Optimized NiOx deposition for Industrial Compatible Perovskite Solar Modules on 15 × 15 cm2: a Green Route Towards Stable Methylammonium-free Devices

Abstract Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have rapidly advanced, achieving over 26% efficiency on laboratory scale. Transitioning to large-scale production, however, remains a challenge due to limitations in conventional fabrication methods like spin coating. This study introduces an optimized blade coating process for the scalable fabrication of large-area (15 cm × 15 cm) perovskite solar modules, utilizing green solvents and performed in ambient air. The doctor blading of nickel oxide (NiOx) as a hole transport layer (HTL) in inverted PSCs is optimized. Using self-assembled monolayers (SAM) between NiOx and the perovskite layer improved the uniformity and morphology of perovskite film. Perovskite solar modules, with 110 cm² active area achieved a power conversion efficiency of 12.6%. Moreover, unencapsulated modules retained 84% of their initial efficiency after 1,000 hours at 85°C in air (ISOS-T-1). This demonstrates progress in large-scale production of perovskite solar cells (PSCs), combining efficiency with long-term stability.