Life History, Incidence and Damage symptoms of the Red Pierrot butterfly, Talicada nyseus (Guerin) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) on Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken

Life History, Incidence and Damage symptoms of the Red Pierrot butterfly, Talicada nyseus (Guerin) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) on Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Life History, Incidence and Damage symptoms of the Red Pierrot butterfly, Talicada nyseus (Guerin) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) on Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken Soumya Kallekkattil This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3288130/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 18 Dec, 2025 Read the published version in International Journal of Tropical Insect Science → Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Laboratory studies were conducted on the development of immature stages, life history and behavior of the Red Pierrot butterfly, Talicada nyseus (Guerin) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) reared on Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken. Fabaceous and succulent plants in Brazil, China, India, Africa, and all tropical countries can be infested by larvae of T. nyseus . The pest had four larval instars and completed its life cycle in 36.95 ± 3.31 days. The mean incubation period of the egg was 3.75 days. The prepupal, pupal, and larval stages' respective mean development times were 1.51 ± 0.50, 8.56 ± 10.65, and 14.23 ± 1.82, days. The length of the larva in its first and last instars was 1.95 ± 0.13 and 15.85 ± 0.93, respectively. In larval stages, there was no apparent relationship between length and width. The sex ratio was 1.39:1 in favor of females. One day following eclosion, adults were prepared for mating. The ovaries of the adult female held 75.1 eggs. Male and female butterflies who were not fed lived only three to five days instead of eleven to fourteen days like those who had access to water. The findings of this study will be helpful in developing Integrated Pest Management tactics to combat this pest. Developmental history Life cycle Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Insect pest. Integrated pest management medicinal plants Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 1. INTRODUCTION Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken (Crassulaceae), is a perennial herb, widely distributed within the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The plant is found in Brazil, China, India, Africa, and in all tropical countries (Fernandes et al. 2019 ). It is commonly known as the miracle plant, cathedral bell plant, life plant, mother of millions, or air plant (Hequet et al. 2009 ; Kirtikar and Basu 1975 ). It is a succulent and grows between 1.00-1.50 m in height with bell-like flowers. It reproduces primarily through plantlets that develop on the edges of its leaves (Pattewar 2012 ) (Fig. 1 ) A variety of folk remedies use Bryophyllum pinnatum in tropical Africa, Australia, China, India, and tropical America. It has applications in the management of diarrhoea and vomiting, fever, leishmaniasis, ulcer, hypertension, pain, and inflammation (Pal and Chaudhuri1991; 1992; Da Silva et al. 1995 ; Ojewole 2002 ). The leaves have further been used for treating edema (Okwu 2007 ), kidney stones, cancer (Paranjpe 2005 ; Mathew and Unithan 1992), epilepsy, skin discoloration, and several other conditions. Several bioactive compounds, including alkaloids, triterpenes, lipids, flavonoids, glycosides, bufadienolides, phenols, and organic acids, have been detected in the plant. Proximate composition analysis of B. pinnatum showed carbohydrates as the main components while mineral constituents’ analysis revealed high calcium and potassium (Nwali et al. 2014 ; Ekwumemgbo et al. 2013 ). Pharmacological activities of B. pinnatum include antimicrobial, anti-ulcer, anthelmintic, cytotoxic, wound healing, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, diuretic, and uterine contractility (Gwehenberger et al. 2004 ; Bhatti et al 2012 ; Nayak et al. 2010 ; Surendra et al. 2015 ; Supratman 2000). Other research articles on the plant have previously reported on its ethnomedical uses, pharmacological activities and phytochemical constituents (Pattewar 2012 ; Khooshbu and Ansari 2019 ; Kamboj and Saluja 2009 ; Nagaratna et al. 2015 ). The plant's ability to produce numerous plantlets along the edges of its leaves adds to its visual appeal and makes it a popular choice for indoor and outdoor ornamental displays (Hurrell et al 2012 ). Talicada nyseus , commonly known as the Red Pierrot, is a butterfly species belonging to the family Lycaenidae and is found in various parts of Asia, including India, Thailand, and Sri Lanka (Varshney 1986 ). Despite its captivating beauty, has gained attention as a potential pest of plants in certain regions (Mahesh and Jayashankar 2016). While it's visual allure and ecological significance as a pollinator cannot be denied, the feeding habits of Talicada nyseus larvae have raised concerns among farmers and gardeners. Members of the family Lycaenidae show diverse trophic strategies involving herbivory and carnivory. The larvae of the red Pierrot, Talicada nyseus are adapted to a special type of environment of leaf-mining (David and Ananthakrishnan 2004 ). Talicada species with oriental distribution are annamitica, assamica, khasiana, buruana, metana clitophon, macbethi and nyseus. Its preferred habitats include open areas such as fields, gardens, and forest edges, where it can find suitable host plants for its larvae to feed on. These host plants often belong to the pea family (Fabaceae) and include species such as Acacia, Cassia, and Tephrosia. The host range of its larvae also includes succulent rockery plants, Bryophyllum spp., and Kalanchoe spp. (David and Ananthakrishnan 2004 ). It is known to occur in South India throughout the year and it is abundant during March–May, and September-December. Its initial colonization in the lower western Himalayas has suggested it to be an indicator of the changing environment (Singh 2005 ). Several locations have been reported for its distribution in South India (Kunte 2000 ; Skaria et al. 1997 ) and also in the northern half of the country, namely Delhi (Smetacek 2009 ); Dehradun (Singh 2005 ); Himachal Pradesh (Mahendroo 2013 ) and Kumaon Himalaya (Smetacek 2011 ). The earlier studies and observations highlight the potential pest status of T. nyseus when its population density increases and suitable host plants are abundant (Mahesh and Jayashankar 2016). However, it is important to note that the impacts of T. nyseus as a plant pest can vary depending on factors such as local ecosystem dynamics, availability of alternative host plants, and natural predators that help to regulate populations (Karunaratne et al. 2002 ). Although T. nyseus is an important pest of fabaceous plants in India, very little information is available on the biology and no detailed research has been conducted on its seasonal occurrence and developmental history in India. Further research and development of integrated pest management strategies are necessary to effectively manage and minimize the potential damage caused by T. nyseus , ensuring a balance between conservation efforts and agricultural practices. Hence, the present study was conducted to understand the biology, incidence, and damage symptoms of T. nyseus As a plant with both medicinal and ornamental properties, Bryophyllum spp. have attracted attention from the pharmaceutical and ornamental plant industry. The demand for herbal products, including those containing Bryophyllum spp., has a global reach. As a result of which Bryophyllum spp. may be exported and traded between countries, contributing to the economic activity in the international market (Bhat et al. 2018 ). This trade stimulates local growers, suppliers, and exporters involved in the production and distribution of Bryophyllum spp. and its derived products. Hence, it's essential to ensure responsible sourcing, of the plant materials. Otherwise, it will lead to the spread of this pest to other parts of the world. The Spread of an exotic insect species commands greater attention than a new regional record, especially in large countries where local detections are treated with less urgency. There is no comprehensive report on this pest in India, although it seems to have spread from western to southern India (Smetacek 2011 , 2009 ); it may have been transported from western to southern India or remained unobserved due to its minor pest status. The occurrence of T. nyseus in southern India has implications in terms of economic impacts, where the spread of T. nyseus may have been aided by human activity. More collection and identification efforts are needed in order to determine the current distribution of T. nyseus in India. Identifying the alternate host plant species is important in determining T. nyseus distribution. Farmers should monitor various host plant species of this pest. Our description of the morphology of the different life stages of T. nyseus will help the farmers in identifying and monitoring the pest in the field. Although T. nyseus is a minor pest of succulent plants in India currently, management may still be necessary to avoid crop loss during an outbreak. The use of insecticides on T. nyseus may reduce its safety and value because pesticide residue on the harvested plants may contaminate the final medicinal products and cause harm to human health (Vipin 2015 ). Knowledge of biology and incidence of T. nyseus is necessary for the development of sustainable management of this pest. Biological information gathered in this study is important to the development of monitoring methods, predictive models, and risk analysis strategies (Sören 2001 ; Farag El-Shafie 2018 , Suchithrakumari et al. 2018 ,). 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Field source and lab rearing of a pest A lepidopteran pest was found on medicinal plants grown in the botanical garden of Jyoti Nivas College Autonomous, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India, in 2022 during a regular survey of insect pests of economically important crops. The caterpillars were brought to the Zoology laboratory and reared on B. pinantum , and found the result was T. nyseus (Guerin) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). The study was conducted at a mean temperature of 29.0 ± 2.6°C and a mean relative humidity of 43.5 ± 5.9%. In the laboratory, adult T. nyseus were placed in a nylon mating cage lined with black cloth (15 × 15 × 15 cm) and offered 10% honey solution in cotton swabs to mate in. To determine the duration and number of larval instars, fresh leaves of B. pinantum eggs were kept in Petri dishes (15 cm diameter). Each B. pinnatum with eggs was placed in a glass cage (10 × 10 × 10 cm). Until they reached the pupal stage, newly emerged larvae were kept in cages and fed B. pinnantum leaves. Ten pairs of fresh moths were released inside the nylon mating cage with 10% honey solution in cotton swabs as food. 2.2 Morphology and life cycle Exuviae and head capsules were examined daily in the rearing containers to confirm that larvae were molting. A record of the egg, larval, prepupal, and pupal periods, as well as the number of instars, was made. Micrometre fitted within the eyepieces of stereo zoom microscopes was used to measure the egg, larval instars, pupae, prepupae, and adults. Eggs, larvae, prepupae, pupae, and adults were characterized by external morphology. 2.3 Biology Adult eclosion timing, sex ratio, mating and egg-laying behaviors, and larval feeding habits were recorded. The effect of nutrition on longevity was assessed by feeding adults tap water, ripe bananas, and 10% honey individually to females and males of uniform size and age in nylon cages (30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm). In the control group, adults were not given food or water. At 24-hour intervals, the mortality of the adults fed on different diets, including control, was recorded. Fecundity was determined by dissecting two-day-old adult females and counting the number of immature and mature eggs in the ovaries. 2.4 Sampling methods of pest incidence Once a week, surveys were conducted in and around Bangalore from January 2022 to January 2023. Randomly selected plants were monitored for pest infestations throughout the year. Every month, larvae were counted and the average population was calculated. 2.5 Data analysis Using the Student t-test, we analyzed the differences in body length and wingspan between males and females. To analyze differences in longevity between male and female T. nyseus fed on different diets, we used the ANOVA-Tukey's HSD test. 3. RESULTS 3.1 Morphology 3.1.1 Egg: Young and mature leaf stems, leaf petioles, and floral parts were all deposited with eggs by the adult female. During single egg-laying, about four to ten eggs were released. The color of the egg when laid was copper blue, but it changed to white before hatching. In addition to being disk-shaped, this egg had sculptured edges, a surface densely and finely pitted, and a deep micropylar depression on the top side. In terms of diameter, the egg measured 0.43 x 0.14 mm (Figure. 2). 3.1.2 Larval instars: After incubation, eggs hatched in 4-6 days. When the larva hatched, it did not feed on the shell of the egg (Figure. 3). There were four larval instars and three larval molts (Figure. 3). Table 1 gives the length and width of four larval instars, pupa, and pre-pupa. Larvae were onisciform but rounded, with clearly defined segments at the divisions; the head was small, almost concealed; the last segment flat. The first instar larva was dorsoventrally flattened, pale green with a dark brown head. Body with black spots on each segment and fringed with fine white setae (Fig. 2b). The second instar larva was light green with many white setae (Figure. 3). Larvae of the third instar were similar to those of the second instar, but they were longer. During the fourth instar, the larva's body turned pale olive-yellow in color and was hairy. There was a flattening of the posterior surface of the larvae. Each segment of the body had eight pairs of black dots on the lateral sides, except for the last segment. The head became visible. There was a clear separation of segments with nine small black dots along the back on either side and four smaller dots on the segment closest to the head. The prepupal larva emerges from the mined leaf in a short, stout, blunt, cream-colored manner similar to the larva. There was a near disappearance of setae. There was a bulge on the dorsal side of the body, and the black dots on the body had disappeared. There was still evidence of segmentation. The abdomen was covered in two lines of tiny black dots that continued along the thorax. In addition, there is a third row of four dots in the middle of the abdomen between the two dots near the head; two other dots are between the two dots on the thorax closest to the head (Figure. 4). 3.1.3 Pupa: Larvae were no longer segmented. A silk pad and tight body band are woven by the caterpillar, which molts to form a pupa on the underside or upper side of its host plant leaf. The color of the pupa was creamish yellow. A pink line was visible in the middle of the dorsal region. There were black spots along this line and at the lateral ends dorsally. The ventral side was soft and pale yellow in color. The body band is attached to the substratum at some places from the ventral side. The blackening of the pupa precedes the emergence of the adult. Except for the wing case, the pupa retained setae (Figure. 4). 3.1.4 Adult: Individuals of both sexes were morphologically identical, and the upper side of the male was brownish black while the lower side was silverish white. In the dorsal forewing, the termen is black with small rectangular marks. To the coast, it is trimmed with a very slender white thread. Upon the posterior terminal half of the wing, the hindwings have a conspicuous orange-red patch. There was a thin black line along the edge of the termen with small rectangle-shaped marks. Forewings have black spots on the posterior half and white spots on the anterior half of the ventral surface. On the hind wing, about two-thirds of the anterior part was white with white spots. Both wings have a thin black line along the edge of the termen followed by a small white rectangular marking. On the hind wing, there were two spots near the base, three spots on the sub-basal transverse line, four spots on the medial line, and a transverse bar between veins 4 and 6. There is a short filamentous tail at the apex of vein 2 that is black, with a white tip at the apex of the vein in both the fore and hind wings. Antennae, head, thorax, and abdomen are surrounded by white shafts (Figure 5). The body length and wingspan between the sexes were not significantly different (t = 1.8, P > 0.05 and t = 1.7, P > 0.05). 3.2 Life history Table 2 shows the development period of T. nuseus at different life stages. According to our laboratory experiments, male and female T. nuseus completed their life cycle in 36.0±3.32 days and 37.9 ± 3.31 days, respectively. It took 2-3 days for the first instar and 3-4 days for both the second and third instar to form . The fourth instar lasted for 4-5 days. Eight to ten days were spent in the Pupal stage. Within a year, 10–11 generations of larvae were completed, including the prepupa phase. There was a ratio of 1.39:1 between males and females. 3.2.1 Eclosion: Early morning or late evening is when adults emerged. The pupal case was found to have a transverse break at the anterior end and a vertical slit along the median line of the antennal suture. At first, moths remained inactive due to weak and constrictive wings. As soon as the wings were fully developed, moths began to fly. 3.2.2 Behaviour Of Adult Butterflies: During the early morning and late evening, the moth was sluggish. In short bursts, it flies throughout the day. Despite being a weak flyer, it settles frequently but for a short period. Shade is preferred over sun, and undergrowth is preferred over open areas. Basking in the sun, its wings are open or closed, displaying bright markings on the underside. During the evening, it settles on the undersides of leaves and twigs, often in clusters. 3.2.3 Longevity: Female and male moths accepted liquid food readily in the laboratory. Fig 6 shows the longevity of female and male moths fed on different diets. Across all treatments of diets, there was no significant difference in longevity between males and females. The death rate of starved individuals is higher compared with other diets. Male and female moths fed on different treatments lived significantly longer (Tukey's HSD males F = 63.10, P < 0.05, females, F = 86.11, P < 0.05). A third diet (10% honey solution with vitamin capsules) resulted in the longest lifespan of moths (Figure 6). 3.3 Seasonal incidence It was observed that T. nuseus was prevalent throughout the year, with generations having overlapped. Talicada nuseus infestations began in April, fluctuated over the following months, and increased with the onset of monsoon. From June - November, severe damage was observed due to the increased larval population of T. nuseus, which reached its peak density in July. In the winter, T. nuseus populations declined, and in the summer, they reached their lowest levels. The infestation of T. nuseus gradually decreased during winter and was almost non-existent during February- March (Figure 7). 3.4 Damage symptoms Upon hatching, the larvae mine into the thick fleshy leaves of B. pinnatum and feed on the parenchyma, leaving a trail of frass that dries into granules. Initially, the larvae mined blisters (Figure 8), but as they grew, they tunneled inside the fleshy leaves without feeding the thin layers of the epidermis. These blisters evolved into blotches that acted as protection from predators and parasites (Figure 9). In most cases, the leaf droops and drops from the plant later on. In the absence of leaves, the larvae bore into the branches and main stem of the plant, causing it to wilt (Figure 10). It was observed that the pupae were anchored to the rims of the plant pot or the leaves. To protect themselves from predators, spined cocoons are formed. 4. DISCUSSION The egg of Talicada nuseus was disc-shaped, greenish-blue in colour, and sculptured as reported in phytophagous lycaenids, Paralucia pyrodiscus lucida Crosby (Braby 1990 ), Rapala takasagonis Matsumura (Hsu et al. 2005 ), and Lampides boeticus L. (Vijayachander and Arivudainambi 2007 ). The Size of the T. nuseus egg is similar to that of other lycaenid butterflies viz., Philiris Ziska (Grose-Smith) and P. intensa (Butler) (Parsons 1984 ), P. pyrodiscus (lucida) (Braby 1990 ), Calycopis caulonia (Hewitson) (Duarte et al. 2005 ) and Spalgis epius (Dinesh et al. 2010 ). In T. nysues , larvae occur in four instars as in lycaenids, including carnivorous Feniseca tarquinius (Hall et al. 2007 ), and phytophagous Rapala takasagonis (Hsu et al. 2005 )d boeticus (Vijayachander and Arivudainambi 2007 ). Lycaenids such as P. pyrodiscus lucida , Spalgis epius , and Lycaeides melissa have approximately the same larval size as T. nysues (Braby 1990 ). Like Castalius rosimon , the pest's larvae were pale green with fine setae in the first instar, and light green, sluggish, and had many white setae in the second instar. In the early stages of larval growth, the mining pattern was blistered (Fig. 3 ), which gradually transformed into blotches. As larvae pupated (Mahesh and Jayashankar, 2016), the frass pattern evolved into a distributed pattern (Fig. 4 ). Talicada nyseus larvae had a mean total larval period of 15.5, whereas S. epius lycaenid larvae had a mean total larval period of 9.4 days, whereas L. boeticus larvae had a mean total larval period of 11.9 days under similar rearing conditions (Vijayachander and Arivudainambi 2007 , Dinesh et al. 2010 ). Our results differ from those found for hemipteran-feeding lycaenid larvae (Clark 1926 ; Banno 1990 ), even though hemipteran-feeding larvae spend less time in the larval stage than their phytophagous counterparts. The reason for this difference may be related to the nature of the host plant, weather conditions, etc. Similarly, the blackish-brown pupa of T. nysues with the blunt end at the bulge on top resembled the pupa of Castalius rosimon (Harinath et al. 2012 ). The comparison of T. nysues's external morphology with Arhopala adherba and Arhopala lata showed a similarity. In the laboratory, the male butterflies eclosed before the females, as reported for the lycaenid butterfly, Glaucopsyche lygdamus , and other butterfly species (Neve and Singer 2008 ). Butterfly protandry is not universal, although it is prevalent in insects (Zonneveld 1996 ). As indicated by adult activity between 1130 and 1600 h, warmer weather and bright sunlight are essential for mating and egg-laying (Scott 1974 ). As in other lycaenids such as S. epius, T. nyseus also had a female-to-male sex ratio of 1.39:1. Like L. arota (Scott 1974 ) and S. epius (Dinesh et al. 2010 ), T. nyseus females and males mated the following day of their emergence. As in other lycaenids, gravid females of T. nyseus lay eggs singly, such as Philiris helena and Philiris intensa (Parsons 1984 ), Megisba strongyle (Miskin) (Lambkin and Samson 1989 ), Petrelaea tombugensis (Samson and Lambkin 2003), S. epis (Dinesh et al. 2010 )d takasagonis (Hsu et al. 2005 ). Adult males and females of T. nyseus were also measured separately for longevity. The pattern of larval (Oberhauser 1997 ) and adult food greatly influences adult longevity in butterflies. Females and males of T. nyseus fed on water and honey, respectively, survived longer than those fed on other diets. In addition, T. nyseus adults fed various diets lived significantly longer than those starved. The results indicate that food increases the longevity of adults with T. nyseus . A study found that sucrose enhanced the longevity of adult lycaenids such as Jalamenus evagoras (Dovan) (Hill and Pierce 1989 ) and Lycaena hippothoe L. (Fischer and Fiedler 2001 ). As reported by Dinesh in S. epius and Kunal et al. (2013) in T. nuysues , males live significantly shorter than females. In addition to laying eggs, the prolonged longevity of females encourages them to copulate more with the existing males. Consequently, males die immediately after mating to fertilize the females (Kunal et al. 2013). According to Mahesh and Jayashnakar (2016) and Singh (2015), T. nyseus caused similar damage to young and mature leaves. The adult butterflies feed on nectar from flowers individually as reported in other lycaenids such as R. takasagonis (Hsu et al. 2005 )d boeticus (Vijayachander and Arivudainambi 2007 ). For the first time, the present study detailed the life history and developmental biology of the phytophagous lycaenid butterfly, T. nyseus , providing valuable information for developing IPM modules. Declarations Conflict of interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. Funding No funding was received for conducting this study. Acknowledgments The author is grateful to the Principal of Jyoti Nivas College Autonomous for providing the necessary facilities for conducting the study. Thanks to Dr. Priyadarshini Pillai for identifying the plant. In addition, I would like to thank Mr. Sabari who helped collect insects and plants from the field. References Banno H (1990) Plasticity of size and relative fecundity in the aphidophagous lycaenid butterfly, Taraka hamada. Ecol Entomol 15:111–113 Bhat MH, Jain AK, Fayaz M (2018) Indian Herbal Drug Industry: Challenges and Future Prospects. In: Ozturk M, Hakeem K (eds) Plant and Human Health, vol 1. Springer, Cham Bhatti M, Kamboj A, Saluja AK, Jain UK (2012) In vitro evaluation and comparison of antioxidant activities of various extracts of leaves and stems of Kalanchoe pinnatum . Int J Green Pharm 6(4):340–347 Braby MF (1990) The life history and biology of Paralucia pyrodiscus lucida Crosby (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). J Aust Entomol Soc 29:41–50 Clark AH (1926) Carnivorous butterflies. Annu Rep Smithsonian Inst US 2856:439–508 Da Silva SA, Costa SS, Mendonca SC, Silva EM, Moraes VL, Bergmann BR (1995) The therapeutic effect of oral Kalanchoe pinnata leaf extract in murine leishmaniasis. Acta Trop 60(3):201–210 David BV, Ananthakrishnan TV (2004) General and Applied Entomology. Second Edi. Tata McGraw Hill Publication, New Delhi, p 647 Dinesh AS, Venkatesha MG, Ramakrishna S (2010) Development, life history characteristics and behavior of mealybug predator, Spalgis epius (Westwood) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) on Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). J Pest Sci 83:339–345 Duarte M, Robbins RK, Mielke OHH (2005) Immature stages of Calycopis caulonia (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae, Theclinae, Eumaeini), with notes on rearing detritivores hairstreaks on artificial diet. Zootaxa 1063:1–31 Ekwumemgbo PA, Eddy NO, Omoniyi IK (2013) Decontamination of Heavy Metals in Polluted Soil by Phytoremediation Using Bryophyllum pinnatum . EDP Sci 1:13004 Farag El-Shafie HA (2018) Integrated insect pest management, Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Al-Hassa, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 498 pp Fernandes JM, Cunha LM, Azevedo EP, Lourenço EM, Pedrosa MF, Zucolotto SM (2019) Kalanchoe laciniata and Bryophyllum pinnatum : an updated review about ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology. Rev Brasi de Farmacog 29(4):529–558 Fischer K, Fiedler K (2001) Effects of adult feeding and temperature regime on fecundity and longevity in the butterfly Lycaena hippothoe (Lycaenidae). J Lepid Soc 54:91–95 Gwehenberger B, Rist L, Huch R, von Mandach U (2004) Effect of Bryophyllum pinnatum versus fenoterol on uterine contractility. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 113:164–171 Hall DW, Minno M, Butler JF (2007) Harvester butterfly, Feniseca tarquinius (Fabricius) (Insecta:Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae: Melitinae). In:University of Florida IFAS extension. EENY-404. Available via http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu . Accessed 10 september 2009P Harinath V, Prasanna Kumar M, Venkata Reddy SP, Venkata R (2012) Ecobiology of the Common Pierrot Castalius rosimon (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera: Lycaenidae). World J Zool 7(3):216–220 Hequet V, Le Corre M, Rigault F, Blanfort V (2009) Les espèces exotiques végétales envahissantes de NouvelleCalédonie. IRD, Nouméa Hill CJ, Pierce NE (1989) The effect of adult diet on the biology of butterflies 1. The common imperial blue Jalmenus evagoras. Oecologia 81:249–257 Hsu Y, Wang L, Huang H, Lu C (2005) Notes on immature biology and distribution of Rapala takasagonis Matsumura (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae:Theclinae). Bioformosa 40:53–57 Hurrell G, Delucchi HA, Keller (2012) Pablo c. Stampella and Elián l. Guerrero Bryophyllum (crassulaceae): ornamental species naturalized in Argentina julio a. Bonplandia. Vol. 21, No. 2 (), pp. 169–181 Kamboj A, Saluja AK (2009) Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Kurz.: Phytochemical and pharmacological profile: A review Pharmacogn Rev 3(6): 364 Karunaratne V, Bombuwela S, Kathirgamanathar V et al (2002) An association between the butterfly Talicada nyseus and the lichen Leprolomasipmanianum as evidenced from chemical studies. Curr Sci 83:741–745 Khooshbu P, Ansari I (2019) A pharmacognostical and pharmacological review on Bryophyllum pinnatum (panphuti). Asian J Pharm Clin Res 12(1):34–39 Kirtikar KR, Basu BD (1975) Indian Medicinal Plants, periodical experts. Delhi 2:2 Kunal Ankola K, Krishna P, Swamy P, Arun CM, Akhila MR, Archana NM, Sudarshan GN, Sunil, Kumar (2013) and H P Puttaraju Source: Entomological News 123(3):188–190. http://dx.doi.org/10.3157/021.123.0304 Kunte (2000) K Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities Press (India) Ltd, Hyderabad Skaria BP, Thomas J, Mathew S, Joy PP (1997) Record of the red Pierrot, Talicada nyseus (Guerin), (Lycaenidae: Lepidoptera) on Kalanchoe spp. in Kerala, India. Insect Environ 3:72–73 Lambkin TA, Samson PR (1989) The life history of Megisba strongyle nigra (Miskin) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). Aust Entomol Mag 16:75–77 Mahendroo A (2013) Talicada nyseus. Global Biodiversity Information Facility Data Portal (ID_parent/000472GBIF472969242) Mahesh V, Jayashankar M (2016) Incidence of red Pierrot, Talicada nyseus nyseus (Lycaenidae) on the green mother of millions, Bryophyllum pinnatum (Crassulaceae). J of Entomol and Zool Stud 4(6): 127–129 Mathew PJ, Unithan MC (1992) Search for plants having anticancer properties used by the tribals of Wyandu, Malappuram and Palghat districts of Kerala, India. Aryavaidyan. 6: 54–60 Nagaratna A, Prakash L, Hegde A (2015) A comprehensive review on Parnabeeja [ Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken]. J Med Plants Stud 3(5):166–171 Nayak BS, Marshall JR, Isitor G (2010) Wound healing potential of ethanolic extract of Kalanchoe pinnata Lam. Leaf-a preliminary study. Ind J Exper Biol 48:572–576 Neve G, Singer MC (2008) Protandry and postandry in two betterflies: conflicting evidence about sex specific tradeoffs between adult size and emergence time. Evol Ecol 22:701–709 Nwali BU, Okaka ANC, Offor CE, Aja PM, Nwachi UE (2014) Proximate and Mineral Compositions of Bryophyllum pinnatum Leaves. Am J Phytomed Clin Therapeut 2(3):286–289 Oberhauser KS (1997) Fecundity, lifespan and egg mass in butterflies: effects of male-derived nutrients and female size. Funct Ecol 11:166–175 Ojewole JA (2002) Antihypertensive properties of Bryophyllum pinnatum {(Lam) Oken} leaf extracts. Am J Hypertens 15(S3):34A19 Okwu DE (2007) Nigerian medicinal plant II. Med. Aromat. Plant Sci Biotechnol 1(1):97–102 Lans CA (2006) Ethnomedicines used in Trinidad and Tobago for urinary problems and diabetes mellitus. J Ethnobio Ethnomed 2:45 Pal S, Chaudhuri AN (1991) Studies on the anti-ulcer activity of a Bryophyllum pinnatum leaf extract in experimental animals. J Ethnopharmacol 33(1–2):97–102 Pal S, Chaudhari AN (1992) Further studies on anti-inflammatory profile of the methanolic fraction of the fresh leaf extract of Bryophyllum pinnatum. Fitoterapia 63:451–459 Paranjpe P (2005) Indian Medicinal Plants Forgotten Healers. Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratisthan, Delhi, pp 194–195 Parsons M (1984) Life histories of four species of Philiris Rober (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) from Papua New Guinea. J Lepid Soc 38:15–22 Pattewar SV (2012) Kalanchoe pinnata : phytochemical and pharmacological profile. Int J Pharm Sci Res 3(4):993 Scott JA (1974) Population biology and adult behavior of Lycaena arota (Lepidoptera). J Lepid Soc 28:64–75 Singh AP (2005) Initial colonization of Red Pierrot butterfly, Talicada nyseus nyseus Guerin (Lycaenidae) in the lower western Himalayas: An indicator of the changing environment. Curr Sci 89(1):41–42 Smetacek P (2009) Additions to the butterflies of Delhi. Bionotes 11(1):15 Smetacek P (2011) Four new lycaenid butterfly records from the Kumaon Himalaya, India. J of Threatened Taxa 3(2):1555–1558 Sören N (2001) Life history perspectives on pest insects: What’s the use? Austral Ecol. 26: 507–517 Suchithrakumari MH, Srinivas MP, Hanumatharaya L, Revanna R (2018) A review on integrated pest management in medicinal and aromatic plants in India. J Pharmacogn Phytochem SP3:220–224 Supratman U, Fujita T, Akiyama K, Hayashi H (2000) New insecticidal bufadienolide, bryophyllin C, from Kalanchoe pinnata . Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 64(6):1310–1312 Surendra PA, Madhukarrao PH, Subhash KA, Raghoba MS (2015) Effect of aqueous extracts from therapeutic plants from indigenous Ayurvedic system on in vitro calcium oxalate crystallization in human urine. Curr Tradit Med 1(3):193–202 Varshney RK (1986) Threatened butterflies of the Indian region, pp. 104–116. In Wildlife Wealth of India, Ed. Majupuria. T. C. Tecpress Services Vijayachander A, Arivudainambi S (2007) Biology of pulses blue butterfly, Lampides boeticus Linn. Ann Plant Prot Sci 15:53–56 Vipin C (2015) Integrated pest and disease management in medical and aromatic plants. ICAR, New Delhi, India, 270 pp, pp 168–176. Summer School on “Advances in Medicinal & Aromatic Plants.” Zonneveld C (1996) Being big or emerging early? Polyandry and the trade-off between size and emergence in male butterflies. Am Nat 147:946–965 Tables Table 1 Measurements of the larva, prepupa, pupa and head capsule of Talicada nysues Stages n Length (mm) Range Width (mm Range Mean ± SD Mean ± SD I instar larva 25 1.95±0.13 1.80 -2.10 0.56 ± 0.05 0.50 - 0.60 II instar larva 25 3.51±0.29 3.20 - 3.80 1.6 ± 0.15 1.50 - 1.90 III instar larva 25 6.84±0.79 5.80 - 7.20 2.69 ± 0.29 2.40 - 3.20 IV instar larva 25 15.85±0.93 15.00 - 17.00 6.30 ± 0.57 6.00 -7.00 Prepupa 25 14.48±0.51 14.00 - 15.00 7.15 ± 0.66 6.50 – 8.00 Pupa 25 13.51±0.46 13.00 -14.00 7.48 ± 0.47 7.00 – 8.00 Table 2 Developmental period of different stages of Talicada nysues under laboratory conditions Stages n Duration of development (days) Mean ± SD Range I instar larva 25 2.62 ± 0.45 2-3 II instar larva 25 3.53 ± 0.45 3-4 III instar larva 25 3.55 ± 0.46 3-4 IV instar larva 25 4.53 ± 0.48 4-5 Prepupa 25 1.51 ± 0.50 1-2 Pupa 25 8.56 ± 0.50 8-10 Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 18 Dec, 2025 Read the published version in International Journal of Tropical Insect Science → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major revisions 20 Aug, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Aug, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 27 Jul, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 25 Aug, 2023 First submitted to journal 22 Aug, 2023 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About In Review Editorial Policies Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-3288130","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":332471991,"identity":"d173f32f-c6a8-4fab-9c21-958a138d1a36","order_by":0,"name":"Soumya Kallekkattil","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9952-3132","institution":"Jyoti Nivas College","correspondingAuthor":true,"submittingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Soumya","middleName":"","lastName":"Kallekkattil","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2023-08-23 06:49:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3288130/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3288130/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-025-01714-1","type":"published","date":"2025-12-18T15:57:42+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":63125449,"identity":"4f1ce78e-99f8-43c8-a0df-94d30300a3a0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-23 12:10:20","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":14402975,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e (a) healthy pant (b) plant infested with \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus larvae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3288130/v1/a92149182aa657328e1b02eb.png"},{"id":63124978,"identity":"1b7540ec-0227-4ff7-8b77-f647c815a707","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-23 12:02:19","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":8803414,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEgg\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003eof\u003cem\u003e Talicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e (a) dorsal side showing micropyle (b) ventral side (c) lateral view (d) First larval instar emergence hole in the egg\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3288130/v1/f95e48300ebea8ecc3ba57b8.png"},{"id":63124979,"identity":"d0d38392-f725-4e1d-8d40-12b6f40fa12a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-23 12:02:19","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":13749623,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLarval instars of \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus. \u003c/em\u003ea) I instar larva; (b) II instar larva; (c) III instar larva; (d) IV instar larva\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3288130/v1/5665d16b2035bdc2b85e1a53.png"},{"id":63124983,"identity":"4c62af4c-1a1e-47b0-b4eb-bb0e7be991c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-23 12:02:19","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":17697643,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) prepupa of \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e (b) \u0026amp; (c) Ventral and dorsal side of fresh pupa (d)- (f) lateral, dorsal and ventral side of pupa on the previous day of adult emergence\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3288130/v1/8935ac6cf61453bc9846977e.png"},{"id":63125450,"identity":"b9c02867-a4c8-4686-91af-85ffd0f0f18d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-23 12:10:20","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":15466015,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(a) Pupal case of \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e after adult emergence (b) Adult \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus \u003c/em\u003ebutterfly on a \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnataum\u003c/em\u003e plant (c) \u0026amp; (d) dorsal and ventral side of the adult butterfly\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3288130/v1/746259cefadee77ea3385433.png"},{"id":63125448,"identity":"c33328f4-23b0-44f7-830d-18c3bbe0fa35","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-23 12:10:19","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":180141,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLongevity of \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e adults fed on different nutrition. Bars with different capital letters indicate significant differences among different nutrition within the males at P\u0026lt; 0.05. Bars with different small letters indicate significant differences among different nutrition within the females at P\u0026lt; 0.05 (one-way ANOVA – Tukey HSD test). Vertical lines indicate SE mean of total longevity\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3288130/v1/4bbc21054f632578115e1aab.png"},{"id":63124984,"identity":"7264c5d4-13c5-4f02-b184-ac855ddeeebf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-23 12:02:20","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":133878,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercentage infestation of \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus \u003c/em\u003eon\u003cem\u003e Bryophyllum pinnataum \u003c/em\u003ein different months during 2022-23\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3288130/v1/dc9993c8a5a1a5deab9cf4eb.png"},{"id":63124986,"identity":"1cddb670-a988-4ec1-8e9c-58cf34ecf74a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-23 12:02:20","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22473663,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDamage symptoms of \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus \u003c/em\u003eon the stem of \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnataum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3288130/v1/204f3980bc89f5699d2238ea.png"},{"id":63124982,"identity":"2f2308c3-00a6-4c6e-9d93-4c425d00923e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-23 12:02:19","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":16543423,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFeeding pattern and damage symptoms of \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus \u003c/em\u003eon leaves of \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnataum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3288130/v1/f968882ace29ee959bea1bc1.png"},{"id":63124981,"identity":"49c23b78-f4e1-4aa3-8e69-80335bc5f9b0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-23 12:02:19","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":15907350,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFrass pattern of \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003elarvae on leaf of \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnataum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3288130/v1/696c72094edd89de111e3d0b.png"},{"id":98813985,"identity":"e849e103-e792-4e43-ba58-3a8a7cc1fce2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 16:09:06","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":240707436,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-3288130/v1/2f247ef9-372e-4c68-9bf9-e47eb984b84b.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Life History, Incidence and Damage symptoms of the Red Pierrot butterfly, Talicada nyseus (Guerin) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) on Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e (Lam.) Oken (Crassulaceae), is a perennial herb, widely distributed within the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The plant is found in Brazil, China, India, Africa, and in all tropical countries (Fernandes et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). It is commonly known as the miracle plant, cathedral bell plant, life plant, mother of millions, or air plant (Hequet et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Kirtikar and Basu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e). It is a succulent and grows between 1.00-1.50 m in height with bell-like flowers. It reproduces primarily through plantlets that develop on the edges of its leaves (Pattewar \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA variety of folk remedies use \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e in tropical Africa, Australia, China, India, and tropical America. It has applications in the management of diarrhoea and vomiting, fever, leishmaniasis, ulcer, hypertension, pain, and inflammation (Pal and Chaudhuri1991; 1992; Da Silva et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Ojewole \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The leaves have further been used for treating edema (Okwu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), kidney stones, cancer (Paranjpe \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Mathew and Unithan 1992), epilepsy, skin discoloration, and several other conditions. Several bioactive compounds, including alkaloids, triterpenes, lipids, flavonoids, glycosides, bufadienolides, phenols, and organic acids, have been detected in the plant. Proximate composition analysis of \u003cem\u003eB. pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e showed carbohydrates as the main components while mineral constituents\u0026rsquo; analysis revealed high calcium and potassium (Nwali et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Ekwumemgbo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePharmacological activities of \u003cem\u003eB. pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e include antimicrobial, anti-ulcer, anthelmintic, cytotoxic, wound healing, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, diuretic, and uterine contractility (Gwehenberger et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Bhatti et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Nayak et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Surendra et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Supratman 2000). Other research articles on the plant have previously reported on its ethnomedical uses, pharmacological activities and phytochemical constituents (Pattewar \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Khooshbu and Ansari \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Kamboj and Saluja \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Nagaratna et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The plant's ability to produce numerous plantlets along the edges of its leaves adds to its visual appeal and makes it a popular choice for indoor and outdoor ornamental displays (Hurrell et al \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e, commonly known as the Red Pierrot, is a butterfly species belonging to the family Lycaenidae and is found in various parts of Asia, including India, Thailand, and Sri Lanka (Varshney \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). Despite its captivating beauty, has gained attention as a potential pest of plants in certain regions (Mahesh and Jayashankar 2016). While it's visual allure and ecological significance as a pollinator cannot be denied, the feeding habits of \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e larvae have raised concerns among farmers and gardeners. Members of the family Lycaenidae show diverse trophic strategies involving herbivory and carnivory. The larvae of the red Pierrot, \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e are adapted to a special type of environment of leaf-mining (David and Ananthakrishnan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTalicada species with oriental distribution are annamitica, assamica, khasiana, buruana, metana clitophon, macbethi and nyseus. Its preferred habitats include open areas such as fields, gardens, and forest edges, where it can find suitable host plants for its larvae to feed on. These host plants often belong to the pea family (Fabaceae) and include species such as Acacia, Cassia, and Tephrosia. The host range of its larvae also includes succulent rockery plants, \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum\u003c/em\u003e spp., and \u003cem\u003eKalanchoe\u003c/em\u003e spp. (David and Ananthakrishnan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is known to occur in South India throughout the year and it is abundant during March\u0026ndash;May, and September-December. Its initial colonization in the lower western Himalayas has suggested it to be an indicator of the changing environment (Singh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Several locations have been reported for its distribution in South India (Kunte \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Skaria et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e) and also in the northern half of the country, namely Delhi (Smetacek \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e); Dehradun (Singh \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e); Himachal Pradesh (Mahendroo \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) and Kumaon Himalaya (Smetacek \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe earlier studies and observations highlight the potential pest status of \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e when its population density increases and suitable host plants are abundant (Mahesh and Jayashankar 2016). However, it is important to note that the impacts of \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e as a plant pest can vary depending on factors such as local ecosystem dynamics, availability of alternative host plants, and natural predators that help to regulate populations (Karunaratne et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e is an important pest of fabaceous plants in India, very little information is available on the biology and no detailed research has been conducted on its seasonal occurrence and developmental history in India. Further research and development of integrated pest management strategies are necessary to effectively manage and minimize the potential damage caused by \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e, ensuring a balance between conservation efforts and agricultural practices. Hence, the present study was conducted to understand the biology, incidence, and damage symptoms of \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a plant with both medicinal and ornamental properties, \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum\u003c/em\u003e spp. have attracted attention from the pharmaceutical and ornamental plant industry. The demand for herbal products, including those containing \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum\u003c/em\u003e spp., has a global reach. As a result of which \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum\u003c/em\u003e spp. may be exported and traded between countries, contributing to the economic activity in the international market (Bhat et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This trade stimulates local growers, suppliers, and exporters involved in the production and distribution of \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum\u003c/em\u003e spp. and its derived products. Hence, it's essential to ensure responsible sourcing, of the plant materials. Otherwise, it will lead to the spread of this pest to other parts of the world. The Spread of an exotic insect species commands greater attention than a new regional record, especially in large countries where local detections are treated with less urgency.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is no comprehensive report on this pest in India, although it seems to have spread from western to southern India (Smetacek \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e); it may have been transported from western to southern India or remained unobserved due to its minor pest status. The occurrence of \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e in southern India has implications in terms of economic impacts, where the spread of \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e may have been aided by human activity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore collection and identification efforts are needed in order to determine the current distribution of \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e in India. Identifying the alternate host plant species is important in determining \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e distribution. Farmers should monitor various host plant species of this pest. Our description of the morphology of the different life stages of \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e will help the farmers in identifying and monitoring the pest in the field.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e is a minor pest of succulent plants in India currently, management may still be necessary to avoid crop loss during an outbreak. The use of insecticides on \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e may reduce its safety and value because pesticide residue on the harvested plants may contaminate the final medicinal products and cause harm to human health (Vipin \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Knowledge of biology and incidence of \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e is necessary for the development of sustainable management of this pest. Biological information gathered in this study is important to the development of monitoring methods, predictive models, and risk analysis strategies (S\u0026ouml;ren \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Farag El-Shafie \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e, Suchithrakumari et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e,).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Field source and lab rearing of a pest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA lepidopteran pest was found on medicinal plants grown in the botanical garden of Jyoti Nivas College Autonomous, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India, in 2022 during a regular survey of insect pests of economically important crops. The caterpillars were brought to the Zoology laboratory and reared on \u003cem\u003eB. pinantum\u003c/em\u003e, and found the result was \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e (Guerin) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). The study was conducted at a mean temperature of 29.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.6\u0026deg;C and a mean relative humidity of 43.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.9%. In the laboratory, adult \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e were placed in a nylon mating cage lined with black cloth (15 \u0026times; 15 \u0026times; 15 cm) and offered 10% honey solution in cotton swabs to mate in. To determine the duration and number of larval instars, fresh leaves of \u003cem\u003eB. pinantum\u003c/em\u003e eggs were kept in Petri dishes (15 cm diameter). Each \u003cem\u003eB. pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e with eggs was placed in a glass cage (10 \u0026times; 10 \u0026times; 10 cm). Until they reached the pupal stage, newly emerged larvae were kept in cages and fed \u003cem\u003eB. pinnantum\u003c/em\u003e leaves. Ten pairs of fresh moths were released inside the nylon mating cage with 10% honey solution in cotton swabs as food.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Morphology and life cycle\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eExuviae and head capsules were examined daily in the rearing containers to confirm that larvae were molting. A record of the egg, larval, prepupal, and pupal periods, as well as the number of instars, was made. Micrometre fitted within the eyepieces of stereo zoom microscopes was used to measure the egg, larval instars, pupae, prepupae, and adults. Eggs, larvae, prepupae, pupae, and adults were characterized by external morphology.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Biology\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdult eclosion timing, sex ratio, mating and egg-laying behaviors, and larval feeding habits were recorded. The effect of nutrition on longevity was assessed by feeding adults tap water, ripe bananas, and 10% honey individually to females and males of uniform size and age in nylon cages (30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm). In the control group, adults were not given food or water. At 24-hour intervals, the mortality of the adults fed on different diets, including control, was recorded. Fecundity was determined by dissecting two-day-old adult females and counting the number of immature and mature eggs in the ovaries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Sampling methods of pest incidence\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnce a week, surveys were conducted in and around Bangalore from January 2022 to January 2023. Randomly selected plants were monitored for pest infestations throughout the year. Every month, larvae were counted and the average population was calculated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing the Student t-test, we analyzed the differences in body length and wingspan between males and females. To analyze differences in longevity between male and female \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e fed on different diets, we used the ANOVA-Tukey's HSD test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Morphology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.1 Egg:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYoung and mature leaf stems, leaf petioles, and floral parts were all deposited with eggs by the adult female. During single egg-laying, about four to ten eggs were released. The color of the egg when laid was copper blue, but it changed to white before hatching. In addition to being disk-shaped, this egg had sculptured edges, a surface densely and finely pitted, and a deep micropylar depression on the top side. In terms of diameter, the egg measured 0.43 x 0.14 mm (Figure. 2).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.2 Larval instars:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter incubation, eggs hatched in 4-6 days. When the larva hatched, it did not feed on the shell of the egg (Figure. 3). There were four larval instars and three larval molts (Figure. 3). Table 1 gives the length and width of four larval instars, pupa, and pre-pupa. Larvae were onisciform but rounded, with clearly defined segments at the divisions; the head was small, almost concealed; the last segment flat. The first instar larva was dorsoventrally flattened, pale green with a dark brown head. \u0026nbsp;Body with black spots on each segment and fringed with fine white setae (Fig. 2b). The second instar larva was light green with many white setae (Figure. 3).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLarvae of the third instar were similar to those of the second instar, but they were longer.\u003c/strong\u003e During the fourth instar, the larva\u0026apos;s body turned pale olive-yellow in color and was hairy. There was a flattening of the posterior surface of the larvae. Each segment of the body had eight pairs of black dots on the lateral sides, except for the last segment. The head became visible. There was a clear separation of segments \u003cstrong\u003ewith nine small black dots along the back on either side and four smaller dots on the segment closest to the head.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe prepupal larva emerges from the mined leaf in a short, stout, blunt, cream-colored manner similar to the larva.\u003c/strong\u003e There was a near disappearance of setae. There was a bulge on the dorsal side of the body, and the black dots on the body had disappeared. There was still evidence of segmentation. The abdomen was covered in two lines of tiny black dots that continued along the thorax. In addition, there is a third row of four dots in the middle of the abdomen between the two dots near the head; two other dots are between the two dots on the thorax closest to the head (Figure. 4).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.3 Pupa:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLarvae were no longer segmented. A silk pad and tight body band are woven by the caterpillar, which molts to form a pupa on the underside or upper side of its host plant leaf. The color of the pupa was creamish yellow. A pink line was visible in the middle of the dorsal region. There were black spots along this line and at the lateral ends dorsally. The ventral side was soft and pale yellow in color. \u0026nbsp;The body band is attached to the substratum at some places from the ventral side. The blackening of the pupa precedes the emergence of the adult. Except for the wing case, the pupa retained setae (Figure. 4).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.4 Adult:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndividuals of both sexes were morphologically identical, and the upper side of the male was brownish black while the lower side was silverish white. In the dorsal forewing, the termen is black with small rectangular marks. To the coast, it is trimmed with a very slender white thread. Upon the posterior terminal half of the wing, the hindwings have a conspicuous orange-red patch. There was a thin black line along the edge of the termen with small rectangle-shaped marks. Forewings have black spots on the posterior half and white spots on the anterior half of the ventral surface. On the hind wing, about two-thirds of the anterior part was white with white spots.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBoth wings have a thin black line along the edge of the termen followed by a small white rectangular marking. \u003cstrong\u003eOn the hind wing, there were two spots near the base, three spots on the sub-basal transverse line, four spots on the medial line, and a transverse bar between veins 4 and 6.\u003c/strong\u003e There is a short filamentous tail at the apex of vein 2 that is black, with a white tip at the apex of the vein in both the fore and hind wings. Antennae, head, thorax, and abdomen are surrounded by white shafts (Figure 5). The body length and wingspan between the sexes were not significantly different (t = 1.8, P \u0026gt; 0.05 and t = 1.7, P \u0026gt; 0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2 Life history\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 shows the development period of T. nuseus at different life stages. According to our laboratory experiments, male and female T. nuseus completed their life cycle in 36.0\u0026plusmn;3.32 days and 37.9 \u0026plusmn; 3.31 days, respectively. It took 2-3 days for the first instar and 3-4 days for both the second and third instar to form\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;The fourth instar lasted for 4-5 days.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eEight to ten days were spent in the Pupal stage. Within a year, 10\u0026ndash;11 generations of larvae were completed, including the prepupa phase. There was a ratio of 1.39:1 between males and females.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2.1 Eclosion:\u003c/strong\u003e Early morning or late evening is when adults emerged. The pupal case was found to have a transverse break at the anterior end and a vertical slit along the median line of the antennal suture. At first, moths remained inactive due to weak and constrictive wings. As soon as the wings were fully developed, moths began to fly.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2.2 Behaviour Of Adult Butterflies:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eDuring the early morning and late evening, the moth was sluggish. In short bursts, it flies throughout the day. Despite being a weak flyer, it settles frequently but for a short period. Shade is preferred over sun, and undergrowth is preferred over open areas. Basking in the sun, its wings are open or closed, displaying bright markings on the underside. During the evening, it settles on the undersides of leaves and twigs, often in clusters.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2.3 Longevity:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eFemale and male moths accepted liquid food readily in the laboratory. Fig 6 shows the longevity of female and male moths fed on different diets. Across all treatments of diets, there was no significant difference in longevity between males and females. The death rate of starved individuals is higher compared with other diets. Male and female moths fed on different treatments lived significantly longer (Tukey\u0026apos;s HSD males F = 63.10, P \u0026lt; 0.05, females, F = 86.11, P \u0026lt; 0.05). A third diet (10% honey solution with vitamin capsules) resulted in the longest lifespan of moths (Figure 6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3 Seasonal incidence\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt was observed that T. nuseus was prevalent throughout the year, with generations having overlapped. Talicada nuseus infestations began in April, fluctuated over the following months, and increased with the onset of monsoon. From June - November, severe damage was observed due to the increased larval population of T. nuseus, which reached its peak density in July. In the winter, T. nuseus populations declined, and in the summer, they reached their lowest levels. The infestation of T. nuseus gradually decreased during winter and was almost non-existent during February- March (Figure 7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.4 Damage symptoms\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUpon hatching, the larvae mine into the thick fleshy leaves of B. pinnatum and feed on the parenchyma, leaving a trail of frass that dries into granules. Initially, the larvae mined blisters (Figure 8), but as they grew, they tunneled inside the fleshy leaves without feeding the thin layers of the epidermis. These blisters evolved into blotches that acted as protection from predators and parasites (Figure 9). In most cases, the leaf droops and drops from the plant later on. In the absence of leaves, the larvae bore into the branches and main stem of the plant, causing it to wilt (Figure 10). It was observed that the pupae were anchored to the rims of the plant pot or the leaves. To protect themselves from predators, spined cocoons are formed.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe egg of \u003cem\u003eTalicada nuseus\u003c/em\u003e was disc-shaped, greenish-blue in colour, and sculptured as reported in phytophagous lycaenids, \u003cem\u003eParalucia pyrodiscus lucida\u003c/em\u003e Crosby (Braby \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e), Rapala takasagonis Matsumura (Hsu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e), and Lampides boeticus L. (Vijayachander and Arivudainambi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). The Size of the \u003cem\u003eT. nuseus\u003c/em\u003e egg is similar to that of other lycaenid butterflies viz., \u003cem\u003ePhiliris Ziska\u003c/em\u003e (Grose-Smith) and \u003cem\u003eP. intensa\u003c/em\u003e (Butler) (Parsons \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eP. pyrodiscus\u003c/em\u003e (lucida) (Braby \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eCalycopis caulonia\u003c/em\u003e (Hewitson) (Duarte et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eSpalgis epius\u003c/em\u003e (Dinesh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn \u003cem\u003eT. nysues\u003c/em\u003e, larvae occur in four instars as in lycaenids, including carnivorous \u003cem\u003eFeniseca tarquinius\u003c/em\u003e (Hall et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e), and phytophagous \u003cem\u003eRapala takasagonis\u003c/em\u003e (Hsu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e)d \u003cem\u003eboeticus\u003c/em\u003e (Vijayachander and Arivudainambi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Lycaenids such as \u003cem\u003eP. pyrodiscus lucida\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSpalgis epius\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eLycaeides melissa\u003c/em\u003e have approximately the same larval size as \u003cem\u003eT. nysues\u003c/em\u003e (Braby \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). Like \u003cem\u003eCastalius rosimon\u003c/em\u003e, the pest's larvae were pale green with fine setae in the first instar, and light green, sluggish, and had many white setae in the second instar. In the early stages of larval growth, the mining pattern was blistered (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), which gradually transformed into blotches. As larvae pupated (Mahesh and Jayashankar, 2016), the frass pattern evolved into a distributed pattern (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e larvae had a mean total larval period of 15.5, whereas \u003cem\u003eS. epius\u003c/em\u003e lycaenid larvae had a mean total larval period of 9.4 days, whereas \u003cem\u003eL. boeticus\u003c/em\u003e larvae had a mean total larval period of 11.9 days under similar rearing conditions (Vijayachander and Arivudainambi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e, Dinesh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Our results differ from those found for hemipteran-feeding lycaenid larvae (Clark \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1926\u003c/span\u003e; Banno \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e), even though hemipteran-feeding larvae spend less time in the larval stage than their phytophagous counterparts. The reason for this difference may be related to the nature of the host plant, weather conditions, etc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilarly, the blackish-brown pupa of \u003cem\u003eT. nysues\u003c/em\u003e with the blunt end at the bulge on top resembled the pupa of \u003cem\u003eCastalius rosimon\u003c/em\u003e (Harinath et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The comparison of \u003cem\u003eT. nysues's\u003c/em\u003e external morphology with \u003cem\u003eArhopala adherba\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eArhopala lata\u003c/em\u003e showed a similarity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the laboratory, the male butterflies eclosed before the females, as reported for the lycaenid butterfly, \u003cem\u003eGlaucopsyche lygdamus\u003c/em\u003e, and other butterfly species (Neve and Singer \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Butterfly protandry is not universal, although it is prevalent in insects (Zonneveld \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). As indicated by adult activity between 1130 and 1600 h, warmer weather and bright sunlight are essential for mating and egg-laying (Scott \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs in other lycaenids such as \u003cem\u003eS. epius, T. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e also had a female-to-male sex ratio of 1.39:1. Like \u003cem\u003eL. arota\u003c/em\u003e (Scott \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1974\u003c/span\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eS. epius\u003c/em\u003e (Dinesh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), T. \u003cem\u003enyseus\u003c/em\u003e females and males mated the following day of their emergence. As in other lycaenids, gravid females of \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e lay eggs singly, such as \u003cem\u003ePhiliris helena\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePhiliris intensa\u003c/em\u003e (Parsons \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eMegisba strongyle\u003c/em\u003e (Miskin) (Lambkin and Samson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003ePetrelaea tombugensis\u003c/em\u003e (Samson and Lambkin 2003), \u003cem\u003eS. epis\u003c/em\u003e (Dinesh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e)d \u003cem\u003etakasagonis\u003c/em\u003e (Hsu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdult males and females of \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e were also measured separately for longevity. The pattern of larval (Oberhauser \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e) and adult food greatly influences adult longevity in butterflies. Females and males of \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e fed on water and honey, respectively, survived longer than those fed on other diets. In addition, \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e adults fed various diets lived significantly longer than those starved. The results indicate that food increases the longevity of adults with \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e. A study found that sucrose enhanced the longevity of adult lycaenids such as \u003cem\u003eJalamenus evagoras\u003c/em\u003e (Dovan) (Hill and Pierce \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eLycaena hippothoe\u003c/em\u003e L. (Fischer and Fiedler \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs reported by Dinesh in \u003cem\u003eS. epius\u003c/em\u003e and Kunal et al. (2013) in \u003cem\u003eT. nuysues\u003c/em\u003e, males live significantly shorter than females. In addition to laying eggs, the prolonged longevity of females encourages them to copulate more with the existing males. Consequently, males die immediately after mating to fertilize the females (Kunal et al. 2013).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to Mahesh and Jayashnakar (2016) and Singh (2015), \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e caused similar damage to young and mature leaves. The adult butterflies feed on nectar from flowers individually as reported in other lycaenids such as \u003cem\u003eR. takasagonis\u003c/em\u003e (Hsu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e)d \u003cem\u003eboeticus\u003c/em\u003e (Vijayachander and Arivudainambi \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). For the first time, the present study detailed the life history and developmental biology of the phytophagous lycaenid butterfly, \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e, providing valuable information for developing IPM modules.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo funding was received for conducting this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe author is grateful to the Principal of Jyoti Nivas College Autonomous for providing the necessary facilities for conducting the study. Thanks to Dr. Priyadarshini Pillai for identifying the plant. In addition, I would like to thank Mr. Sabari who helped collect insects and plants from the field.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBanno H (1990) Plasticity of size and relative fecundity in the aphidophagous lycaenid butterfly, Taraka hamada. Ecol Entomol 15:111\u0026ndash;113\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBhat MH, Jain AK, Fayaz M (2018) Indian Herbal Drug Industry: Challenges and Future Prospects. In: Ozturk M, Hakeem K (eds) Plant and Human Health, vol 1. Springer, Cham\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBhatti M, Kamboj A, Saluja AK, Jain UK (2012) In vitro evaluation and comparison of antioxidant activities of various extracts of leaves and stems of \u003cem\u003eKalanchoe pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e. Int J Green Pharm 6(4):340\u0026ndash;347\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBraby MF (1990) The life history and biology of \u003cem\u003eParalucia pyrodiscus lucida\u003c/em\u003e Crosby (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). J Aust Entomol Soc 29:41\u0026ndash;50\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eClark AH (1926) Carnivorous butterflies. Annu Rep Smithsonian Inst US 2856:439\u0026ndash;508\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDa Silva SA, Costa SS, Mendonca SC, Silva EM, Moraes VL, Bergmann BR (1995) The therapeutic effect of oral \u003cem\u003eKalanchoe pinnata\u003c/em\u003e leaf extract in murine leishmaniasis. Acta Trop 60(3):201\u0026ndash;210\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDavid BV, Ananthakrishnan TV (2004) General and Applied Entomology. Second Edi. Tata McGraw Hill Publication, New Delhi, p 647\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDinesh AS, Venkatesha MG, Ramakrishna S (2010) Development, life history characteristics and behavior of mealybug predator, \u003cem\u003eSpalgis epius\u003c/em\u003e (Westwood) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) on \u003cem\u003ePlanococcus citri\u003c/em\u003e (Risso) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). J Pest Sci 83:339\u0026ndash;345\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDuarte M, Robbins RK, Mielke OHH (2005) Immature stages of \u003cem\u003eCalycopis caulonia\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae, Theclinae, Eumaeini), with notes on rearing detritivores hairstreaks on artificial diet. Zootaxa 1063:1\u0026ndash;31\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEkwumemgbo PA, Eddy NO, Omoniyi IK (2013) Decontamination of Heavy Metals in Polluted Soil by Phytoremediation Using \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e. EDP Sci 1:13004\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFarag El-Shafie HA (2018) Integrated insect pest management, Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Al-Hassa, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 498 pp\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFernandes JM, Cunha LM, Azevedo EP, Louren\u0026ccedil;o EM, Pedrosa MF, Zucolotto SM (2019) \u003cem\u003eKalanchoe laciniata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e: an updated review about ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology. Rev Brasi de Farmacog 29(4):529\u0026ndash;558\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFischer K, Fiedler K (2001) Effects of adult feeding and temperature regime on fecundity and longevity in the butterfly \u003cem\u003eLycaena hippothoe\u003c/em\u003e (Lycaenidae). J Lepid Soc 54:91\u0026ndash;95\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGwehenberger B, Rist L, Huch R, von Mandach U (2004) Effect of \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e versus fenoterol on uterine contractility. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 113:164\u0026ndash;171\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHall DW, Minno M, Butler JF (2007) Harvester butterfly, Feniseca tarquinius (Fabricius) (Insecta:Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae: Melitinae). In:University of Florida IFAS extension. EENY-404. Available via \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e. Accessed 10 september 2009P\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHarinath V, Prasanna Kumar M, Venkata Reddy SP, Venkata R (2012) Ecobiology of the Common Pierrot \u003cem\u003eCastalius rosimon\u003c/em\u003e (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera: Lycaenidae). World J Zool 7(3):216\u0026ndash;220\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHequet V, Le Corre M, Rigault F, Blanfort V (2009) Les esp\u0026egrave;ces exotiques v\u0026eacute;g\u0026eacute;tales envahissantes de NouvelleCal\u0026eacute;donie. IRD, Noum\u0026eacute;a\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHill CJ, Pierce NE (1989) The effect of adult diet on the biology of butterflies 1. The common imperial blue Jalmenus evagoras. Oecologia 81:249\u0026ndash;257\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHsu Y, Wang L, Huang H, Lu C (2005) Notes on immature biology and distribution of Rapala takasagonis Matsumura (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae:Theclinae). Bioformosa 40:53\u0026ndash;57\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHurrell G, Delucchi HA, Keller (2012) Pablo c. Stampella and Eli\u0026aacute;n l. Guerrero Bryophyllum (crassulaceae): ornamental species naturalized in Argentina julio a. Bonplandia. Vol.\u0026nbsp;21, No. 2 (), pp.\u0026nbsp;169\u0026ndash;181\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKamboj A, Saluja AK (2009) \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e (Lam.) Kurz.: Phytochemical and pharmacological profile: A review Pharmacogn Rev 3(6): 364\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKarunaratne V, Bombuwela S, Kathirgamanathar V et al (2002) An association between the butterfly \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e and the lichen Leprolomasipmanianum as evidenced from chemical studies. Curr Sci 83:741\u0026ndash;745\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKhooshbu P, Ansari I (2019) A pharmacognostical and pharmacological review on \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e (panphuti). Asian J Pharm Clin Res 12(1):34\u0026ndash;39\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKirtikar KR, Basu BD (1975) Indian Medicinal Plants, periodical experts. Delhi 2:2\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKunal Ankola K, Krishna P, Swamy P, Arun CM, Akhila MR, Archana NM, Sudarshan GN, Sunil, Kumar (2013) and H P Puttaraju Source: Entomological News 123(3):188\u0026ndash;190. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://dx.doi.org/10.3157/021.123.0304\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3157/021.123.0304\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKunte (2000) K Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities Press (India) Ltd, Hyderabad\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSkaria BP, Thomas J, Mathew S, Joy PP (1997) Record of the red Pierrot, \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e (Guerin), (Lycaenidae: Lepidoptera) on Kalanchoe spp. in Kerala, India. Insect Environ 3:72\u0026ndash;73\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLambkin TA, Samson PR (1989) The life history of Megisba strongyle nigra (Miskin) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). Aust Entomol Mag 16:75\u0026ndash;77\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMahendroo A (2013) Talicada nyseus. Global Biodiversity Information Facility Data Portal (ID_parent/000472GBIF472969242)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMahesh V, Jayashankar M (2016) Incidence of red Pierrot, \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e nyseus (Lycaenidae) on the green mother of millions, \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e (Crassulaceae). J of Entomol and Zool Stud 4(6): 127\u0026ndash;129 Mathew PJ, Unithan MC (1992) Search for plants having anticancer properties used by the tribals of Wyandu, Malappuram and Palghat districts of Kerala, India. Aryavaidyan. 6: 54\u0026ndash;60\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNagaratna A, Prakash L, Hegde A (2015) A comprehensive review on Parnabeeja [\u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e (Lam.) Oken]. J Med Plants Stud 3(5):166\u0026ndash;171\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNayak BS, Marshall JR, Isitor G (2010) Wound healing potential of ethanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eKalanchoe pinnata\u003c/em\u003e Lam. Leaf-a preliminary study. Ind J Exper Biol 48:572\u0026ndash;576\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNeve G, Singer MC (2008) Protandry and postandry in two betterflies: conflicting evidence about sex specific tradeoffs between adult size and emergence time. Evol Ecol 22:701\u0026ndash;709\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNwali BU, Okaka ANC, Offor CE, Aja PM, Nwachi UE (2014) Proximate and Mineral Compositions of \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e Leaves. Am J Phytomed Clin Therapeut 2(3):286\u0026ndash;289\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOberhauser KS (1997) Fecundity, lifespan and egg mass in butterflies: effects of male-derived nutrients and female size. Funct Ecol 11:166\u0026ndash;175\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOjewole JA (2002) Antihypertensive properties of \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e {(Lam) Oken} leaf extracts. Am J Hypertens 15(S3):34A19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkwu DE (2007) Nigerian medicinal plant II. Med. Aromat. Plant Sci Biotechnol 1(1):97\u0026ndash;102\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLans CA (2006) Ethnomedicines used in Trinidad and Tobago for urinary problems and diabetes mellitus. J Ethnobio Ethnomed 2:45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePal S, Chaudhuri AN (1991) Studies on the anti-ulcer activity of a \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e leaf extract in experimental animals. J Ethnopharmacol 33(1\u0026ndash;2):97\u0026ndash;102\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePal S, Chaudhari AN (1992) Further studies on anti-inflammatory profile of the methanolic fraction of the fresh leaf extract of Bryophyllum pinnatum. Fitoterapia 63:451\u0026ndash;459\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eParanjpe P (2005) Indian Medicinal Plants Forgotten Healers. Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratisthan, Delhi, pp 194\u0026ndash;195\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eParsons M (1984) Life histories of four species of Philiris Rober (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) from Papua New Guinea. J Lepid Soc 38:15\u0026ndash;22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePattewar SV (2012) \u003cem\u003eKalanchoe pinnata\u003c/em\u003e: phytochemical and pharmacological profile. Int J Pharm Sci Res 3(4):993\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eScott JA (1974) Population biology and adult behavior of \u003cem\u003eLycaena arota\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera). J Lepid Soc 28:64\u0026ndash;75\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSingh AP (2005) Initial colonization of Red Pierrot butterfly, \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e nyseus Guerin (Lycaenidae) in the lower western Himalayas: An indicator of the changing environment. Curr Sci 89(1):41\u0026ndash;42\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSmetacek P (2009) Additions to the butterflies of Delhi. Bionotes 11(1):15\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSmetacek P (2011) Four new lycaenid butterfly records from the Kumaon Himalaya, India. J of Threatened Taxa 3(2):1555\u0026ndash;1558\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eS\u0026ouml;ren N (2001) Life history perspectives on pest insects: What\u0026rsquo;s the use? Austral Ecol. 26: 507\u0026ndash;517\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSuchithrakumari MH, Srinivas MP, Hanumatharaya L, Revanna R (2018) A review on integrated pest management in medicinal and aromatic plants in India. J Pharmacogn Phytochem SP3:220\u0026ndash;224\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSupratman U, Fujita T, Akiyama K, Hayashi H (2000) New insecticidal bufadienolide, bryophyllin C, from \u003cem\u003eKalanchoe pinnata\u003c/em\u003e. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 64(6):1310\u0026ndash;1312\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSurendra PA, Madhukarrao PH, Subhash KA, Raghoba MS (2015) Effect of aqueous extracts from therapeutic plants from indigenous Ayurvedic system on in vitro calcium oxalate crystallization in human urine. Curr Tradit Med 1(3):193\u0026ndash;202\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVarshney RK (1986) Threatened butterflies of the Indian region, pp.\u0026nbsp;104\u0026ndash;116. In Wildlife Wealth of India, Ed. Majupuria. T. C. Tecpress Services\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVijayachander A, Arivudainambi S (2007) Biology of pulses blue butterfly, Lampides boeticus Linn. Ann Plant Prot Sci 15:53\u0026ndash;56\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVipin C (2015) Integrated pest and disease management in medical and aromatic plants. ICAR, New Delhi, India, 270 pp, pp 168\u0026ndash;176. Summer School on \u0026ldquo;Advances in Medicinal \u0026amp; Aromatic Plants.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZonneveld C (1996) Being big or emerging early? Polyandry and the trade-off between size and emergence in male butterflies. Am Nat 147:946\u0026ndash;965\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 1 Measurements of the larva, prepupa, pupa and head capsule of \u003cem\u003eTalicada nysues\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.53531598513011%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStages\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.390334572490707%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.773234200743495%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLength (mm)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.029739776951672%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.472118959107807%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWidth (mm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.799256505576208%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"51.794871794871796%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean \u0026plusmn; SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"48.205128205128204%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean \u0026plusmn; SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.53531598513011%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI instar larva\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.390334572490707%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.773234200743495%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.95\u0026plusmn;0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.029739776951672%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.80 -2.10\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.472118959107807%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56 \u0026plusmn; 0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.799256505576208%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50 - 0.60\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.53531598513011%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eII instar larva\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.390334572490707%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.773234200743495%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.51\u0026plusmn;0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.029739776951672%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.20 - 3.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.472118959107807%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6 \u0026plusmn; 0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.799256505576208%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.50 - 1.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.53531598513011%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIII instar larva\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.390334572490707%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.773234200743495%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.84\u0026plusmn;0.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.029739776951672%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.80 - 7.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.472118959107807%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.69 \u0026plusmn; 0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.799256505576208%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.40 - 3.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.53531598513011%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIV instar larva\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.390334572490707%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.773234200743495%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.85\u0026plusmn;0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.029739776951672%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.00 - 17.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.472118959107807%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.30 \u0026plusmn; 0.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.799256505576208%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.00 -7.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.53531598513011%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrepupa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.390334572490707%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.773234200743495%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.48\u0026plusmn;0.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.029739776951672%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.00 - 15.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.472118959107807%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.15 \u0026plusmn; 0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.799256505576208%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.50 \u0026ndash; 8.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.53531598513011%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePupa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"5.390334572490707%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.773234200743495%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.51\u0026plusmn;0.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"18.029739776951672%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.00 -14.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"17.472118959107807%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.48 \u0026plusmn; 0.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.799256505576208%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.00 \u0026ndash; 8.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 2 Developmental period of different stages of \u003cem\u003eTalicada nysues\u003c/em\u003e under laboratory conditions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"40%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStages\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.787878787878787%\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"51.21212121212121%\" colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDuration of development (days)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"59.76331360946745%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean \u0026plusmn; SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"40.23668639053255%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"40%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI instar larva\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.787878787878787%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.606060606060606%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.62 \u0026plusmn; 0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20.606060606060606%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2-3\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"40%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eII instar larva\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.787878787878787%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.606060606060606%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.53 \u0026plusmn; 0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20.606060606060606%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3-4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"40%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIII instar larva\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.787878787878787%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.606060606060606%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.55 \u0026plusmn; 0.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20.606060606060606%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3-4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"40%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIV instar larva\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.787878787878787%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.606060606060606%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.53 \u0026plusmn; 0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20.606060606060606%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4-5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"40%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrepupa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.787878787878787%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.606060606060606%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.51 \u0026plusmn; 0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20.606060606060606%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"40%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePupa\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.787878787878787%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"30.606060606060606%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.56 \u0026plusmn; 0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"20.606060606060606%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8-10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-tropical-insect-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jtis","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Tropical Insect Science](http://link.springer.com/journal/42690)","snPcode":"42690","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jtis/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Developmental history, Life cycle, Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae, Insect pest. Integrated pest management, medicinal plants","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3288130/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3288130/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eLaboratory studies were conducted on the development of immature stages, life history and behavior of the Red Pierrot butterfly, \u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e (Guerin) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) reared on \u003cem\u003eBryophyllum pinnatum\u003c/em\u003e (Lam.) Oken. Fabaceous and succulent plants in Brazil, China, India, Africa, and all tropical countries can be infested by larvae of \u003cem\u003eT. nyseus\u003c/em\u003e. The pest had four larval instars and completed its life cycle in 36.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.31 days. The mean incubation period of the egg was 3.75 days. The prepupal, pupal, and larval stages' respective mean development times were 1.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50, 8.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.65, and 14.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.82, days. The length of the larva in its first and last instars was 1.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13 and 15.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.93, respectively. In larval stages, there was no apparent relationship between length and width. The sex ratio was 1.39:1 in favor of females. One day following eclosion, adults were prepared for mating. The ovaries of the adult female held 75.1 eggs. Male and female butterflies who were not fed lived only three to five days instead of eleven to fourteen days like those who had access to water. The findings of this study will be helpful in developing Integrated Pest Management tactics to combat this pest.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Life History, Incidence and Damage symptoms of the Red Pierrot butterfly, Talicada nyseus (Guerin) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) on Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-08-23 12:02:14","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-3288130/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revisions","date":"2025-08-21T03:36:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2024-08-03T01:59:37+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-07-27T08:52:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2023-08-25T08:13:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science","date":"2023-08-23T02:49:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-tropical-insect-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jtis","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Tropical Insect Science](http://link.springer.com/journal/42690)","snPcode":"42690","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jtis/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1d213f09-6f20-4600-9296-0a70fb5dd677","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 23rd, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-22T16:01:13+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-3288130","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-025-01714-1","journal":{"identity":"international-journal-of-tropical-insect-science","isVorOnly":false,"title":"International Journal of Tropical Insect Science"},"publishedOn":"2025-12-18 15:57:42","publishedOnDateReadable":"December 18th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-08-23 12:02:14","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s42690-025-01714-1","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-025-01714-1","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-3288130","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-3288130","identity":"rs-3288130","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"re_ckhLnmML6MCF96OHNJ","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}