Mineral Composition of Neglected and Underutilized Food Crops and Their Role in Nutrition Security in Sierra Leone

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Sonda, Samuel Maxwell Tom Williams This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7727516/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Sierra Leone’s food system faces persistent nutritional challenges, largely due to limited crop diversity and reliance on imported staples. Neglected and Underutilized Food Crops (NUFCs), though culturally embedded and ecologically resilient, remain underexplored in formal nutrition and agricultural strategies. This study evaluates the mineral composition of selected NUFCs cultivated in Bo and Kenema districts regions known for their agricultural activity and vulnerability to micronutrient deficiencies. Methodology A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining ethnobotanical surveys with laboratory-based nutritional analysis. Plant samples were collected through guided field walks and community engagement, then identified and authenticated at the National Herbarium, Njala University. Mineral profiling was conducted using standardized procedures: Kjeldahl digestion for nitrogen (converted to protein), Bray I extraction for phosphorus, and Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) and flame photometry for trace elements including iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium (Na), and phosphorus (P). All concentrations were standardized to mg/100g for comparability. Result The results revealed that Piper unbellatum exhibited the most diverse mineral profile, with high concentrations of zinc (12.49 mg/100g), phosphorus (103.1 mg/100g), magnesium (8.94 mg/100g), calcium (11.62 mg/100g), and sodium (1.93 mg/100g). Celosia argentea and Luffa aegyptiaca were iron-rich, while Ipomoea aquatica showed the highest protein content (7.00%) and notable potassium levels. These findings affirm the nutritional relevance of NUFCs and their potential to address micronutrient deficiencies, particularly in rural communities with limited access to fortified foods. Conclusion This study confirms the nutritional value of selected indigenous NUFCs, providing empirical evidence to support their role in nutrition-sensitive agriculture. Crops such as Piper unbellatum, Celosia argentea , and Ipomoea aquatica show strong potential to improve dietary diversity, public health, and food system resilience in Sierra Leone. The findings lay a foundation for future research, policy action, and community-level nutrition initiatives. Neglected and Underutilized Food Crops Mineral composition Indigenous vegetables Food and nutrition security Sierra Leone Figures Figure 1 INTRODUCTION Sierra Leone’s agricultural landscape is rich in biodiversity, yet its food system remains heavily reliant on a narrow range of staple crops primarily rice, cassava, and maize that offer limited nutritional diversity and are increasingly vulnerable to climate shocks. Despite having over 5.36 million hectares of cultivable land (FAO et al., 2022; World Bank, 2023 ), the country continues to import approximately 80% of its food (WFP & FAO, 2024), underscoring a systemic gap between agricultural potential and nutritional outcomes. This reliance on imported staples and low-diversity cropping systems has contributed to widespread micronutrient deficiencies, particularly among women and children, with iron-deficiency anemia, zinc deficiency, and protein-energy malnutrition remaining prevalent (UNICEF, 2017 ). Neglected and Underutilized Food Crops (NUFCs) represent a promising yet overlooked solution to these challenges. These crops often indigenous, climate-resilient, and culturally embedded have historically contributed to local diets and traditional medicine but remain marginalized in formal agricultural and nutrition programs (Jain & Dutta Gupta, 2013). In Sierra Leone, species such as Piper unbellatum, Celosia argentea, Ipomoea aquatica , and Vernonia amygdalina are widely known and consumed in rural communities, yet their nutritional profiles are poorly documented and underappreciated in policy and research circles. The lack of empirical data on the mineral composition of NUFCs has hindered their integration into national food security strategies. While anecdotal and ethnobotanical evidence supports their nutritional value, systematic laboratory-based assessments are scarce. Comparative studies with global benchmarks reveal inconsistencies in nutrient values due to environmental, genetic, and methodological factors (Adeyemi & Babatunde, 2014 ; Saikia et al., 2023 ). Without standardized data and validated nutritional profiles, NUFCs remain excluded from agricultural extension services, dietary guidelines, and public health interventions. This study addresses that gap by evaluating the mineral composition of selected NUFCs cultivated in Bo and Kenema districts regions known for their agricultural engagement and vulnerability to nutritional deficiencies. By quantifying key minerals such as iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sodium (Na), the research aims to scientifically validate the nutritional potential of these crops. The study aligns with national development priorities, including the Feed Salone initiative, which seeks to reduce dependency on imported staples and promote indigenous crops for food sovereignty. It also contributes to global efforts to mainstream underutilized crops in sustainable food systems(Nhamo et al., 2022 ; van Zonneveld et al., 2023 ). By bridging scientific analysis with traditional knowledge, this research positions NUFCs as vital assets in the fight against hidden hunger and agricultural vulnerability in Sierra Leone. We aim to evaluate the mineral composition of selected NUFCs cultivated in Bo and Kenema districts to assess their potential contribution to food and nutrition security in Sierra Leone. In this study, we hypothesize that these crops possess mineral profiles capable of addressing micronutrient deficiencies prevalent in the region. METHODOLOGY Study Area The study was conducted in Bo and Kenema districts of Sierra Leone, two agriculturally active regions located in the Southern and Eastern Provinces, respectively. Bo District spans approximately 5,473 km² and is characterized by a tropical climate with fertile soils suitable for rice, cassava, maize, and leafy vegetables (OCHA, 2015a ). Kenema District, covering about 6,053 km², shares similar agro-ecological features but is also known for its inland valley swamp (IVS) systems and cash crops like cocoa and coffee (OCHA, 2015b ). Both districts experience a monsoon-type humid tropical climate, with annual rainfall ranging from 2,000 mm in the north to 4,000 mm in the south (OCHA, 2015b , 2015a ). These conditions support diverse cropping systems and make the regions ideal for studying NUFCs, which are often cultivated in marginal or mixed farming environments. Study Design This research employed a mixed-methods design, integrating both quantitative laboratory analysis and qualitative ethnobotanical inquiry. The study focused on assessing the mineral composition of selected NUFCs to determine their nutritional potential. A purposive sampling strategy was used to select plant species based on local consumption patterns, traditional knowledge, and availability in the study area. The design included structured questionnaires with an in-dept interview, guided field walks, and laboratory-based chemical assays. This triangulated approach ensured a comprehensive understanding of both the biochemical properties and socio-cultural relevance of NUFCs. Sample Size and Species Selection From an initial pool of 45 neglected and underutilized food crops (NUFCs) documented across Bo and Kenema districts in Sierra Leone, 23 species with more than five recorded observations were subjected to binomial statistical analysis to determine utilization trends. These were categorized as significantly increasing, declining, or exhibiting no statistically significant change in consumption. For the present study on proximal mineral composition, eight NUFC species were purposively selected from the latter two categories those with declining usage or no significant change (p > 0.05). Selection was guided not only by statistical classification but also by practical considerations including local availability, adaptability to extreme environmental conditions, cultural values, and potential nutritional relevance. The final sample included species such as Luffa aegyptic, Justicia insularis, Triumfetta cordifolia, Piper unbellatum , Asystasia gangetica , Celosia argentinae, Vernoniamy cordiafolia , and Ipomoea aquatica . These crops were identified through community consultations with experienced local farmers, women, hunters, and farm traders, and represent a subset of NUFCs at risk of underutilization despite their nutritional promise. Data Collection i. Fieldwork and Ethnobotanical Survey Data collection began with the training of research assistants in digital tools such as Kobo Toolbox, followed by a pilot survey to refine the questionnaire. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with farmers, market vendors, and community elders to document indigenous knowledge, cultivation practices, and perceptions of NUFCs. FGDs provided deeper insights into the cultural and nutritional roles of these crops, while guided field walks enabled direct observation and documentation of NUFCs in their natural and cultivated environments. ii. Plant Specimen Collection and Identification Plant samples were collected from home gardens, farms, and forest margins. Priority was given to fertile specimens bearing flowers or fruits to ensure accurate identification. Young leaves were harvested using knives or cutlasses and stored in sealed transparent plastic bags to preserve freshness. With guidance from herbarium experts, samples were treated to prevent early dehydration and transported to the Quality Control Laboratory at Njala University for analysis. Voucher specimens were prepared and authenticated by experts at the National Herbarium, Njala University, using standard botanical literature and morphological keys. Photographs and local names were recorded for each species, and samples were preserved using alcohol and pressing techniques for reference and laboratory analysis. The plant parts analyzed (proximal mineral composition) in this study were the young leaves sourced from the following locations and institutions: 1. Piper unbellatum : Collected from Kasewe Forest Reserve (coordinates: 8.336248–12.170405), under guidance of District Forest Officer, Moyamba District. 2. Triumfetta cordifolia : Collected from Kasewe Forest Reserve (coordinates: 8.342758–12.180665), under guidance of District Forest Officer, Moyamba District. 3. Vernoniamy cordiafolia : Obtained from Small Bo chiefdom, Kenema District under the guidance of the town chiefd (coordinates: 7.8502519–11.2486597). 4. Justicia insularis : Obtained from Tikonko chiefdom, Bo District under the guidance of the town chief (coordinates: 7.8877352–11.7858397). 5. Asystasia gangetica : Collected from Gbo chiefdom, Bo District under the guidance of the town chief (coordinates: 8.070604210636244, -11.826134556167704). 6. Luffa aegyptic : Collected from Gbo chiefdom, Bo District under the guidance of the town chief (coordinates: 8.070604210636244, -11.826134556167704). 7. Celosia argentinae : Collected from Kandu Leppiam chiefdom, Kenema District under the guidance of the town chief (coordinates: 8.070604210636244, -11.826134556167704). 8. Ipomoea aquatica : Obtained from Small Bo chiefdom, Kenema District under the guidance of the town chief (coordinates: 7.8502519–11.2486597). iii. Laboratory Analysis Proximal mineral analysis was conducted on eight selected neglected and underutilized food crops (NUFCs) identified through prior statistical and ethnobotanical screening. Fresh leaf samples of each species were collected from Bo and Kenema districts, air-dried at ambient temperature, and subsequently oven-dried at 60°C to constant weight. The dried samples were ground into fine powder using a stainless-steel mill and stored in airtight containers prior to analysis. The chemical analysis was conducted at the Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, Njala University. The Kjeldahl method was used to estimate nitrogen content, which was converted to protein using the AOAC, ( 1990 ) standard factor of 6.25. Sample Preparation and Digestion Each powdered sample was subjected to acid digestion using a mixture of nitric acid (HNO₃) and perchloric acid (HClO₄) in a 2:1 ratio. Approximately 0.5 g of sample was digested in a fume hood until a clear solution was obtained. The digested samples were filtered and diluted to a final volume of 50 mL with deionized water. Mineral elements were quantified using: • Nitrogen content was determined using the Kjeldahl method, which involves digestion with concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) in the presence of a catalyst, followed by distillation and titration. Crude protein was calculated by multiplying the total nitrogen content by a conversion factor of 6.25, based on the assumption that protein contains approximately 16% nitrogen (AOAC, 1990 ). • Iron (Fe), cooper (Cu), and Zinc (Zn) were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS), following the Ammonium Bicarbonate DTPA method (Soltanpour, 1984 ) • Phosphorus (P) was quantified using the Bray I extraction method, followed by colorimetric determination with a spectrophotometer (Bray & Kurtz, 1945 ) • Flame photometry for potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg). All concentrations were initially recorded in mg/kg and converted to mg/100g using the Nutraceuticals Group’s online conversion scale (Nutraceuticals Group, 2025 ) to ensure consistency with global nutritional reporting standards. Statistical Analysis Quantitative data from laboratory assays were analyzed using Microsoft Excel, SPSS v26, and R. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize mineral concentrations across NUFC species. Comparative analysis was performed against global literature to assess alignment and variability in nutrient profiles. Qualitative data from interviews and FGDs were thematically analyzed to contextualize the nutritional findings within traditional knowledge systems and community practices. This dual analysis provided a holistic understanding of the nutritional value and cultural relevance of NUFCs in Sierra Leone’s food system. Ethical considerations Although the study was primarily based in Bo and Kenema districts, two plant species were also collected from the Kasewe Forest Reserve in Moyamba District. Prior to data collection, participants were informed about the purpose and nature of the research. Ethical approval was obtained from the Directorate of Research and Development, Njala University, Sierra Leone, and the study adhered to the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, including consent for the publication of anonymized data. The study does not involve a clinical trial; hence, a clinical trial number is not applicable. In addition to human subject protocols, ethical clearance also covered the collection of plant specimens. All plant materials were collected in accordance with national guidelines and institutional protocols. No endangered or protected species were involved. Permissions were obtained from the Sierra Leone Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and local authorities, including district forest officers and town chiefs. While no formal reference number was issued, written consent and permission letters were provided by Njala University to the Ministry of Agriculture and local authorities prior to specimen collection. Documentation of these permissions is available upon request. RESULTS Proximal Mineral Composition of Selected NUFCs The mineral analysis revealed considerable variation in nutrient profiles across the eight selected neglected and underutilized food crops (NUFCs). Table 1 summarizes the concentrations of key minerals calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium (Na), phosphorus (P), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) as well as crude protein content, expressed as a percentage of dry weight. i. Iron (Fe) The crops with the highest iron content are Celosia argentea (15.226 mg/100g) and Luffa Aegyptica (12.962 mg/100g) making them an excellent candidate for addressing iron deficiency anemia, a significant public health issue in Sierra Leone. Iron is crucial for oxygen transport and energy production, and its deficiency can lead to fatigue, weakened immunity, and developmental delays in children. Celosia argentea and Luffa Aegyptica rich iron content highlights its potential to improve dietary iron intake, particularly in populations with limited access to fortified or animal-based iron sources. This crop could be integrated into local diets to enhance iron availability and overall nutritional status. ii. Copper (Cu) Vernonia amygdalina stands out with the highest copper content (22.13 mg/100g), followed by Ipomoea acquatica (17.99 mg/100g), far exceeding other crops in the study. Copper is essential for red blood cell formation, immune system function, and the maintenance of healthy nerves and bones. Its high concentration in Vernonia amygdalina and Ipomoea acquatica underscores the crop’s potential role in preventing copper deficiency, which can cause anemia and cardiovascular issues. This exceptional copper content makes it an ideal addition to diets in areas where trace mineral deficiencies are prevalent. iii. Zinc (Zn) Piper unbellatum leads in zinc content with 12.49 mg/100g, making it a valuable source for supporting immune health, wound healing, and cellular metabolism. Zinc deficiencies are associated with stunted growth, increased susceptibility to infections, and delayed wound healing. By incorporating Piper unbellatum into local diets, particularly in regions with zinc-deficient soils, communities can address this critical nutrient gap and improve overall health outcomes, especially in children and pregnant women. iv. Protein The crop with the highest protein content is Ipomoea aquatica (7.00%), positioning it as a critical resource for addressing protein-energy malnutrition. Protein is vital for growth, tissue repair, and enzymatic functions, making it a cornerstone of human nutrition. Ipomoea aquatica has relatively high protein levels offers an affordable plant-based option for supplementing protein intake, particularly in low-resource settings where animal protein sources are scarce. This crop’s role in improving dietary diversity and nutrition is significant, especially for vulnerable populations. v. Phosphorus (P) Piper unbellatum exhibits the highest phosphorus content (103.1 mg/100g), making it an essential crop for supporting bone health, energy production, and cellular repair. Phosphorus is a key component of DNA, RNA, and ATP, underscoring its importance in both structural and metabolic functions. By integrating Piper unbellatum into diets, communities can enhance their phosphorus intake and support overall growth and development, particularly in children and adolescents. vi. Sodium (Na) Among the crops analyzed, Piper unbellatum also leads in sodium content (1.93 mg/100g), followed by Triumfetta cordiafolia (1.32 mg/100g). While sodium is commonly present in diets, its moderate levels in this crop suggest it can contribute to maintaining electrolyte balance without posing risks of excessive sodium intake. This makes Piper unbellatum and Triumfetta cordiafolia suitable for complementing low-sodium diets while still supporting essential functions such as nerve transmission and muscle contraction. vii. Potassium (K) The highest potassium levels are found in Vernonia amygdalina (22.13 mg/100g) followed by Ipomoea acquatica (17.99 mg/100g), highlighting its role in supporting cardiovascular health and maintaining fluid balance. Potassium helps regulate blood pressure, making it a key nutrient for preventing hypertension and reducing the risk of heart disease. By incorporating Vernonia amygdalina and Ipomoea acquatica into daily diets, individuals can improve their potassium intake and promote overall cardiovascular health, especially in regions with a high prevalence of hypertension. viii. Magnesium (Mg) With a magnesium content of 8.94375 mg/100g, Piper unbellatum is the most magnesium-rich crop in this study. Magnesium is critical for nerve and muscle function, bone strength, and energy production. Its presence in Piper unbellatum enhances the crop’s value as a dietary supplement for addressing magnesium deficiencies, which can lead to muscle cramps, fatigue, and cardiovascular issues. This nutrient-rich crop could play a significant role in improving health outcomes in communities with limited access to magnesium-rich foods. ix. Calcium (Ca) Piper unbellatum also ranks highest in calcium content (11.62 mg/100g), Ver nonia amygdalina (5.5445 mg/100g) making it an excellent source for supporting bone and dental health. Calcium is essential for skeletal strength and various metabolic processes, including muscle contraction and nerve signaling. The crop’s high calcium content positions it as a natural alternative to dairy products, especially in populations with lactose intolerance or limited access to dairy. Promoting the consumption of Piper unbellatum could help address calcium deficiencies and enhance overall health in Sierra Leone. Table 1 N/Protein and mineral composition of the selected NUFC Sci name Fe Cu Zn N P Na K Mg Ca Luffa aegyptic 129.620 2.590 9.590 0.658 105.400 3.470 12.460 14.513 20.880 Justicia insularis 99.820 2.000 13.090 0.280 62.800 8.930 3.930 16.065 53.610 Triumfetta cordifolia 15.210 0.300 12.300 0.098 70.900 13.200 3.200 6.683 25.200 Piper unbellatum 24.740 0.490 12.490 0.308 103.100 1.930 24.930 8.944 11.620 Asystasia gangetica 77.180 1.540 5.540 0.241 105.400 5.630 28.670 12.555 34.000 Celosia argentinae 152.260 3.050 15.050 0.375 111.500 3.410 86.410 8.404 20.800 Vernoniamy cordiafolia 7.650 221.300 17.550 2.840 11.800 7.650 221.300 55.445 76.890 Ipomoea aquatica 0.140 179.900 6.550 1.120 23.520 0.140 179.900 33.196 45.590 Nutritional Highlights and Comparative Strengths Based on overall mineral composition and nutritional purpose, Piper unbellatum is the most nutritionally versatile crop, addressing a broad spectrum of deficiencies. Vernonia amygdalina, Ipomoea aquatica, Celosia argentea , and Luffa aegyptiaca are significant contributors to iron, protein, potassium, and copper intake. Promoting the cultivation and dietary use of these NUFC can significantly enhance food security and public health outcomes in Sierra Leone. i. Piper unbellatum , contains (Zinc, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Calcium, Sodium) Piper unbellatum emerges as a highly versatile crop, leading in zinc (12.49 mg/100g), phosphorus (103.1 mg/100g), magnesium (8.94375 mg/100g), calcium (11.62 mg/100g), and sodium (1.93 mg/100g). These nutrients collectively support immune health, bone strength, cellular metabolism, and nerve function. Its exceptional mineral composition makes it a cornerstone crop for improving nutritional outcomes in resource-constrained communities. ii. Celosia argentea and Luffa aegyptiaca , contain (Iron) These crops are exceptionally high in iron, with Celosia argentea at 15.226 mg/100g and Luffa aegyptiaca at 12.962 mg/100g. Their rich iron content makes them critical for addressing iron deficiency anemia, particularly in populations with limited access to iron-rich foods. Their integration into local diets can improve oxygen transport and energy production, directly combating fatigue, weakened immunity, and developmental delays. iii. Vernonia amygdalina and Ipomoea aquatica , contain (Copper and Potassium) Vernonia amygdalina leads in copper (22.13 mg/100g) and potassium (22.13 mg/100g), with Ipomoea aquatica following closely in both categories (17.99 mg/100g for copper and potassium). These crops are essential for maintaining cardiovascular health, fluid balance, and the development of red blood cells. Their high potassium content makes them especially beneficial in preventing hypertension and supporting nerve function. iv. Ipomoea aquatica , contain (Protein) With the highest protein content at 7.00%, Ipomoea aquatica serves as a critical resource for combating protein-energy malnutrition. It provides an affordable plant-based protein source, particularly valuable for populations with limited access to animal proteins. This crop's contribution to dietary diversity and nutrition is particularly significant for vulnerable groups such as children and pregnant women. v. Triumfetta cordiafolia , contain (Sodium) While not leading in multiple nutrients, Triumfetta cordiafolia ranks second in sodium (1.32 mg/100g). It can complement low-sodium diets and support electrolyte balance, contributing to nerve transmission and muscle function. Comparative analysis of mineral composition of NUFC with other literature The study presents the protein and mineral compositions of various neglected and underutilized food crops (NUFC) identified within the study area. These crops were analyzed for their nutritional content, including key minerals such as iron, zinc, calcium, potassium, magnesium, and phosphorus and their protein levels. The findings were compared to similar studies conducted globally (see Tables 2 to 6 below), providing a broader context for understanding the nutritional potential of these crops. This comparison highlights both the unique nutrient profiles of the local NUFC and their alignment or deviation from values reported in other regions. By examining their nutrient compositions and comparing them with global benchmarks, the research offers valuable insights into their potential contribution to diversified diets and improved health outcomes. This comparative approach also aids in identifying crops with exceptional nutrient density, paving the way for targeted interventions and policy recommendations to promote their cultivation and consumption. i. Luffa aegyptiaca : [local name: Bordorlyny (Mende)] The nutrient analysis of Luffa aegyptiaca (from Table 2 ) reveals considerable variability in its mineral and protein content across the different sources. Iron (Fe) content, for instance, ranges from 41.05 mg/100g (Ani et al., 2020 ) to 12.962 mg/100g (This Study). This disparity could be attributed to environmental conditions such as soil composition, climatic differences, or differences in cultivation practices. Soil richness in specific minerals may enhance the uptake of iron, which might explain the higher values in the Ani et al., ( 2020 ) study. Zinc (Zn) content also shows significant variation between the two sources, Ani et al., ( 2020 ) reporting higher values. Copper (Cu), on the other hand, shows more consistent but lower values across both sources, suggesting a stable uptake mechanism or less environmental influence on this mineral. The protein content is higher, with values of 4.90% (Ani et al., 2020 ) and 0.411% in This Study. Table 2 Comparative assessment of mineral composition of Luffa Aegyptica leaf Mineral Composition This Study (Ani et al., 2020 ) Fe (mg/100g) 12.962 41.05 Cu (mg/100g) 0.26 1.3 Zn (mg/100g) 0.96 21.3 Protein (%) 0.41 4.9 P (mg/100g) 10.54 - Na (mg/100g) 0.347 73.05 K (mg/100g) 1.246 89.45 Mg (mg/100g) 1.4513 58.05 Ca (mg/100g) 2.088 192.1 ii. Justicia insularis : [local name: Lamie (Mende)] The mineral content of Justicia insularis (from Table 3 ) exhibits a striking degree of variability, particularly for iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn). This Study reports iron at 9.982 mg/100g, while ( Adeyemi & Babatunde, ( 2014 ) report an extraordinary 449.0 mg/100g. Such a vast difference raises questions about analytical methodologies and whether the higher value might be an outlier or reflective of unique environmental conditions. Similarly, zinc content varies from 1.309 mg/100g (This Study) to 4,972.0 mg/100g (Adeyemi & Babatunde, 2014 ). Copper (Cu) levels also show extreme variability, with This Study reporting 0.20 mg/100g compared to 631.0 mg/100g from (Adeyemi & Babatunde, 2014 ). These differences suggest that either environmental factors (soil, climate, time of year, etc), the age of the part sampled (young or mature), how it was preserved and stored, varietal differences, processing may significantly affect the assessment or there may be inconsistencies in measurement techniques between studies. Protein content in Justicia insularis is another area of wide variation, with the This study reporting a modest 1.75% compared to an extraordinarily high 448% by (Adeyemi & Babatunde, 2014 ). The latter figure is likely due to a misrepresentation or error in reporting and emphasizes the importance of cross-referencing data from multiple studies. Despite these discrepancies, Justicia insularis demonstrates potential as a source of essential nutrients and protein. Efforts to standardize cultivation and analysis methods are critical to fully understanding its nutritional value. Table 3 Comparative assessment of the mineral composition of Justicia insularis leaf Mineral Composition This Study (Adeyemi & Babatunde, 2014 ) Fe (mg/100g) 9.982 449.0 Cu (mg/100g) 0.2 631 Zn (mg/100g) 1.31 4972 Protein (%) 0.15 448 P (mg/100g) 6.28 11 Na (mg/100g) 0.8931 631.04 K (mg/100g) 0.393 168 Mg (mg/100g) 1.6065 76 Ca (mg/100g) 5.0361 330 iii. Piper umbellatum : [local name: Popodar (Mende)] The nutrient profile of Piper umbellatum (from Table 4 ) shows both consistency and variability across studies. Iron content, for instance, is reported as 2.47 mg/100g (in this study) and 1.32 mg/100g (Baradum et al., 2021 ) while Kalu and Osuji (Kalu & Osuji, 2018 ) report a significantly higher 70.56 mg/100g. These discrepancies may stem from differences in environmental factors, such as soil mineral availability, or genetic variations between samples. Zinc (Zn) content also varies widely, with this study reporting 12.49 mg/100g, Baradum et al., ( 2021 ) reporting 0.09 mg/100g, and (Kalu & Osuji, 2(018) reporting 3.19 mg/100g. Copper (Cu) levels are more consistent between this study (0.49 mg/100g) and Baradum et al., ( 2021 ) (0.43 mg/100g) but are notably higher in Kalu & Osuji, ( 2018 ) findings (3.96 mg/100g), suggesting possible location-specific enrichment. Protein content, on the other hand, shows significant fluctuation, with This study reporting 1.93% and Baradum et al., ( 2021 ) 19.90%, while Kalu & Osuji, ( 2018 ) report a low 0.88%. These variations might reflect differences in plant maturity, sample preparation, or analytical approaches. Despite these inconsistencies, Piper umbellatum remains a promising candidate for food and nutrition security due to its high potassium content, which supports cardiovascular health. Table 4 Comparative assessment of the mineral composition of Piper umbellatum leaf Mineral Composition This study Baradum et al., ( 2021 ) Kalu & Osuji, ( 2018 ) Fe (mg/100g) 2.474 1.322 70.56 Cu (mg/100g) 0.49 0.433 3.958 Zn (mg/100g) 12.49 0.092 3.187 Protein (%) 1.925 19.9 0.88 P (mg/100g) 103.1 1.912 - Na (mg/100g) 1.93 0.092 46.43 K (mg/100g) 24.93 5.817 336.619 Mg (mg/100g) 8.94375 0.252 1370.99 Ca (mg/100g) 11.62 2.38 71.3 iv. Vernonia amygdalina : [Local name: Bitter leaf (Creole)] The nutrient composition of Vernonia amygdalina (from Table 5 ) is marked by notable variations, particularly in its mineral content. Iron levels, for instance, range from 0.765 mg/100g (This study) to 32.2 mg/100g (Usunobun & Okolie, 2015 ). This variation might be attributed to differences in soil conditions, environmental factors, or plant processing methods. Copper (Cu) content is another area of divergence, with this study reporting a high value of 22.130 mg/100g compared to 19.50 mg/100g by (Usunobun & Okolie, 2015 ). Zinc (Zn) levels are also inconsistent between studies, with values of 1.755 mg/100g (this study) and 14.23 mg/100g (Usunobun & Okolie, 2015 ). Protein content reported in this study is 17.75%, highlighting Vernonia amygdalina as a valuable dietary protein source. Although protein data is absent from the (Usunobun & Okolie, 2015 ) study, the high mineral content supports the crop's nutritional importance. Given its nutrient density, Vernonia amygdalina could significantly address micronutrient deficiencies, particularly iron and protein-related malnutrition. Table 5 Comparative assessment of the mineral composition of Vernonia amygdalina leaf Mineral Composition This study Usunobun & Okolie, ( 2015 ) Fe (mg/100g) 0.765 32.2 Cu (mg/100g) 22.13 19.5 Zn (mg/100g) 1.755 14.23 Protein (%) 1.775 - P (mg/100g) 1.18 - Na (mg/100g) 0.765 48.31 K (mg/100g) 22.13 62.8 Mg (mg/100g) 5.5445 681.36 Ca (mg/100g) 7.689 1264.18 v. Ipomoea aquatica : [local name: Gogodee (Mende)] Ipomoea aquatica (from Table 6 ) demonstrates substantial variability in its nutrient content across multiple sources. Iron levels range from as low as 0. 014 mg/100g (this study) to an extraordinarily high 146,710 mg/100g (Saikia et al., 2023 ). Such extreme values suggest either measurement inconsistencies or environmental factors affecting iron uptake. Copper (Cu) levels also vary widely, from 0.023 mg/100g (USDA, 2019 ) to 17.99 mg/100g (this study). Zinc (Zn) content shows inconsistency, with values from 0.655 mg/100g (this study) to 8,110 mg/100g (Saikia et al., 2023 ), affirming its potential as a zinc source. Potassium (K) content shows inconsistency, with values from 179.9 mg/100g (this study) to 11,171.35 mg/100g (Chitsa et al., 2014 ), and 129,4080 mg/100g (Saikia et al., 2023 ) These disparities highlight the need for more standardized and controlled studies to determine its nutrient profile accurately. The least recorded protein composition in Ipomoea aquatica was by (Umar et al., 2007 ) with 1.008%, and the highest was 31.9% (Samkol, 2009 ). On the other hand, this study recorded 7.00% protein. This variability might reflect differences in plant maturity, growth conditions, or analysis methods. Despite these inconsistencies, Ipomoea aquatica remains a nutrient-dense crop, with high calcium, magnesium, and potassium levels contributing to its value as a dietary supplement. Given its adaptability to diverse conditions and potential for addressing nutrient deficiencies, further research should focus on optimizing cultivation practices and validating its nutrient composition. Such efforts could position Ipomoea aquatica as a cornerstone of food and nutrition security initiatives in Sierra Leone. Table 6 Comparative assessment of the mineral composition of Ipomoea aquatica leaf Sources Fe (mg/100g) Cu (mg/100g) Zn (mg/100g) Protein (%) P (mg/100g) Na (mg/100g) K (mg/100g) Mg (mg/100g) Ca (mg/100g) This study 0.014 179.9 0.655 7 2.352 0.014 17.99 3.31963 4.559 (Umar et al., 2007 ); 210.3 0.36 2.47 1.008 1,093.00 135.00 5,458.33 301.60 416.70 (Adedokun et al., 2019 ) 3.2 5.3 4.1 4.096 8.60 159.000 444.00 52.0 163.00 (Adelakun et al., 2016 ) 19.76 0.673 6.387 26.45 - 323 982 424.0 335.0 (Chitsa et al., 2014 ) 30.67 - - - 6,092.03 - 11,171.35 370.40 14087.97 (Ndamitso et al., 2015 ) 15.5 3.607 2.521 17.48 2.2569 40.0 0.04 230 3.725 (Saikia et al., 2023 ) 146.7 - 8,110 19.55 1,023,120 235,780 129,4080 196,270 254,150 (Nyein, 2019 ) 1.2 - 0.10 2.9 - - 13.64 - 23.30 (USDA, 2019 ) 1.67 0.023 0.18 2.6 39.0 113.0 312.0 71.00 77.00 (Ngamsaeng et al., 2004 ) - - - 22.3 - - - - - (Maung et al., 2020 ) - - - 28.0 - - - - - (Samkol, 2009 ) - - - 31.9 - - - - - (Shariff et al., 2019 ) - - - 2.87 - - - - - NUFC plants that have scarce information about their mineral composition i. Triumfetta cordiafolia : [local name: Tey-gweh (Mende)] The analysis of Triumfetta cordiafolia (from Table 7 ) reveals its potential as a valuable source of essential minerals for addressing nutritional deficiencies. With an iron content of 1.521 mg/100g and zinc levels of 1.23 mg/100g, this crop offers significant benefits for combating anemia and supporting immune health. The crop’s phosphorus (7.09 mg/100g) and calcium (2.52 mg/100g) and magnesium (0.668 mg/100g) content further highlight a useful supplement for general well-being. However, its low protein content (0.6125%) limits its ability to serve as a primary protein source. This indicates that while it is highly beneficial for enhancing mineral intake, its contribution to addressing protein-energy malnutrition is minimal. ii. Asystasia gangetica : [local name: Gbolohui (Mende)] Asystasia gangetica (from Table 7 ) demonstrates substantial nutritional potential, particularly due to its high iron content of 7.718 mg/100g. The crop also contains notable levels of potassium (2.867 mg/100g), which is essential for maintaining fluid balance and supporting heart health. Its moderate zinc content (0.554 mg/100g) adds to its benefits, as zinc plays a crucial role in immune function, wound healing, and potassium levels (2.867 mg/100g), ellular metabolism. Phosphorus (10.54 mg/100g) and calcium (3.4 mg/100g) contribute to bone health, making the crop particularly valuable for populations with low dairy consumption. In addition to its mineral content, Asystasia gangetica offers a modest protein contribution of 1.505%. i. Celosia argentea : [local name: Gbolohui (Mende)] Celosia argentea (from Table 7 ) stands out as an exceptionally nutrient-dense crop, particularly due to its high iron content of 15.226 mg/100g. Its zinc content of 1.505 mg/100g, potassium (8.641 mg/100g), phosphorus (11.15 mg/100g), and calcium (2.08 mg/100g) make it a well-rounded source of essential minerals. The protein content of Celosia argentea (2.345%) is higher than that of Triumfetta cordiafolia and Asystasia gangetica , making it a more robust option for addressing protein-energy deficiencies. The crop’s high potassium content is particularly beneficial for populations at risk of hypertension, while its iron and zinc levels address key micronutrient deficiencies. Table 7 N/Protein and mineral composition of the selected NUFC [without research literature] Sample Type (leaf) Fe (mg/100g) Cu (mg/100g) Zn (mg/100g) Protein (%) P (mg/100g) Na (mg/100g) K (mg/100g) Mg (mg/100g) Ca (mg/100g) Sources Triumfetta cordiafolia 1.521 0.03 1.23 0.613 7.09 1.32 0.32 0.6683 2.52 This study Asystasia gangetica 7.718 0.154 0.554 1.505 10.54 0.563 2.867 1.256 3.40 This study Celosia argentea 15.226 0.305 1.505 2.345 11.15 0.341 8.641 0.8404 2.08 This study DISCUSSION Among the crops analyzed, Piper unbellatum emerged as the most nutritionally versatile, exhibiting high concentrations of zinc (12.49 mg/100g), phosphorus (103.1 mg/100g), magnesium (8.94 mg/100g), calcium (11.62 mg/100g), and sodium (1.93 mg/100g). These minerals are essential for immune function, bone health, cellular metabolism, and electrolyte balance. The crop’s broad-spectrum nutrient profile positions it as a strategic candidate for addressing multiple micronutrient deficiencies in Sierra Leone, particularly in rural communities with limited access to fortified foods (Baradum et al., 2021 ; Kalu & Osuji, 2018 ). Celosia argentea and Luffa aegyptiaca were identified as iron-rich crops, with concentrations of 15.23 mg/100g and 12.96 mg/100g, respectively. Iron deficiency anemia remains a significant public health concern in Sierra Leone, especially among women and children (UNICEF, 2017 ). The integration of these crops into local diets could substantially improve iron intake, enhance oxygen transport, and reduce fatigue and developmental delays. Their cultivation also aligns with traditional knowledge systems, where leafy vegetables are commonly used in soups and sauces. Vernonia amygdalina and Ipomoea aquatica showed exceptional levels of copper (22.13 mg/100g and 17.99 mg/100g) and potassium (22.13 mg/100g and 17.99 mg/100g). Copper supports red blood cell formation and neurological health, while potassium regulates blood pressure and fluid balance. These findings are particularly relevant given the rising incidence of hypertension and cardiovascular disease in Sierra Leone (WFP, 2024). Promoting these crops could offer a low-cost, plant-based intervention to improve cardiovascular outcomes. In terms of protein content, Ipomoea aquatica stood out with 7.00%, making it a valuable resource for combating protein-energy malnutrition. Protein is critical for growth, tissue repair, and enzymatic functions. In low-income settings where animal protein is scarce, plant-based sources like Ipomoea aquatica offer an affordable alternative. Its adaptability to swampy environments and rapid growth cycle further enhances its viability for smallholder farmers. The study also highlighted Triumfetta cordiafolia and Asystasia gangetica as crops with moderate mineral profiles but limited protein content. While Triumfetta cordiafolia ranked second in sodium (1.32 mg/100g), its protein content was only 0.61%, suggesting its role may be more complementary than foundational in addressing malnutrition. Asystasia gangetica , with 7.72 mg/100g iron and 2.87 mg/100g potassium, offers targeted benefits for anemia and heart health, though its overall nutrient density is lower than other NUFCs. Comparative analysis with global literature revealed significant variability in nutrient values, underscoring the influence of environmental conditions, genetic diversity, and methodological differences. For instance, iron content in Luffa aegyptiaca ranged from 12.96 mg/100g (This study) to 41.05 mg/100g (Ani et al., 2020 ), while zinc in Justicia insularis varied from 1.31 mg/100g (this study) to 4972 mg/100g (Adeyemi & Babatunde, 2014 ). These discrepancies highlight the need for standardized protocols and localized nutrient profiling to inform policy and dietary recommendations. The findings also intersect with traditional knowledge systems. Many of the NUFCs studied such as Vernonia amygdalina, Celosia argentea , and Triumfetta cordiafolia are used in indigenous medicine and cultural rituals. Their nutritional validation reinforces the value of traditional food systems and supports the thesis goal of integrating NUFCs into sustainable food strategies. Moreover, the gendered nature of NUFC cultivation and processing often managed by women suggests that promoting these crops could enhance women’s economic empowerment and household nutrition. CONCLUSION While country is agriculturally active, but still continues to face persistent challenges in food and nutrition security, particularly due to limited dietary diversity and micronutrient deficiencies. Through standardized laboratory analysis, the research quantified essential minerals including iron, zinc, copper, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and sodium across multiple NUFC species, offering empirical evidence of their nutritional value. The findings revealed that crops such as Piper unbellatum, Celosia argentea, Ipomoea aquatica, Vernonia amygdalina , and Luffa aegyptiaca possess rich and varied mineral profiles, with several species demonstrating concentrations that rival or exceed global benchmarks. Notably, Piper unbellatum emerged as the most nutritionally versatile crop, exhibiting high levels of zinc, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, and sodium. Celosia argentea and Luffa aegyptiaca were identified as iron-rich, while Ipomoea aquatica stood out for its protein content and cardiovascular-supporting potassium levels. These results underscore the strategic potential of NUFCs in addressing micronutrient deficiencies endemic to rural Sierra Leone. Their integration into local diets could significantly improve nutritional outcomes, particularly among vulnerable populations with limited access to fortified foods or animal-based sources. Moreover, the cultivation of these crops aligns with traditional knowledge systems and agro-ecological conditions, reinforcing their cultural relevance and adaptability. By scientifically validating the mineral composition of NUFCs, this research lays the groundwork for their inclusion in national food security strategies, nutrition programming, and agricultural extension services. Promoting these crops not only diversifies the food system but also enhances resilience against climate variability and market dependency. Future research should explore bioavailability, seasonal variation, and consumer acceptability to further support the mainstreaming of NUFCs into Sierra Leone’s sustainable development agenda. Recommendations for Future Laboratory Analysis While the present study provides valuable insights into the mineral composition of selected NUFCs, several external factors may influence laboratory outcomes and should be considered in future research. Environmental conditions such as soil type, rainfall, and seasonality can significantly affect nutrient uptake and accumulation in plants. Similarly, variations in plant maturity and the specific part analyzed (e.g., leaf vs. seed) may lead to differences in mineral concentrations. Standardizing harvest stages and clearly documenting plant parts used will improve comparability across studies. Post-harvest handling, particularly drying temperature, exposure to sunlight, and ambient humidity can also impact nutrient stability, especially for heat-sensitive compounds. Analytical precision depends on the sensitivity of the methods employed. While techniques such as AAS and flame photometry are widely accepted, cross-validation with more sensitive instruments (e.g., ICP-MS) and the use of certified reference materials are recommended to enhance reliability. Incorporating soil nutrient analysis alongside plant tissue profiling would provide a more holistic understanding of mineral dynamics. Finally, increasing biological replicates and sampling across multiple agroecological zones can strengthen statistical power and generalizability, especially for crops with localized cultivation patterns or emerging nutritional relevance. Declarations Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding The research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors. Author Contribution SF, RW, TSS, and SMTW contributed to the manuscript's writing, literature review and interpretation, and data analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgement We extend our heartfelt thanks to the students, Community Health Officers (CHOs), and Community Health Assistants (CHAs) from Njala University's Department of Community Health Sciences (2024/2025 academic year) for their support in data collection. Special gratitude goes to Mr. Kinie Jalieh of Kasewe Reserved Forest community, and Momoh Sesay at the National Herbarium for their invaluable expertise in identifying the underutilized and neglected food crops, ensuring the accuracy of our research. Data Availability The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Adedokun MA, Ogundiran MA, Alatise SP. Preliminary Assessment of Water Spinach (Ipomoea Aquatica) and Morning Glory (Ipomoea Asarifolia) Leaves Meals as Non—Conventional Fish Feed Stuffs. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7727516","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":563448215,"identity":"9af240cf-75c2-4ab1-b3bc-e5b79f25a600","order_by":0,"name":"Sahr Foday","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA6ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDAC5gMMEgwMNgyMDcwNIC4IN+DXwpYA0pIG1MII08JIlJbDMJVEaJFvYz5442fb+Tzm9oONHxgqrBMb+A/i12JwjC3ZsrftdjFjT2KzBMOZ9MQGiUQCWuR7zCR4224nNjYAFTO2HQaRhBzGYyb5t+1cYmP/w+YfjP8OE3YYwzEeM2netgOJjTMS24DmA7UwEHIY0C/WMueSgVoetlkkHEs3biPkF1CI3XxTZpe4sT/58I0PNday/fyHD+B3GAgwsjEwGIKMTgBiNsLqQeAP0DriVI6CUTAKRsFIBADevEwYo2uCRwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Njala University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sahr","middleName":"","lastName":"Foday","suffix":""},{"id":563448216,"identity":"09c5bfee-c6db-4421-9446-9eb599928efb","order_by":1,"name":"Richard Wadsworth","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Njala University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Richard","middleName":"","lastName":"Wadsworth","suffix":""},{"id":563448217,"identity":"78544aed-7dff-46f4-bbb2-bea841ed2620","order_by":2,"name":"Tamba S. Sonda","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Njala University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tamba","middleName":"S.","lastName":"Sonda","suffix":""},{"id":563448218,"identity":"106dd333-4b10-4be5-bca9-43da5f2ff2b3","order_by":3,"name":"Samuel Maxwell Tom Williams","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Hokkaido University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Samuel","middleName":"Maxwell Tom","lastName":"Williams","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-27 09:38:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7727516/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7727516/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":98898295,"identity":"5b31c255-ac8a-45d6-a0d8-14b78a4f87f3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-23 18:29:58","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":1057839,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"NUFCMineralcompositionRevisedv03.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7727516/v1/77204f92579b7e5705965033.docx"},{"id":98898292,"identity":"bd7bd838-df57-47d2-acdb-c598352102d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-23 18:29:58","extension":"json","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":7103,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"8cd0170f5b5c4d4fafd44296382a7f37.json","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7727516/v1/78b4d74bc5d90d19d238b6dd.json"},{"id":99309768,"identity":"f7176336-79cf-4d2b-87d4-78dcc62ebaaa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:11:07","extension":"xml","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":139564,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"8cd0170f5b5c4d4fafd44296382a7f371enriched.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7727516/v1/961ab19cfd91a875ee70afcc.xml"},{"id":98898293,"identity":"b2d82e44-e2be-42ca-a02f-5b687386128e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-23 18:29:58","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":142854,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Onlinefloatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7727516/v1/955b1156f48bc2035e5910fc.png"},{"id":98898296,"identity":"1aa34bd7-5632-4d56-927a-d74c1fb1a812","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-23 18:29:58","extension":"xml","order_by":5,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":137731,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"8cd0170f5b5c4d4fafd44296382a7f371structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7727516/v1/eaa5c78f172278a775290917.xml"},{"id":98898297,"identity":"fd3bd449-bb9c-4029-aacd-a1a2f4a904f7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-23 18:29:58","extension":"html","order_by":6,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":150815,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7727516/v1/2298ad585b17b85fbaad656f.html"},{"id":98898291,"identity":"b2b11d9c-d9bf-43bd-aa31-920d04e9b2fc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-23 18:29:58","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":942598,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSatellite map of Sierra Leone showing the study districts of Bo and Kenema, highlighted in yellow. Major cities and district boundaries are labeled for geographic reference.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7727516/v1/e4a0ee1f2d876ec78baa4b39.png"},{"id":99322670,"identity":"68a45e29-9795-4281-b767-e34c5bc967bb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-31 16:43:54","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2599600,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7727516/v1/4aff030b-130e-4eff-87cd-cc6820abd047.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Mineral Composition of Neglected and Underutilized Food Crops and Their Role in Nutrition Security in Sierra Leone","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eSierra Leone\u0026rsquo;s agricultural landscape is rich in biodiversity, yet its food system remains heavily reliant on a narrow range of staple crops primarily rice, cassava, and maize that offer limited nutritional diversity and are increasingly vulnerable to climate shocks. Despite having over 5.36\u0026nbsp;million hectares of cultivable land (FAO et al., 2022; World Bank, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), the country continues to import approximately 80% of its food (WFP \u0026amp; FAO, 2024), underscoring a systemic gap between agricultural potential and nutritional outcomes. This reliance on imported staples and low-diversity cropping systems has contributed to widespread micronutrient deficiencies, particularly among women and children, with iron-deficiency anemia, zinc deficiency, and protein-energy malnutrition remaining prevalent (UNICEF, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeglected and Underutilized Food Crops (NUFCs) represent a promising yet overlooked solution to these challenges. These crops often indigenous, climate-resilient, and culturally embedded have historically contributed to local diets and traditional medicine but remain marginalized in formal agricultural and nutrition programs (Jain \u0026amp; Dutta Gupta, 2013). In Sierra Leone, species such as \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum, Celosia argentea, Ipomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e are widely known and consumed in rural communities, yet their nutritional profiles are poorly documented and underappreciated in policy and research circles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe lack of empirical data on the mineral composition of NUFCs has hindered their integration into national food security strategies. While anecdotal and ethnobotanical evidence supports their nutritional value, systematic laboratory-based assessments are scarce. Comparative studies with global benchmarks reveal inconsistencies in nutrient values due to environmental, genetic, and methodological factors (Adeyemi \u0026amp; Babatunde, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Saikia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Without standardized data and validated nutritional profiles, NUFCs remain excluded from agricultural extension services, dietary guidelines, and public health interventions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study addresses that gap by evaluating the mineral composition of selected NUFCs cultivated in Bo and Kenema districts regions known for their agricultural engagement and vulnerability to nutritional deficiencies. By quantifying key minerals such as iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sodium (Na), the research aims to scientifically validate the nutritional potential of these crops.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study aligns with national development priorities, including the Feed Salone initiative, which seeks to reduce dependency on imported staples and promote indigenous crops for food sovereignty. It also contributes to global efforts to mainstream underutilized crops in sustainable food systems(Nhamo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; van Zonneveld et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). By bridging scientific analysis with traditional knowledge, this research positions NUFCs as vital assets in the fight against hidden hunger and agricultural vulnerability in Sierra Leone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe aim to evaluate the mineral composition of selected NUFCs cultivated in Bo and Kenema districts to assess their potential contribution to food and nutrition security in Sierra Leone. In this study, we hypothesize that these crops possess mineral profiles capable of addressing micronutrient deficiencies prevalent in the region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODOLOGY","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Bo and Kenema districts of Sierra Leone, two agriculturally active regions located in the Southern and Eastern Provinces, respectively. Bo District spans approximately 5,473 km\u0026sup2; and is characterized by a tropical climate with fertile soils suitable for rice, cassava, maize, and leafy vegetables (OCHA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015a\u003c/span\u003e). Kenema District, covering about 6,053 km\u0026sup2;, shares similar agro-ecological features but is also known for its inland valley swamp (IVS) systems and cash crops like cocoa and coffee (OCHA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015b\u003c/span\u003e). Both districts experience a monsoon-type humid tropical climate, with annual rainfall ranging from 2,000 mm in the north to 4,000 mm in the south (OCHA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015b\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015a\u003c/span\u003e). These conditions support diverse cropping systems and make the regions ideal for studying NUFCs, which are often cultivated in marginal or mixed farming environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy Design\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research employed a mixed-methods design, integrating both quantitative laboratory analysis and qualitative ethnobotanical inquiry. The study focused on assessing the mineral composition of selected NUFCs to determine their nutritional potential. A purposive sampling strategy was used to select plant species based on local consumption patterns, traditional knowledge, and availability in the study area. The design included structured questionnaires with an in-dept interview, guided field walks, and laboratory-based chemical assays. This triangulated approach ensured a comprehensive understanding of both the biochemical properties and socio-cultural relevance of NUFCs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample Size and Species Selection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom an initial pool of 45 neglected and underutilized food crops (NUFCs) documented across Bo and Kenema districts in Sierra Leone, 23 species with more than five recorded observations were subjected to binomial statistical analysis to determine utilization trends. These were categorized as significantly increasing, declining, or exhibiting no statistically significant change in consumption. For the present study on proximal mineral composition, eight NUFC species were purposively selected from the latter two categories those with declining usage or no significant change (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Selection was guided not only by statistical classification but also by practical considerations including local availability, adaptability to extreme environmental conditions, cultural values, and potential nutritional relevance. The final sample included species such as \u003cem\u003eLuffa aegyptic, Justicia insularis, Triumfetta cordifolia, Piper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAsystasia gangetica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCelosia argentinae, Vernoniamy cordiafolia\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e. These crops were identified through community consultations with experienced local farmers, women, hunters, and farm traders, and represent a subset of NUFCs at risk of underutilization despite their nutritional promise.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eData Collection\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ei. Fieldwork and Ethnobotanical Survey\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData collection began with the training of research assistants in digital tools such as Kobo Toolbox, followed by a pilot survey to refine the questionnaire. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with farmers, market vendors, and community elders to document indigenous knowledge, cultivation practices, and perceptions of NUFCs. FGDs provided deeper insights into the cultural and nutritional roles of these crops, while guided field walks enabled direct observation and documentation of NUFCs in their natural and cultivated environments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eii. Plant Specimen Collection and Identification\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlant samples were collected from home gardens, farms, and forest margins. Priority was given to fertile specimens bearing flowers or fruits to ensure accurate identification. Young leaves were harvested using knives or cutlasses and stored in sealed transparent plastic bags to preserve freshness. With guidance from herbarium experts, samples were treated to prevent early dehydration and transported to the Quality Control Laboratory at Njala University for analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVoucher specimens were prepared and authenticated by experts at the National Herbarium, Njala University, using standard botanical literature and morphological keys. Photographs and local names were recorded for each species, and samples were preserved using alcohol and pressing techniques for reference and laboratory analysis. The plant parts analyzed (proximal mineral composition) in this study were the young leaves sourced from the following locations and institutions:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e: Collected from Kasewe Forest Reserve (coordinates: 8.336248\u0026ndash;12.170405), under guidance of District Forest Officer, Moyamba District.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. \u003cem\u003eTriumfetta cordifolia\u003c/em\u003e: Collected from Kasewe Forest Reserve (coordinates: 8.342758\u0026ndash;12.180665), under guidance of District Forest Officer, Moyamba District.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. \u003cem\u003eVernoniamy cordiafolia\u003c/em\u003e: Obtained from Small Bo chiefdom, Kenema District under the guidance of the town chiefd (coordinates: 7.8502519\u0026ndash;11.2486597).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. \u003cem\u003eJusticia insularis\u003c/em\u003e: Obtained from Tikonko chiefdom, Bo District under the guidance of the town chief (coordinates: 7.8877352\u0026ndash;11.7858397).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. \u003cem\u003eAsystasia gangetica\u003c/em\u003e: Collected from Gbo chiefdom, Bo District under the guidance of the town chief (coordinates: 8.070604210636244, -11.826134556167704).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e6. \u003cem\u003eLuffa aegyptic\u003c/em\u003e: Collected from Gbo chiefdom, Bo District under the guidance of the town chief (coordinates: 8.070604210636244, -11.826134556167704).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e7. \u003cem\u003eCelosia argentinae\u003c/em\u003e: Collected from Kandu Leppiam chiefdom, Kenema District under the guidance of the town chief (coordinates: 8.070604210636244, -11.826134556167704).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e8. \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e: Obtained from Small Bo chiefdom, Kenema District under the guidance of the town chief (coordinates: 7.8502519\u0026ndash;11.2486597).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eiii. Laboratory Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eProximal mineral analysis was conducted on eight selected neglected and underutilized food crops (NUFCs) identified through prior statistical and ethnobotanical screening. Fresh leaf samples of each species were collected from Bo and Kenema districts, air-dried at ambient temperature, and subsequently oven-dried at 60\u0026deg;C to constant weight. The dried samples were ground into fine powder using a stainless-steel mill and stored in airtight containers prior to analysis. The chemical analysis was conducted at the Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, Njala University. The Kjeldahl method was used to estimate nitrogen content, which was converted to protein using the AOAC, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e)\u003c/span\u003e standard factor of 6.25.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample Preparation and Digestion\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEach powdered sample was subjected to acid digestion using a mixture of nitric acid (HNO₃) and perchloric acid (HClO₄) in a 2:1 ratio. Approximately 0.5 g of sample was digested in a fume hood until a clear solution was obtained. The digested samples were filtered and diluted to a final volume of 50 mL with deionized water.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMineral elements were quantified using:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Nitrogen content was determined using the Kjeldahl method, which involves digestion with concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) in the presence of a catalyst, followed by distillation and titration. Crude protein was calculated by multiplying the total nitrogen content by a conversion factor of 6.25, based on the assumption that protein contains approximately 16% nitrogen (AOAC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Iron (Fe), cooper (Cu), and Zinc (Zn) were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS), following the Ammonium Bicarbonate DTPA method (Soltanpour, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Phosphorus (P) was quantified using the Bray I extraction method, followed by colorimetric determination with a spectrophotometer (Bray \u0026amp; Kurtz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1945\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026bull; Flame photometry for potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll concentrations were initially recorded in mg/kg and converted to mg/100g using the Nutraceuticals Group\u0026rsquo;s online conversion scale (Nutraceuticals Group, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) to ensure consistency with global nutritional reporting standards.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative data from laboratory assays were analyzed using Microsoft Excel, SPSS v26, and R. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize mineral concentrations across NUFC species. Comparative analysis was performed against global literature to assess alignment and variability in nutrient profiles.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQualitative data from interviews and FGDs were thematically analyzed to contextualize the nutritional findings within traditional knowledge systems and community practices. This dual analysis provided a holistic understanding of the nutritional value and cultural relevance of NUFCs in Sierra Leone\u0026rsquo;s food system.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEthical considerations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the study was primarily based in Bo and Kenema districts, two plant species were also collected from the Kasewe Forest Reserve in Moyamba District. Prior to data collection, participants were informed about the purpose and nature of the research. Ethical approval was obtained from the Directorate of Research and Development, Njala University, Sierra Leone, and the study adhered to the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, including consent for the publication of anonymized data. The study does not involve a clinical trial; hence, a clinical trial number is not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to human subject protocols, ethical clearance also covered the collection of plant specimens. All plant materials were collected in accordance with national guidelines and institutional protocols. No endangered or protected species were involved. Permissions were obtained from the Sierra Leone Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry and local authorities, including district forest officers and town chiefs. While no formal reference number was issued, written consent and permission letters were provided by Njala University to the Ministry of Agriculture and local authorities prior to specimen collection. Documentation of these permissions is available upon request.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProximal Mineral Composition of Selected NUFCs\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mineral analysis revealed considerable variation in nutrient profiles across the eight selected neglected and underutilized food crops (NUFCs). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e summarizes the concentrations of key minerals calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium (Na), phosphorus (P), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) as well as crude protein content, expressed as a percentage of dry weight.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ei. Iron (Fe)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe crops with the highest iron content are \u003cem\u003eCelosia argentea\u003c/em\u003e (15.226 mg/100g) and \u003cem\u003eLuffa Aegyptica\u003c/em\u003e (12.962 mg/100g) making them an excellent candidate for addressing iron deficiency anemia, a significant public health issue in Sierra Leone. Iron is crucial for oxygen transport and energy production, and its deficiency can lead to fatigue, weakened immunity, and developmental delays in children. \u003cem\u003eCelosia argentea\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eLuffa Aegyptica\u003c/em\u003e rich iron content highlights its potential to improve dietary iron intake, particularly in populations with limited access to fortified or animal-based iron sources. This crop could be integrated into local diets to enhance iron availability and overall nutritional status.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eii. Copper (Cu)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e stands out with the highest copper content (22.13 mg/100g), followed by \u003cem\u003eIpomoea acquatica\u003c/em\u003e (17.99 mg/100g), far exceeding other crops in the study. Copper is essential for red blood cell formation, immune system function, and the maintenance of healthy nerves and bones. Its high concentration in \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eIpomoea acquatica\u003c/em\u003e underscores the crop\u0026rsquo;s potential role in preventing copper deficiency, which can cause anemia and cardiovascular issues. This exceptional copper content makes it an ideal addition to diets in areas where trace mineral deficiencies are prevalent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eiii. Zinc (Zn)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e leads in zinc content with 12.49 mg/100g, making it a valuable source for supporting immune health, wound healing, and cellular metabolism. Zinc deficiencies are associated with stunted growth, increased susceptibility to infections, and delayed wound healing. By incorporating \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e into local diets, particularly in regions with zinc-deficient soils, communities can address this critical nutrient gap and improve overall health outcomes, especially in children and pregnant women.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eiv. Protein\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe crop with the highest protein content is \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e (7.00%), positioning it as a critical resource for addressing protein-energy malnutrition. Protein is vital for growth, tissue repair, and enzymatic functions, making it a cornerstone of human nutrition. \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e has relatively high protein levels offers an affordable plant-based option for supplementing protein intake, particularly in low-resource settings where animal protein sources are scarce. This crop\u0026rsquo;s role in improving dietary diversity and nutrition is significant, especially for vulnerable populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ev. Phosphorus (P)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e exhibits the highest phosphorus content (103.1 mg/100g), making it an essential crop for supporting bone health, energy production, and cellular repair. Phosphorus is a key component of DNA, RNA, and ATP, underscoring its importance in both structural and metabolic functions. By integrating \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e into diets, communities can enhance their phosphorus intake and support overall growth and development, particularly in children and adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003evi. Sodium (Na)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the crops analyzed, \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e also leads in sodium content (1.93 mg/100g), followed by \u003cem\u003eTriumfetta cordiafolia\u003c/em\u003e (1.32 mg/100g). While sodium is commonly present in diets, its moderate levels in this crop suggest it can contribute to maintaining electrolyte balance without posing risks of excessive sodium intake. This makes \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTriumfetta cordiafolia\u003c/em\u003e suitable for complementing low-sodium diets while still supporting essential functions such as nerve transmission and muscle contraction.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003evii. Potassium (K)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe highest potassium levels are found in \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e (22.13 mg/100g) followed by \u003cem\u003eIpomoea acquatica\u003c/em\u003e (17.99 mg/100g), highlighting its role in supporting cardiovascular health and maintaining fluid balance. Potassium helps regulate blood pressure, making it a key nutrient for preventing hypertension and reducing the risk of heart disease. By incorporating \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eIpomoea acquatica\u003c/em\u003e into daily diets, individuals can improve their potassium intake and promote overall cardiovascular health, especially in regions with a high prevalence of hypertension.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eviii. Magnesium (Mg)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith a magnesium content of 8.94375 mg/100g, \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e is the most magnesium-rich crop in this study. Magnesium is critical for nerve and muscle function, bone strength, and energy production. Its presence in Piper unbellatum enhances the crop\u0026rsquo;s value as a dietary supplement for addressing magnesium deficiencies, which can lead to muscle cramps, fatigue, and cardiovascular issues. This nutrient-rich crop could play a significant role in improving health outcomes in communities with limited access to magnesium-rich foods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eix. Calcium (Ca)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e also ranks highest in calcium content (11.62 mg/100g), Ver\u003cem\u003enonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e (5.5445 mg/100g) making it an excellent source for supporting bone and dental health. Calcium is essential for skeletal strength and various metabolic processes, including muscle contraction and nerve signaling. The crop\u0026rsquo;s high calcium content positions it as a natural alternative to dairy products, especially in populations with lactose intolerance or limited access to dairy. Promoting the consumption of \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e could help address calcium deficiencies and enhance overall health in Sierra Leone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN/Protein and mineral composition of the selected NUFC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSci name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLuffa aegyptic\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e129.620\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.590\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.590\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.658\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105.400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.470\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.460\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.513\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.880\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJusticia insularis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.820\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.090\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.280\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.930\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.930\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.065\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.610\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTriumfetta cordifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.210\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.098\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.900\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.683\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25.200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.740\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.490\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.490\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.308\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103.100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.930\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.930\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.944\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.620\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAsystasia gangetica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.180\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.540\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.540\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.241\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105.400\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.630\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.670\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.555\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCelosia argentinae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e152.260\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.050\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.375\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111.500\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.410\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.410\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.404\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVernoniamy cordiafolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.650\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e221.300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.550\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.840\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.650\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e221.300\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.445\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76.890\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e179.900\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.550\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.520\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e179.900\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.196\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.590\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eNutritional Highlights and Comparative Strengths\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on overall mineral composition and nutritional purpose, \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e is the most nutritionally versatile crop, addressing a broad spectrum of deficiencies. \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina, Ipomoea aquatica, Celosia argentea\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eLuffa aegyptiaca\u003c/em\u003e are significant contributors to iron, protein, potassium, and copper intake. Promoting the cultivation and dietary use of these NUFC can significantly enhance food security and public health outcomes in Sierra Leone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ei. \u003cb\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/b\u003e, \u003cb\u003econtains (Zinc, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Calcium, Sodium)\u003c/b\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e emerges as a highly versatile crop, leading in zinc (12.49 mg/100g), phosphorus (103.1 mg/100g), magnesium (8.94375 mg/100g), calcium (11.62 mg/100g), and sodium (1.93 mg/100g). These nutrients collectively support immune health, bone strength, cellular metabolism, and nerve function. Its exceptional mineral composition makes it a cornerstone crop for improving nutritional outcomes in resource-constrained communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eii. \u003cb\u003eCelosia argentea\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eand\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eLuffa aegyptiaca\u003c/b\u003e, \u003cb\u003econtain (Iron)\u003c/b\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese crops are exceptionally high in iron, with Celosia argentea at 15.226 mg/100g and \u003cem\u003eLuffa aegyptiaca\u003c/em\u003e at 12.962 mg/100g. Their rich iron content makes them critical for addressing iron deficiency anemia, particularly in populations with limited access to iron-rich foods. Their integration into local diets can improve oxygen transport and energy production, directly combating fatigue, weakened immunity, and developmental delays.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eiii. \u003cb\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eand\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/b\u003e, \u003cb\u003econtain (Copper and Potassium)\u003c/b\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e leads in copper (22.13 mg/100g) and potassium (22.13 mg/100g), with Ipomoea aquatica following closely in both categories (17.99 mg/100g for copper and potassium). These crops are essential for maintaining cardiovascular health, fluid balance, and the development of red blood cells. Their high potassium content makes them especially beneficial in preventing hypertension and supporting nerve function.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eiv. \u003cb\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/b\u003e, \u003cb\u003econtain (Protein)\u003c/b\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWith the highest protein content at 7.00%, \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e serves as a critical resource for combating protein-energy malnutrition. It provides an affordable plant-based protein source, particularly valuable for populations with limited access to animal proteins. This crop's contribution to dietary diversity and nutrition is particularly significant for vulnerable groups such as children and pregnant women.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ev. \u003cb\u003eTriumfetta cordiafolia\u003c/b\u003e, \u003cb\u003econtain (Sodium)\u003c/b\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile not leading in multiple nutrients, \u003cem\u003eTriumfetta cordiafolia\u003c/em\u003e ranks second in sodium (1.32 mg/100g). It can complement low-sodium diets and support electrolyte balance, contributing to nerve transmission and muscle function.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eComparative analysis of mineral composition of NUFC with other literature\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study presents the protein and mineral compositions of various neglected and underutilized food crops (NUFC) identified within the study area. These crops were analyzed for their nutritional content, including key minerals such as iron, zinc, calcium, potassium, magnesium, and phosphorus and their protein levels. The findings were compared to similar studies conducted globally (see Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e to \u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e below), providing a broader context for understanding the nutritional potential of these crops. This comparison highlights both the unique nutrient profiles of the local NUFC and their alignment or deviation from values reported in other regions. By examining their nutrient compositions and comparing them with global benchmarks, the research offers valuable insights into their potential contribution to diversified diets and improved health outcomes. This comparative approach also aids in identifying crops with exceptional nutrient density, paving the way for targeted interventions and policy recommendations to promote their cultivation and consumption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ei. \u003cb\u003eLuffa aegyptiaca\u003c/b\u003e: [local name: Bordorlyny (Mende)]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe nutrient analysis of \u003cem\u003eLuffa aegyptiaca\u003c/em\u003e (from Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) reveals considerable variability in its mineral and protein content across the different sources. Iron (Fe) content, for instance, ranges from 41.05 mg/100g (Ani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) to 12.962 mg/100g (This Study). This disparity could be attributed to environmental conditions such as soil composition, climatic differences, or differences in cultivation practices. Soil richness in specific minerals may enhance the uptake of iron, which might explain the higher values in the Ani et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) study. Zinc (Zn) content also shows significant variation between the two sources, Ani et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) reporting higher values. Copper (Cu), on the other hand, shows more consistent but lower values across both sources, suggesting a stable uptake mechanism or less environmental influence on this mineral. The protein content is higher, with values of 4.90% (Ani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and 0.411% in This Study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative assessment of mineral composition of \u003cem\u003eLuffa Aegyptica\u003c/em\u003e leaf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMineral Composition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis Study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Ani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.962\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.347\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.246\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMg (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.4513\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.088\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e192.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eii. \u003cb\u003eJusticia insularis\u003c/b\u003e: [local name: Lamie (Mende)]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mineral content of \u003cem\u003eJusticia insularis\u003c/em\u003e (from Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) exhibits a striking degree of variability, particularly for iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn). This Study reports iron at 9.982 mg/100g, while \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e(\u003c/span\u003eAdeyemi \u0026amp; Babatunde, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e)\u003c/span\u003e report an extraordinary 449.0 mg/100g. Such a vast difference raises questions about analytical methodologies and whether the higher value might be an outlier or reflective of unique environmental conditions. Similarly, zinc content varies from 1.309 mg/100g (This Study) to 4,972.0 mg/100g (Adeyemi \u0026amp; Babatunde, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Copper (Cu) levels also show extreme variability, with This Study reporting 0.20 mg/100g compared to 631.0 mg/100g from (Adeyemi \u0026amp; Babatunde, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). These differences suggest that either environmental factors (soil, climate, time of year, etc), the age of the part sampled (young or mature), how it was preserved and stored, varietal differences, processing may significantly affect the assessment or there may be inconsistencies in measurement techniques between studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein content in \u003cem\u003eJusticia insularis\u003c/em\u003e is another area of wide variation, with the This study reporting a modest 1.75% compared to an extraordinarily high 448% by (Adeyemi \u0026amp; Babatunde, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The latter figure is likely due to a misrepresentation or error in reporting and emphasizes the importance of cross-referencing data from multiple studies. Despite these discrepancies, \u003cem\u003eJusticia insularis\u003c/em\u003e demonstrates potential as a source of essential nutrients and protein. Efforts to standardize cultivation and analysis methods are critical to fully understanding its nutritional value.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative assessment of the mineral composition of \u003cem\u003eJusticia insularis\u003c/em\u003e leaf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMineral Composition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis Study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Adeyemi \u0026amp; Babatunde, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.982\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e449.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e631\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4972\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e448\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8931\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e631.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.393\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e168\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMg (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6065\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0361\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e330\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eiii. \u003cb\u003ePiper umbellatum\u003c/b\u003e: [local name: Popodar (Mende)]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe nutrient profile of \u003cem\u003ePiper umbellatum\u003c/em\u003e (from Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) shows both consistency and variability across studies. Iron content, for instance, is reported as 2.47 mg/100g (in this study) and 1.32 mg/100g (Baradum et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) while Kalu and Osuji (Kalu \u0026amp; Osuji, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) report a significantly higher 70.56 mg/100g. These discrepancies may stem from differences in environmental factors, such as soil mineral availability, or genetic variations between samples. Zinc (Zn) content also varies widely, with this study reporting 12.49 mg/100g, Baradum et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) reporting 0.09 mg/100g, and \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e(Kalu \u0026amp; Osuji, 2(018)\u003c/span\u003e reporting 3.19 mg/100g. Copper (Cu) levels are more consistent between this study (0.49 mg/100g) and Baradum et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) (0.43 mg/100g) but are notably higher in Kalu \u0026amp; Osuji, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e)\u003c/span\u003e findings (3.96 mg/100g), suggesting possible location-specific enrichment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein content, on the other hand, shows significant fluctuation, with This study reporting 1.93% and Baradum et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) 19.90%, while Kalu \u0026amp; Osuji, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e)\u003c/span\u003e report a low 0.88%. These variations might reflect differences in plant maturity, sample preparation, or analytical approaches. Despite these inconsistencies, \u003cem\u003ePiper umbellatum\u003c/em\u003e remains a promising candidate for food and nutrition security due to its high potassium content, which supports cardiovascular health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative assessment of the mineral composition of \u003cem\u003ePiper umbellatum\u003c/em\u003e leaf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMineral Composition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBaradum et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKalu \u0026amp; Osuji, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003e)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.474\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.322\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.433\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.958\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.092\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.187\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.925\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.912\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.092\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.817\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e336.619\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMg (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.94375\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.252\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1370.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eiv. \u003cb\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/b\u003e: [Local name: Bitter leaf (Creole)]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe nutrient composition of \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e (from Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e) is marked by notable variations, particularly in its mineral content. Iron levels, for instance, range from 0.765 mg/100g (This study) to 32.2 mg/100g (Usunobun \u0026amp; Okolie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). This variation might be attributed to differences in soil conditions, environmental factors, or plant processing methods. Copper (Cu) content is another area of divergence, with this study reporting a high value of 22.130 mg/100g compared to 19.50 mg/100g by (Usunobun \u0026amp; Okolie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Zinc (Zn) levels are also inconsistent between studies, with values of 1.755 mg/100g (this study) and 14.23 mg/100g (Usunobun \u0026amp; Okolie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein content reported in this study is 17.75%, highlighting \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e as a valuable dietary protein source. Although protein data is absent from the (Usunobun \u0026amp; Okolie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) study, the high mineral content supports the crop's nutritional importance. Given its nutrient density, \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e could significantly address micronutrient deficiencies, particularly iron and protein-related malnutrition.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative assessment of the mineral composition of \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e leaf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMineral Composition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsunobun \u0026amp; Okolie, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.765\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.755\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.775\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.765\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMg (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5445\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e681.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.689\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1264.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ev. \u003cb\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/b\u003e: [local name: Gogodee (Mende)]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e (from Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrates substantial variability in its nutrient content across multiple sources. Iron levels range from as low as 0. 014 mg/100g (this study) to an extraordinarily high 146,710 mg/100g (Saikia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Such extreme values suggest either measurement inconsistencies or environmental factors affecting iron uptake. Copper (Cu) levels also vary widely, from 0.023 mg/100g (USDA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) to 17.99 mg/100g (this study). Zinc (Zn) content shows inconsistency, with values from 0.655 mg/100g (this study) to 8,110 mg/100g (Saikia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), affirming its potential as a zinc source. Potassium (K) content shows inconsistency, with values from 179.9 mg/100g (this study) to 11,171.35 mg/100g (Chitsa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), and 129,4080 mg/100g (Saikia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) These disparities highlight the need for more standardized and controlled studies to determine its nutrient profile accurately.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe least recorded protein composition in \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e was by (Umar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) with 1.008%, and the highest was 31.9% (Samkol, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). On the other hand, this study recorded 7.00% protein. This variability might reflect differences in plant maturity, growth conditions, or analysis methods. Despite these inconsistencies, \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e remains a nutrient-dense crop, with high calcium, magnesium, and potassium levels contributing to its value as a dietary supplement. Given its adaptability to diverse conditions and potential for addressing nutrient deficiencies, further research should focus on optimizing cultivation practices and validating its nutrient composition. Such efforts could position Ipomoea aquatica as a cornerstone of food and nutrition security initiatives in Sierra Leone.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative assessment of the mineral composition of \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e leaf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMg (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e179.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.655\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.352\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.014\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.31963\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.559\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Umar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e);\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e210.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,093.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e135.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,458.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e301.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e416.70\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Adedokun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.096\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e159.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e444.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e163.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Adelakun et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.673\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.387\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e323\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e982\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e424.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e335.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Chitsa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,092.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11,171.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e370.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14087.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Ndamitso et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.607\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.521\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2569\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.725\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Saikia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e146.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,110\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,023,120\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e235,780\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e129,4080\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e196,270\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e254,150\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Nyein, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(USDA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e113.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e312.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Ngamsaeng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Maung et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Samkol, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Shariff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eNUFC plants that have scarce information about their mineral composition\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ei. \u003cb\u003eTriumfetta cordiafolia\u003c/b\u003e: [local name: Tey-gweh (Mende)]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of \u003cem\u003eTriumfetta cordiafolia\u003c/em\u003e (from Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) reveals its potential as a valuable source of essential minerals for addressing nutritional deficiencies. With an iron content of 1.521 mg/100g and zinc levels of 1.23 mg/100g, this crop offers significant benefits for combating anemia and supporting immune health. The crop\u0026rsquo;s phosphorus (7.09 mg/100g) and calcium (2.52 mg/100g) and magnesium (0.668 mg/100g) content further highlight a useful supplement for general well-being. However, its low protein content (0.6125%) limits its ability to serve as a primary protein source. This indicates that while it is highly beneficial for enhancing mineral intake, its contribution to addressing protein-energy malnutrition is minimal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eii. \u003cb\u003eAsystasia gangetica\u003c/b\u003e: [local name: Gbolohui (Mende)]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eAsystasia gangetica\u003c/em\u003e (from Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrates substantial nutritional potential, particularly due to its high iron content of 7.718 mg/100g. The crop also contains notable levels of potassium (2.867 mg/100g), which is essential for maintaining fluid balance and supporting heart health. Its moderate zinc content (0.554 mg/100g) adds to its benefits, as zinc plays a crucial role in immune function, wound healing, and potassium levels (2.867 mg/100g), ellular metabolism. Phosphorus (10.54 mg/100g) and calcium (3.4 mg/100g) contribute to bone health, making the crop particularly valuable for populations with low dairy consumption. In addition to its mineral content, Asystasia gangetica offers a modest protein contribution of 1.505%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ei. \u003cb\u003eCelosia argentea\u003c/b\u003e: [local name: Gbolohui (Mende)]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eCelosia argentea\u003c/em\u003e (from Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e) stands out as an exceptionally nutrient-dense crop, particularly due to its high iron content of 15.226 mg/100g. Its zinc content of 1.505 mg/100g, potassium (8.641 mg/100g), phosphorus (11.15 mg/100g), and calcium (2.08 mg/100g) make it a well-rounded source of essential minerals. The protein content of Celosia argentea (2.345%) is higher than that of \u003cem\u003eTriumfetta cordiafolia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAsystasia gangetica\u003c/em\u003e, making it a more robust option for addressing protein-energy deficiencies. The crop\u0026rsquo;s high potassium content is particularly beneficial for populations at risk of hypertension, while its iron and zinc levels address key micronutrient deficiencies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN/Protein and mineral composition of the selected NUFC [without research literature]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample Type (leaf)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCu (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMg (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa (mg/100g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTriumfetta cordiafolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.521\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.613\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.6683\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAsystasia gangetica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.718\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.154\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.554\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.505\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.563\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.867\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.256\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCelosia argentea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.226\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.305\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.505\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.345\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.341\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.641\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8404\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eAmong the crops analyzed, \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e emerged as the most nutritionally versatile, exhibiting high concentrations of zinc (12.49 mg/100g), phosphorus (103.1 mg/100g), magnesium (8.94 mg/100g), calcium (11.62 mg/100g), and sodium (1.93 mg/100g). These minerals are essential for immune function, bone health, cellular metabolism, and electrolyte balance. The crop\u0026rsquo;s broad-spectrum nutrient profile positions it as a strategic candidate for addressing multiple micronutrient deficiencies in Sierra Leone, particularly in rural communities with limited access to fortified foods (Baradum et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Kalu \u0026amp; Osuji, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eCelosia argentea\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eLuffa aegyptiaca\u003c/em\u003e were identified as iron-rich crops, with concentrations of 15.23 mg/100g and 12.96 mg/100g, respectively. Iron deficiency anemia remains a significant public health concern in Sierra Leone, especially among women and children (UNICEF, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The integration of these crops into local diets could substantially improve iron intake, enhance oxygen transport, and reduce fatigue and developmental delays. Their cultivation also aligns with traditional knowledge systems, where leafy vegetables are commonly used in soups and sauces.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e showed exceptional levels of copper (22.13 mg/100g and 17.99 mg/100g) and potassium (22.13 mg/100g and 17.99 mg/100g). Copper supports red blood cell formation and neurological health, while potassium regulates blood pressure and fluid balance. These findings are particularly relevant given the rising incidence of hypertension and cardiovascular disease in Sierra Leone (WFP, 2024). Promoting these crops could offer a low-cost, plant-based intervention to improve cardiovascular outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn terms of protein content, \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e stood out with 7.00%, making it a valuable resource for combating protein-energy malnutrition. Protein is critical for growth, tissue repair, and enzymatic functions. In low-income settings where animal protein is scarce, plant-based sources like Ipomoea aquatica offer an affordable alternative. Its adaptability to swampy environments and rapid growth cycle further enhances its viability for smallholder farmers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study also highlighted \u003cem\u003eTriumfetta cordiafolia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAsystasia gangetica\u003c/em\u003e as crops with moderate mineral profiles but limited protein content. While \u003cem\u003eTriumfetta cordiafolia\u003c/em\u003e ranked second in sodium (1.32 mg/100g), its protein content was only 0.61%, suggesting its role may be more complementary than foundational in addressing malnutrition. \u003cem\u003eAsystasia gangetica\u003c/em\u003e, with 7.72 mg/100g iron and 2.87 mg/100g potassium, offers targeted benefits for anemia and heart health, though its overall nutrient density is lower than other NUFCs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparative analysis with global literature revealed significant variability in nutrient values, underscoring the influence of environmental conditions, genetic diversity, and methodological differences. For instance, iron content in \u003cem\u003eLuffa aegyptiaca\u003c/em\u003e ranged from 12.96 mg/100g (This study) to 41.05 mg/100g (Ani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), while zinc in \u003cem\u003eJusticia insularis\u003c/em\u003e varied from 1.31 mg/100g (this study) to 4972 mg/100g (Adeyemi \u0026amp; Babatunde, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). These discrepancies highlight the need for standardized protocols and localized nutrient profiling to inform policy and dietary recommendations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings also intersect with traditional knowledge systems. Many of the NUFCs studied such as \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina, Celosia argentea\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eTriumfetta cordiafolia\u003c/em\u003e are used in indigenous medicine and cultural rituals. Their nutritional validation reinforces the value of traditional food systems and supports the thesis goal of integrating NUFCs into sustainable food strategies. Moreover, the gendered nature of NUFC cultivation and processing often managed by women suggests that promoting these crops could enhance women\u0026rsquo;s economic empowerment and household nutrition.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eWhile country is agriculturally active, but still continues to face persistent challenges in food and nutrition security, particularly due to limited dietary diversity and micronutrient deficiencies. Through standardized laboratory analysis, the research quantified essential minerals including iron, zinc, copper, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and sodium across multiple NUFC species, offering empirical evidence of their nutritional value.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings revealed that crops such as \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum, Celosia argentea, Ipomoea aquatica, Vernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eLuffa aegyptiaca\u003c/em\u003e possess rich and varied mineral profiles, with several species demonstrating concentrations that rival or exceed global benchmarks. Notably, \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e emerged as the most nutritionally versatile crop, exhibiting high levels of zinc, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, and sodium. \u003cem\u003eCelosia argentea\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eLuffa aegyptiaca\u003c/em\u003e were identified as iron-rich, while \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e stood out for its protein content and cardiovascular-supporting potassium levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese results underscore the strategic potential of NUFCs in addressing micronutrient deficiencies endemic to rural Sierra Leone. Their integration into local diets could significantly improve nutritional outcomes, particularly among vulnerable populations with limited access to fortified foods or animal-based sources. Moreover, the cultivation of these crops aligns with traditional knowledge systems and agro-ecological conditions, reinforcing their cultural relevance and adaptability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBy scientifically validating the mineral composition of NUFCs, this research lays the groundwork for their inclusion in national food security strategies, nutrition programming, and agricultural extension services. Promoting these crops not only diversifies the food system but also enhances resilience against climate variability and market dependency. Future research should explore bioavailability, seasonal variation, and consumer acceptability to further support the mainstreaming of NUFCs into Sierra Leone\u0026rsquo;s sustainable development agenda.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRecommendations for Future Laboratory Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the present study provides valuable insights into the mineral composition of selected NUFCs, several external factors may influence laboratory outcomes and should be considered in future research. Environmental conditions such as soil type, rainfall, and seasonality can significantly affect nutrient uptake and accumulation in plants. Similarly, variations in plant maturity and the specific part analyzed (e.g., leaf vs. seed) may lead to differences in mineral concentrations. Standardizing harvest stages and clearly documenting plant parts used will improve comparability across studies. Post-harvest handling, particularly drying temperature, exposure to sunlight, and ambient humidity can also impact nutrient stability, especially for heat-sensitive compounds.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalytical precision depends on the sensitivity of the methods employed. While techniques such as AAS and flame photometry are widely accepted, cross-validation with more sensitive instruments (e.g., ICP-MS) and the use of certified reference materials are recommended to enhance reliability. Incorporating soil nutrient analysis alongside plant tissue profiling would provide a more holistic understanding of mineral dynamics. Finally, increasing biological replicates and sampling across multiple agroecological zones can strengthen statistical power and generalizability, especially for crops with localized cultivation patterns or emerging nutritional relevance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSF, RW, TSS, and SMTW contributed to the manuscript's writing, literature review and interpretation, and data analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe extend our heartfelt thanks to the students, Community Health Officers (CHOs), and Community Health Assistants (CHAs) from Njala University's Department of Community Health Sciences (2024/2025 academic year) for their support in data collection. Special gratitude goes to Mr. Kinie Jalieh of Kasewe Reserved Forest community, and Momoh Sesay at the National Herbarium for their invaluable expertise in identifying the underutilized and neglected food crops, ensuring the accuracy of our research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdedokun MA, Ogundiran MA, Alatise SP. 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WFP; FAO; 2024. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.4060/cd2995en\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.4060/cd2995en\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e(2024, April 12). \u003cem\u003eFood Security Monitoring System Report\u0026mdash;WFP Sierra Leone Country Office\u0026mdash;February 2024 | World Food Programme\u003c/em\u003e. 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World Bank. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099444004282527285/pdf/IDU-ebe7dceb-856f-4378-a45a-29837c72a70e.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099444004282527285/pdf/IDU-ebe7dceb-856f-4378-a45a-29837c72a70e.pdf\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-agriculture","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Agriculture](https://www.springer.com/journal/44279)","snPcode":"44279","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44279/3","title":"Discover Agriculture","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Neglected and Underutilized Food Crops, Mineral composition, Indigenous vegetables, Food and nutrition security, Sierra Leone","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7727516/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7727516/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSierra Leone’s food system faces persistent nutritional challenges, largely due to limited crop diversity and reliance on imported staples. Neglected and Underutilized Food Crops (NUFCs), though culturally embedded and ecologically resilient, remain underexplored in formal nutrition and agricultural strategies. This study evaluates the mineral composition of selected NUFCs cultivated in Bo and Kenema districts regions known for their agricultural activity and vulnerability to micronutrient deficiencies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethodology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA mixed-methods approach was employed, combining ethnobotanical surveys with laboratory-based nutritional analysis. Plant samples were collected through guided field walks and community engagement, then identified and authenticated at the National Herbarium, Njala University. Mineral profiling was conducted using standardized procedures: Kjeldahl digestion for nitrogen (converted to protein), Bray I extraction for phosphorus, and Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) and flame photometry for trace elements including iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium (Na), and phosphorus (P). All concentrations were standardized to mg/100g for comparability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResult\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results revealed that \u003cem\u003ePiper unbellatum\u003c/em\u003e exhibited the most diverse mineral profile, with high concentrations of zinc (12.49 mg/100g), phosphorus (103.1 mg/100g), magnesium (8.94 mg/100g), calcium (11.62 mg/100g), and sodium (1.93 mg/100g). \u003cem\u003eCelosia argentea\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eLuffa aegyptiaca\u003c/em\u003e were iron-rich, while \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e showed the highest protein content (7.00%) and notable potassium levels. These findings affirm the nutritional relevance of NUFCs and their potential to address micronutrient deficiencies, particularly in rural communities with limited access to fortified foods.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study confirms the nutritional value of selected indigenous NUFCs, providing empirical evidence to support their role in nutrition-sensitive agriculture. \u003cem\u003eCrops such as Piper unbellatum, Celosia argentea\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eIpomoea aquatica\u003c/em\u003e show strong potential to improve dietary diversity, public health, and food system resilience in Sierra Leone. The findings lay a foundation for future research, policy action, and community-level nutrition initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Mineral Composition of Neglected and Underutilized Food Crops and Their Role in Nutrition Security in Sierra Leone","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-23 18:29:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7727516/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-12T07:38:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-03T04:29:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-24T12:22:28+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"161918396289882318441264073314470609197","date":"2025-12-24T03:23:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"36672193536579626940758262109281847915","date":"2025-12-22T09:28:28+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-18T05:08:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-01T09:25:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-28T12:44:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-10-16T09:57:04+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Agriculture","date":"2025-10-16T09:53:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-agriculture","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Agriculture](https://www.springer.com/journal/44279)","snPcode":"44279","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44279/3","title":"Discover Agriculture","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"196c91e1-dfc9-44b4-bb92-fac3cda79e7e","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 23rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-05T07:54:33+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-23 18:29:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7727516","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7727516","identity":"rs-7727516","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}