 mg/100g), K (545 mg/100g), and S (59 mg/100g) compared to cultivars treated with chemical fertilizer amendments (Mg: 41.44 mg/100g; P: 59 mg/100g; K: 515 mg/100g; S: 49 mg/100g). However, levels of Na and Ca (128 mg/100g and 145 mg/100g, respectively) in bio-compost amended cultivars were lower than those treated with fertilizer amendments (Na: 143 mg/100g; Ca: 226 mg/100g) \u003cb\u003e(Fig. \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e; S2).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, garden cultivars treated with bio-compost amendments displayed higher mean levels of most macro-minerals - Mg, P, S, K, Ca (118 mg/100g, 172 mg/100g, 76 mg/100g, 845 mg/100g, 315 mg/100g) except for Na, which was slightly lower (212 mg/100g) compared to those treated with fertilizer amendments (Mg: 82 mg/100g; P: 126 mg/100g; S: 72 mg/100g; K: 814 mg/100g; Ca: 247 mg/100g; Na: 215 mg/100g). Notably, organic produce from YFP soil had significantly higher (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) levels of P, S, and K (8.7%, 17%, and 5.4%, respectively) but lower levels of Na and Ca (11% and 56%, respectively). Conversely, garden soil cultivars had significantly higher levels of Mg and Ca (30% and 21%, respectively) \u003cb\u003e(Fig. S3; S4)\u003c/b\u003e. The net effect revealed an average of approximately 3.6% higher levels of macro-minerals in organic cultivars than in conventional ones. This effect varied slightly between YFP soil cultivars (1.8% lower) and garden soil cultivars (9% higher).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor summer season cultivars, results revealed that in the YFP soil, organic cultivars exhibited notably higher mean levels of Na (106 mg/100g), P (42.3 mg/100g), K (420 mg/100g), and S (33.9 mg/100g) compared to cultivars treated with chemical fertilizer amendments (Na: 91.6 mg/100g; P: 39.6 mg/100g; K: 399.6 mg/100g; S: 26.7 mg/100g). Conversely, levels of Mg and Ca (69.6 mg/100g and 161.8 mg/100g, respectively) in bio-compost amended cultivars were slightly lower than those treated with fertilizer (Mg: 71 mg/100g; Ca: 163.4 mg/100g) \u003cb\u003e(Fig. S5; S6)\u003c/b\u003e. In contrast, garden cultivars treated with bio-compost amendments displayed higher mean levels of all macro-minerals, Na (86.2 mg/100g), P(56.9 mg/100g), K(424.5 mg/100g), S(31.3 mg/100g), Mg (133.5 mg/100g), and Ca 175 mg/100g), compared to those treated with fertilizer amendments (Na: 78.8 mg/100g; Mg: 118.3 mg/100g; P: 45.4 mg/100g; S: 28.2 mg/100g; K: 396.5 mg/100g; Ca: 161.3 mg/100g). Notably, organic produce from garden soil exhibited significantly higher (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) levels of Na, Mg, and P (8.9%, 11%, and 22.2% higher, respectively). Overall, the net effect revealed approximately 5% and 8.8% (on average 7%) higher levels of macro-minerals in organic produce compared to conventional produce from YFP and garden soil, respectively \u003cb\u003e(Fig. S7; S8)\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTrace elements in soils and water\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe floodplain soil exhibited an alkaline characteristic with a pH of 8.2 and an electrical conductivity of 0.90 mS/cm. Among the trace elements analyzed\u0026mdash;Manganese (Mn), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), and Selenium (Se)\u0026mdash;only Copper and Selenium concentrations exceeded the permissible limits of 20 mg/kg and 0.2 mg/kg, respectively, in soil samples amended with additional substances. However, the concentrations of these elements in groundwater remained below the toxicity thresholds established by the European Union, which are 0.05 mg/L for Mn, 0.1 mg/L for Cu, 0.1 mg/L for Zn, and 0.01 mg/L for Se \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTrace elements in cultivars\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the winter, trace element levels in organic cultivars varied compared to conventional produce, with variations dependent on soil type. Results showed that in YFP soil, organic cultivars exhibited lower mean levels of B (by 33%), Mn (by 11%), Fe (by 60%), Cu (by 19%), and Se (by 20%) compared to cultivars grown with chemical fertilizer amendments \u003cb\u003e(Fig. S9; S10)\u003c/b\u003e. Conversely, in garden soil cultivars, trace element levels (B, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, and Se) were higher in organic produce (by 49%, 34%, 10%, 58%, 44%, and 13%, respectively) except for Fe. Organic cultivars had reduced levels of Fe in both soils (by 60% in YFP cultivars and 0.2% in garden cultivars) \u003cb\u003e(Fig. S11; S12)\u003c/b\u003e. Notably, the concentration of Fe and Mn in organic produce from YFP soil was significantly lower le(p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). In contrast, garden soil cultivars had significantly higher concentrations of Mo and Mn. Overall, the analysis revealed an average of approximately 9.6% lower levels of trace elements in organic cultivars compared to conventional cultivars, with YFP soil cultivars exhibiting a 43% lower level and garden soil cultivars showing a 24% higher level.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrace elements (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;standard deviation) in water (mg/L) and soil mix (mg/kg) of various compost amendments (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrace elements (mg/kg)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLimits\u003c/b\u003e \u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003ea\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(mg/kg)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e850\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eYamuna\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003cb\u003eFloodplain soil mix\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e403.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLWCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e351.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMWCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e453.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCDMS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e363.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKWCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e368.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e588.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGarden soil mix\u003c/b\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003eb\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e500.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLWCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e496.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMWCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e422.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCDMS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e450.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eKWCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e448.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e456.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e00.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGroundwater\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTrace elements (mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.006\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0004\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLimits\u003c/b\u003e \u003csup\u003e\u003cb\u003ec\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e(mg/L)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003eAgarwal 2009 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003eFS: fertilizer soil mix; LWCS: leaf waste compost soil mix; MWCS: municipal waste compost soil mix; CDMS: cow dung manure soil mix; KWCS: kitchen waste compost soil mix; VCS: vermicompost soil mix\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003eEU 1997 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor summer season cultivars, in YFP soil, most trace elements, such as Zn, B, Mo, and Cu, were lower in organic produce (2.5%, 20%, 36.6%, 22.8%) than conventional produce. However, in garden soil cultivars, the levels of these trace elements were higher in organic produce (40%, 32.8%, 86.6%, and 20%) than in conventional produce. The level of Fe was lower in both soils for organic cultivars (6.34% in YFP cultivars and 19.67% in garden cultivars). On the other hand, the level of Mn was higher in YFP cultivars (12.6%) but lower in garden cultivars (10.4%) \u003cb\u003e(Fig. S13; S14; S15; S16)\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of the one-way ANOVA revealed significant differences in the levels of trace elements (such as Mn, Cu, Zn, and Mo) among the cultivars of YFP soil. Specifically, all trace elements, except for Mn, showed significant differences among the cultivars of garden soil. Further analysis using the Dunnett test in YFP indicated that the levels of Mn in the cultivars of leaf waste compost amendment (LWCP) were significantly higher (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) compared to the cultivars of the chemical fertilizer amendment. Conversely, the levels of Mo in the MWCP, CDMP, KWCP, and VCP were significantly lower (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) than in FP. In garden produce, significant differences (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) were observed in the overall levels of Fe in CDMP and KWCP and Mn in CDMP, which were lower than the FP. On the other hand, the levels of B, Zn, and Mo in LWCP and Cu in MWCP and KWCP were significantly higher (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01) than the conventional produce.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e% RDA and % EAR\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur investigation unveiled that consuming 100g of leafy vegetable cultivars grown in both winter and summer can provide adults with abundant minerals, including sodium, magnesium, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, potassium, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, boron, and selenium. We referenced RDA and EAR values from the 2020 guidelines of the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) for adult males. Compared to the Recommended Dietary Allowance, the %RDA values for magnesium, sulfur, and molybdenum were notably higher in winter organic cultivars than in fertilizer cultivars. YFP cultivars exhibited higher average %RDA values for six minerals\u0026mdash;magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, sulfur, and molybdenum\u0026mdash;than fertilizer cultivars. For garden cultivars, the %RDA was higher for eleven minerals in organic cultivars than fertilizer ones, with all thirteen studied minerals showing a higher average %RDA in organic cultivars. The %EAR indicated that consuming 100g of leafy vegetable cultivars could meet half of the population's dietary requirements. The mean %EAR was lower for macro minerals and trace elements (about 24% and 15% lower, respectively) in compost-enriched YFP cultivars than FP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, the average %EAR was higher for both macro-minerals (25%) and trace elements (28%) in compost-amended garden cultivars than fertilizer ones. In the case of the summer season, the mineral intake concerning the Recommended Dietary Allowance (%RDA) for Na and S in all three cultivars was comparatively higher in organic cultivars than in fertilizer cultivars. The average % RDA value was higher in four of the thirteen minerals (Na, P, S, K, and Mn) studied than in the cultivars grown with chemical fertilizer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe % RDA concerning different compost amendments followed VCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;LWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;CDMP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;MWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;KWCP. The vermicompost amended cultivars improved the %RDA for eleven elements: protein, Na, Ca, B, P, Fe, K, Mg, S, Zn, and Mn. Similarly, Na, P, S, K, Fe, Cu, and Mn were improved in LWCP. The CDMP improved with respect to protein, Na, Mg, P, S, and K. Na, S, Cu, and Mn were improved in MWCP, and the KWCP showed improvement in Na, S, and Se. The % EAR remained mostly similar to chemical fertilizer-affected cultivars, which were mostly lower than 1% \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHealth risk assessment of trace elements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDaily Intake of Metal (DIM)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe potential health risks linked to the daily consumption of contaminated crops are assessed using the Daily Intake of Metal (DIM). During the winter season, among the YFP cultivars, fenugreek exhibited the highest DIM value, while spinach ranked highest among the garden cultivars, with the following sequence: Mn\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Fe\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Zn\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cu\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Se for both types of soil cultivars. In river floodplains, KWCP showed lower DIM values than those amended with chemical fertilizers, In the summer season, regardless of soil type, spinach consistently displayed the highest DIM values. For YFP cultivars, the order was Fe\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Mn\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cu\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Zn\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Se, while for garden cultivars, it was Mn\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Zn\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Cu\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Fe\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;Se. Generally, cultivars grown with compost exhibited lower DIM values than those amended with fertilizer. The sequence for YFP cultivars was LWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;FWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;MWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;VCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;KWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;CDMP, and for garden cultivars, it was FWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;VCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;MWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;LWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;KWCP\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;CDMP \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e. The lowest intake was recorded among the three cultivars: Amaranthus viridis cultivars, particularly YFP\u0026rsquo;s KWCP and garden\u0026rsquo;s VCP.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHealth Risk Index (HRI)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Health Risk Index evaluates potential health risks associated with ingesting polluted food. HRI values across all cultivars stayed below 1, regardless of soil amendments or seasons. In the summer season, YFP cultivars with specific amendments ranked in order of HRI values: CDMP (0.032)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;FP (0.031)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;KWCP (0.030), while for garden cultivars, the order was CDMP (0.020)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;KWCP (0.019)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;FP (0.012). Manganese notably contributed the most to the HRI index value in both soil types. For YFP cultivars, fenugreek had the highest HRI (0.1), followed by spinach (0.05), whereas, for garden cultivars, the order reversed (spinach (0.08)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;fenugreek (0.03)).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn another scenario, the mean HRI values for YFP cultivars with specific amendments in the summer season were ranked as follows: MWCP (0.014)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;LWCP (0.013)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;FP (0.011)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;VCP (0.008)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;KWCP (0.006)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;CDMP (0.006), while for garden cultivars, the order was FP (0.0103)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;MWCP (0.0102)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;VCP (0.0100)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;KWCP (0.0098)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;LWCP (0.0094)\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;CDMP (0.0082). In every river floodplain cultivar, the HRI values were highest for copper (RA (0.023), SP (0.18), and GA (0.15)), while manganese dominated in all garden cultivars (RA (0.23), SP (0.18), and GA (0.12)).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn river floodplain soil, three of the five cultivars treated with compost exhibited comparatively lower HRI values than those treated with chemical fertilizers, whereas two compost-amended cultivars, MWCP and KWCP, in garden soil exhibited lower HRI values compared to fertilizer-amended ones \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eNon-cancer risk assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing the Hazard Quotient (HQ) and Health Index (HI), the study evaluated how trace elements might affect the local population consuming these crops regarding non-carcinogenic risks. Throughout both seasons and across cultivars from various soil types, all pertinent trace elements demonstrated HQ values that were consistently below 1. In the winter season YFP cultivars, the mean HI value (1.8) of the cultivars enriched with compost paralleled that of cultivars treated with fertilizer. However, compost-amended garden cultivars showed a notably higher mean HI value (1.3) than fertilizer-amended ones (0.9).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring the summer months, floodplain cultivars amended with compost had an average HI of 0.56, which was lower than the 0.69 average for those receiving chemical fertilizers. Similarly, garden cultivars with compost addition had an HI of 0.52, compared to 0.56 for those treated with chemical fertilizers. \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePearson Correlation of macrominerals with trace elements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe macrominerals Mg, P, S, K, and Ca exhibited a significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) positive correlation with Fe, B, and Mn trace elements. Additionally, Mg and Ca exhibited a significantly negative correlation with Zn and Mo in compost-amended cultivars \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e; \u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eTrace metals, introduced into the atmosphere through both natural sources and human activities like industrial processes, fossil fuel combustion, and waste incineration, have seen their environmental concentrations rise significantly due to human exploitation. These metals, particularly in \"accumulation mode\" particles (0.1\u0026ndash;1.0 \u0026micro;m), can travel over long distances and exert considerable effects on ecosystems, with plant leaves serving as crucial absorbers of these pollutants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe contamination of agricultural soils with toxic trace elements (TEs) has emerged as a pressing concern, given their harmful impact on plant health and the subsequent threat of food contamination. The widespread use of TEs in industry and agriculture has led to their buildup in soils, posing serious health risks to humans, including kidney failure, respiratory issues, genetic mutations, and cancer. In plants, TEs can impair growth, disrupt photosynthesis, alter morphology, reduce nutrient uptake, and cause oxidative stress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeafy vegetables are crucial mineral sources for human consumption, but understanding their mineral content in floodplain soil near a polluted river, particularly in a densely populated metropolitan area, is limited [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. This research investigated the nutritional composition of leafy vegetables grown in winter and summer on Yamuna River floodplain soil and garden soil amended with different types of compost. It assessed potential health implications and compared nutrient levels with Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Expected Average Rates (EAR). Two compost types, cow dung manure and kitchen waste compost, were utilized for winter cultivation. On the other hand, five different compost types were used for summer cultivation: vermicompost, cow dung manure, kitchen waste compost, municipal organic, and leaf waste compost.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMineral content of cultivars\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings indicated that the nutritional quality of the vegetables varied depending on the soil type and compost amendments employed for cultivation. The CDMP and KWCP showed significantly higher average macro-mineral levels than those using chemical fertilizer amendments in both seasons. This trend was consistent across summer season cultivars from leaf waste compost (LWCP), vermicompost (VCP), and urban waste composts like municipal organic waste compost (MWCP). This finding supports existing research suggesting that organic produce tends to display increased levels of essential macromolecules such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and phosphorus (P) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Bio-compost-enriched soil is expected to have higher concentrations of trace elements, likely attributable to the expanded microbial diversity associated with its application [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. However, most trace element levels in leafy vegetables from compost-amended river floodplain soil were lower (43% in winter season; 12% in summer) than those from chemical fertilizer cultivars (FP). Contrary to this, the garden soil cultivars from both seasons showed higher trace elements in organic cultivars (24% in the winter and 9% in the summer) compared to the fertilizer cultivars.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis was suggested by some earlier studies that organically grown cultivars exhibit higher trace element levels [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Also, their levels varied among cultivars of different bio-compost amendments, which suggested that composts might have varied metal chelating potentials. Studies have shown that composts differ in their metal chelating effect based on the fulvic and humic acid ratio [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. The metal chelating was also observed in the present study as Mg and Ca exhibited a significantly negative correlation with Zn and Mo as the concentration of the trace elements viz. Zn and Mo were reduced while the concentration of Mg and Ca increased in compost-administered cultivars. Additionally, most of the macrominerals and trace elements had a significantly positive association, suggesting their effective co-translocation. The macrominerals and trace elements have been observed to have some cross-talks among them through interconnected signalling pathways to maintain the homeostasis required for the growth and development of the plant, though required in different concentrations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eHealth risk assessment of minerals\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec29\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMacro-minerals\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSodium, magnesium, potassium, sulphur, potassium and calcium are essential macro-minerals for a healthy diet [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. %RDA values provided by 100g of the cultivars for an adult man for these minerals consistently exceeded 1%, indicating that leafy vegetable cultivars meet the Recommended Dietary Allowances set by the ICMR norm [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. %EAR values, representing nutrient concentration needed to meet dietary requirements for 50% of the population, generally fell below 1% for most nutrients. Leafy vegetable cultivars in the Yamuna floodplain can serve as a supplemental source of these nutrients. Additionally, while %RDA values were notably higher in cultivars treated with compost grown in both soils in both seasons, %EAR values exhibited minimal deviation from those treated with fertilizer. Nevertheless, the levels were elevated in the winter cultivars treated with compost.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec30\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTrace elements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBesides the bulk minerals, trace minerals like Mn, Fe, Cu, and Zn are needed in relatively small quantities, typically less than 100 mg/day [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. While crucial for essential bodily functions, their presence above certain limits can be toxic. These elements contribute to significant metal-protein complexes vital for regular growth and development. Both excess and deficiency of these minerals have been linked to various pathophysiological conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. For instance, an excess of manganese, crucial for bone development and metabolic processes, could induce symptoms similar to Parkinson's syndrome [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, iron, vital for metalloprotein complexes like haemoglobin and myoglobin, may lead to poisoning or chronic intoxication when overloaded [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Copper, essential for connective tissue development and iron metabolism, can cause liver damage and gastrointestinal issues when consumed excessively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Zinc, crucial for various enzymes and genetic material synthesis, can adversely affect the immune system in toxic concentrations [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR37\" citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Selenium, forming complexes with metal enzymes, can impact the heart, gastrointestinal system, and immune functions when its levels become toxic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe current research found that each cultivar surpassed 1% of the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for trace elements. Nevertheless, in both seasons, cultivars treated with compost exhibited a lower mean %RDA than those treated with chemical fertilizer among river floodplain cultivars. To assess the health risk, this study utilized oral reference dosages (R\u003csub\u003ef\u003c/sub\u003eD) for studies of trace elements in adult humans, set at 0.14, 0.7, 0.04, 0.3 and 0.055 mg/kg/day for Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn and Se respectively, following the standards outlined by the USEPA [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. These values indicate the level at which there is no adverse effect during an individual's lifetime. Winter spinach varieties exhibited elevated copper levels exceeding allowable thresholds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the case of summer season cultivars, the copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) levels surpassed the permissible limits among the concerned minerals in select cultivars. Cu exceeded the limits in spinach treated with leaf waste amendment, green amaranth with chemical fertilizer amendment, and red amaranth with municipal organic waste compost amendment. Zn levels only crossed the permissible threshold in spinach treated with vermicompost. The acceptable limits, set by the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) of 1954, stand at 30mg/kg for Cu and 50mg/kg for Zn [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. The soil and the groundwater had trace elements below the acceptable threshold values [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe elevated Cu and Zn levels in specific cultivars hint at specific bioaccumulation potential along with the contamination from external sources like soil, air, or water [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR46\" citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. Also the Cu and Se concentration in the present study was above the allowed limits in all the soil mix prepared with specific amendments indicating the higher levels in the base soil itself. Furthermore, research discovered higher concentrations of Zn, Fe, Cu, and Mn in the sediment along the Delhi stretch of Yamuna. This increase primarily links to industrial activities in that area [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Differences in metal levels across various bio-compost amendments imply varying abilities of composts to bind metals. Research indicates that the effectiveness of composts in binding metals can fluctuate depending on the proportion of fulvic to humic acids [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, the accumulation of metals can be influenced by the specific species of the cultivar. In line with our findings, previous studies have identified spinach as a plant capable of accumulating heavy metals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the different plant parts vary in heavy metal accumulation, such as the leaves and the shoots, which are more potent accumulators than the roots [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. The assessment of potential health risks involved calculating several factors such as daily availability, exposure rates, Daily Intake of Metal (DIM), and Health Risk Index (HRI) for each trace element [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. Fortunately, the index values for all these parameters remained well below the levels of concern across all cultivars in both seasons. Moreover, the evaluation of non-carcinogenic impacts, assessed using the Hazard Index (HI), did not indicate any issues for the floodplain or garden soil varieties during the summer growing period. However, in the case of winter season cultivars, the HI index values indicated the most minor health hazard for both the soil cultivars. Furthermore, compost treated summer cultivars showcased reduced health risks associated with prolonged consumption compared to those grown utilizing chemical fertilizers. Particularly noteworthy were the river floodplain varieties that, after being treated with compost made from kitchen waste, displayed the most minimal values across all these indices compared to other varieties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec31\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCorrelation between trace elements and macrominerals\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrace elements and macrominerals are fundamental to both plant and animal physiology, exerting crucial influences on a wide array of biological processes. The interplay between these elements is intricate, characterized by synergistic and antagonistic interactions that affect nutrient absorption, metabolic functions, and overall health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. In plants, trace elements and macrominerals are primarily absorbed from the soil, with their availability modulated by factors such as soil pH, organic matter content, and the presence of other minerals. An excess of one element can inhibit the uptake of another; for instance, elevated levels of phosphorus can decrease the availability of zinc, leading to deficiency symptoms in plants despite sufficient zinc concentrations in the soil [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, in animals, the interrelationship between trace elements and macrominerals is essential for physiological functions, including growth, reproduction, and overall health. Calcium and phosphorus collaborate in the formation of bones and teeth, with magnesium serving as a cofactor for enzymes regulating these processes. Zinc is critical for the synthesis of calcitonin, a hormone that modulates calcium levels in the blood [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. However, high dietary calcium intake can interfere with the absorption of magnesium and zinc in the intestines, potentially leading to deficiencies if dietary intake of these trace elements is inadequate [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. The bioavailability of trace elements and macrominerals, which can be modulated by factors such as chelation, plays a crucial role in determining their efficacy within biological systems. For example, chelation of trace elements with organic molecules can enhance their bioavailability, while excessive application of macrominerals like potassium can impede the uptake of magnesium and calcium, adversely affecting plant growth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e]. The homeostatic mechanisms governing mineral balance are highly complex. In ruminants, dietary sulfur is necessary for the synthesis of sulfur-containing amino acids, yet excessive sulfur can reduce the bioavailability of selenium, potentially resulting in deficiency-related conditions such as white muscle disease [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the present study, we investigated the correlations among macrominerals and trace elements in leafy vegetable samples. The correlation coefficients ranged from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 to +\u0026thinsp;1, signifying negative and positive correlations, respectively. The findings corroborated previous research, showing that macrominerals such as Na, Mg, K, Ca, P, and S exhibited positive correlations among each other, independent of soil amendments. Notably, magnesium, calcium, and phosphorus displayed significant positive correlations (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.0001) compared to fertilizer-amended cultivars. Similarly, trace elements like manganese, iron, boron, and selenium showed significant positive correlations in compost-amended cultivars, indicating co-translocation. In contrast, macrominerals such as magnesium and calcium were negatively correlated with trace elements like zinc and molybdenum, with the negative correlation being statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in compost-amended cultivars. This aligns with previous findings where milk from organic and conventional dairy herds exhibited higher concentrations of macrominerals (Ca, K, P) but lower levels of trace elements (Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn). Similarly, the administration of 25 minerals in sheep and goats resulted in elevated serum potassium levels and reduced zinc concentrations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRemediation of trace element contamination often depends on the strategic application of soil amendments, which are instrumental in reducing the mobility and bioavailability of contaminants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e]. By integrating materials such as lime, phosphates, and biochar into contaminated soils, trace elements can be immobilized, minimizing their uptake by plants and reducing their potential to leach into groundwater [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e]. This method is particularly effective as it addresses immediate contamination concerns while providing long-term stability, thereby enhancing the safety of soils for agricultural use and reducing the risk of further degradation. In addition to soil amendments, complementary strategies such as phytoremediation, bioremediation, and chemical remediation are also employed. Phytoremediation leverages plants to extract or stabilize trace elements, while bioremediation utilizes microorganisms capable of transforming or adsorbing contaminants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e]. Chemical methods, including precipitation and ion exchange, further contribute to lowering trace element concentrations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. Advanced techniques like electrokinetic remediation and thermal treatment, along with advanced oxidation processes, offer additional tools for addressing complex sites and neutralizing contaminants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. Nevertheless, soil amendments remain a cornerstone of remediation strategies, often serving as the foundation for other methods, providing a sustainable and cost-effective approach to managing trace element contamination in the environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current research demonstrates that the percentage of recommended dietary allowance of macro-minerals per 100g of cultivars and their corresponding percentage of the estimated average requirement was lower in those grown in floodplain soil compared to those cultivated in garden soil. However, adding waste compost amendments improved the %RDA and %EAR of macro-minerals in cultivars from both soil types and across seasons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, the %RDA and %EAR of trace elements per 100g of cultivars were higher in cultivars grown on floodplain than in garden soil but decreased on compost treatment compared to chemical fertilizers. Moreover, the %RDA for all nutrients in Yamuna floodplain cultivars was adequate for adult dietary needs. In contrast, the %EAR suggests that green leafy vegetable cultivars could only supplement diets for about half the population. The risk to health posed by daily intake of trace elements in floodplain soil-grown cultivars was lower, including a lower non-cancer health risk, with even lower risks observed in cultivars treated with organic waste compost amendments. The relationship between trace elements and macrominerals is one of balance and interaction. Understanding these interactions is crucial for optimizing plant growth, animal health, and overall ecosystem productivity. Ensuring adequate but not excessive levels of these minerals through soil management, dietary supplementation, and other interventions is key to maintaining this delicate balance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConflict of Interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding Source\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eP.S. handled sample collection, data generation, and analysis. P.S. and S.M. collaborated on result interpretation, while P.S. authored the manuscript. S.N. reviewed and edited the content for language accuracy. All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors express gratitude to Prof. Savita Roy for logistical support, Prof. Chirashree Ghosh, Prof. Debi Sarkar,and Prof. Alo Nag for guidance. They also thank IUAC for the Q-ICPMS facility, and CSIR for providing the firstauthor's fellowship (Award letter no. 08/0623(0001)/2020-EMR-1).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData is provided within the manuscript and supplementary information files\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eParween M, Ramanathan AL, Raju NJ (2017) Waste water management and water quality of river Yamuna in the megacity of Delhi. 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Water Air Soil Pollut 232:335. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-021-05182-4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s11270-021-05182-4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Trace elements, health risk assessment, macrominerals, %RDA, %EAR, Yamuna floodplain","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4885311/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4885311/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"This study addresses the contamination challenges in the agricultural sector of the Yamuna Floodplain, a vital region for supplying vegetables to the National Capital Region (NCR). The research involved cultivating spinach, green amaranth, and red amaranth over two consecutive seasons, with various waste compost amendments applied to the soil, while groundwater was used for irrigation. The quality of these organically grown vegetables was assessed by analyzing macro-minerals and trace elements using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). Results indicated that the mean concentrations (mg/100g) of phosphorus, sulfur, manganese, and potassium were significantly enhanced in compost-amended crops, leading to improvements in their respective percentages of Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) and Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) compared to those grown with chemical fertilizers. Health risk assessments revealed that both the hazard quotient (HQ) and the health index (sum of Target Hazard Quotients, THQ) were below 1, indicating minimal non-carcinogenic risk. Furthermore, compost amendments were found to significantly reduce the non-carcinogenic risks associated with manganese, iron, copper, zinc, and selenium, compared to conventional chemical fertilizers. Notably, trace elements such as zinc and molybdenum exhibited a significant negative correlation with macro-minerals like magnesium and calcium in compost-amended crops. Based on these findings, we recommend the use of urban organic compost in cultivating vegetables on the Yamuna Floodplain, combined with groundwater irrigation, as a sustainable approach to producing high-quality crops with minimal health risks for human consumption.","manuscriptTitle":"Health risks associated with trace elements and macrominerals in cultivars grown on Yamuna floodplain using various soil amendments: a correlation analysis","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-09-05 08:48:05","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4885311/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"8a61c93f-7a43-41bb-b34c-b59913cdbcae","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 5th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-10-30T17:08:40+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-09-05 08:48:05","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4885311","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4885311","identity":"rs-4885311","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}