The Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy in the Association between Family Support and Mental Health among Taiwanese Adolescents and Youths in Low-Income Families: A Half- Longitudinal Mediation Model 

The Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy in the Association between Family Support and Mental Health among Taiwanese Adolescents and Youths in Low-Income Families: A Half- Longitudinal Mediation Model | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy in the Association between Family Support and Mental Health among Taiwanese Adolescents and Youths in Low-Income Families: A Half- Longitudinal Mediation Model Ching-Wen Chang, Ling Lin, Ji-Kang Chen This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8565745/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Previous studies have examined the correlation between social support and adolescent mental health, as well as the mediating role of self-efficacy in this association, primarily using cross-sectional data. However, few have employed longitudinal designs, considered both positive and negative aspects of mental health, or focused specifically on adolescents from financially strained families. This study aimed to investigate the mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationship between family support and both positive and negative dimensions of mental health among Taiwanese adolescents and youths from low-income families. Methods Using two-wave longitudinal panel data, the study included 1,792 economically disadvantaged adolescents and youths across 23 counties and cities in Taiwan. Life satisfaction and psychological distress were used to indicate positive and negative dimensions of mental health, respectively. A half-longitudinal mediation analysis was conducted. Results Family support at T1 was positively associated with self-efficacy and life satisfaction but not psychological distress at T2. Self-efficacy at T1 was significantly related to life satisfaction but not psychological distress at T2. The half-longitudinal mediation analysis further supported the mediating role of self-efficacy in the association between family support and life satisfaction. Conclusions Family support was predictive of positive, but not negative, aspects of mental health. In addition, self-efficacy served as a mediator in the link between family support and positive mental health. These findings underscore the importance of policies and interventions that strengthen both family support and self-efficacy while also highlighting the need for differentiated approaches to address the positive and negative dimensions of mental health among adolescents and youths from low-income families. Adolescent Youth Positive Psychology Mental health Psychological distress Life satisfaction Self-efficacy Social support Family support Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Background Adolescents and youths from low-income families are at greater risk of poor mental health due to multiple interconnected factors related to socioeconomic status. 1 Limited financial resources can restrict access to essentials such as nutritious food, safe and stable housing, and health care, which can negatively impact development and mental well-being. 2,3 Financial strain can also lead to feelings of social exclusion, shame, and lack of control over life circumstances, which can heighten emotional distress. 4 Furthermore, low-income status may increase adolescents’ and youths’ exposure to violence, discrimination, and social mistrust, making them more vulnerable to mental health issues. 5 Numerous studies have demonstrated a significant association between poverty and poor mental health within this population. 6,7 Given this heightened risk, it is crucial to identify factors that can help mitigate poor mental health outcomes and enhance overall mental well-being in adolescents and youths from low-income families. Family support has been identified as a protective mental health factor in adolescents. 8,9 For example, emotional warmth and understanding from family members help alleviate feelings of loneliness and stress. 10 Parental support also fosters supportive parent–child relationships and enhances adolescents’ emotional regulation, which in turn promotes improved psychological functioning and mental health outcomes. 10-12 Moreover, perceived social support from family reduces adolescents’ likelihood of experiencing anxiety and depressive symptoms. 13 The literature suggests that self-concept may be a key pathway through which family support exerts its impact on mental health. 14,15 Self-efficacy, which refers to an individual’s belief in their capacity to manage challenges, conduct tasks, and achieve success, is commonly viewed as a key indicator of self-concept. 16 Family members can strengthen self-efficacy by modeling effective coping strategies; offering encouragement, comfort, and guidance; and reinforcing the belief that challenges are manageable. 17 They can also help individuals to achieve personal goals, thereby enhancing their self-efficacy, which in turn facilitates adaptive adjustment and promotes overall psychological well-being. 17,18 However, to the best of our knowledge, the mediating role of self-efficacy in the link between family support and mental health has never been tested in adolescents from low-income families; thus, whether it is applicable in this population remains unknown. According to the literature, chronic stress could erode an individual’s self-concept. 19-21 For adolescents from low-income families, prolonged exposure to limited resources and restricted opportunities due to financial strain can undermine their ability to pursue and achieve goals, thereby diminishing self-efficacy. Moreover, growing up in socioeconomically disadvantaged contexts often reduces adolescents’ sense of control over their lives, 22 which further contributes to lower levels of self-efficacy. 23 In these circumstances, family support may not improve mental health outcomes, primary due to its insufficient influence on self-efficacy. According to the World Health Organization, mental health is a “state of well-being in which an individual realizes their own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively, and is able to contribute to their community”. 24 This definition presents mental health as a multifaceted concept that extends beyond the mere absence of mental illness and comprises both positive and negative aspects. On the positive side, indicators like life satisfaction are commonly used to assess individuals’ well-being. 25 In contrast, the negative dimension encompasses a broad spectrum of mental health issues, including the presence of mental illness and elevated levels of psychological distress. 26 Research has demonstrated that the positive and negative dimensions of mental health are distinct yet interrelated constructs. 25 Moreover, researchers have proposed that the dual-factor framework, integrating well-being and distress, offers a more holistic and nuanced conceptualization of mental health. 27-29 Yet, most previous studies examining family support effects on mental health in adolescents from low-income families focused on only one facet of mental health. To address the above-mentioned research gaps, the current study aims to examine the mediating role of self-efficacy in the link between family support and both positive and negative facets of mental health (i.e., life satisfaction and psychological distress) in Taiwanese adolescents and youths from low-income families using short-term longitudinal panel data (two waves with a 2-year interval). Prior studies testing this mediation model predominantly used cross-sectional designs in the general adolescent and youth population, thereby limiting causal inference and weakening the validity of their empirical conclusions. 15,17 The present study utilizes longitudinal panel data to investigate the temporal association between family support, self-efficacy, and mental health outcomes. The current study holds significance in three respects. First, despite being a population at heightened risk for both diminished self-efficacy and poor mental health outcomes, adolescents and youths from low-income families have not yet been examined within this conceptual framework. By adopting a dual-factor perspective that integrates life satisfaction and psychological distress, this study offers a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of mental health in this population. Second, by using longitudinal data, it also provides evidence to support temporal relationships. This approach enables direct examination of the temporal dynamics implied by the conceptual framework, more clearly elucidating how the associations among these variables change over time compared to cross-sectional investigations. Given these first two points, the study findings strengthen the conceptual and empirical foundations for future research and provide insights on interventions targeting economically disadvantaged adolescents and youths. Third, recognizing financial hardship as a chronic stressor, the study elucidates whether social support promotes better mental health by strengthening self-efficacy, advancing our knowledge on the mechanism underlying the social support–mental health association in chronic stress contexts. Sex Differences This research additionally explores the moderating effects of sex on the connection between family support and mental health via self-efficacy. Sex differences in adolescents’ mental health have been observed in previous studies. For example, adolescent girls have been found to have lower self-efficacy and poorer mental health compared to boys. 30,31 The relationship between interpersonal stress and mental health has also been shown to be stronger in female adolescents than males. 32 Additionally, it has been demonstrated that girls report greater difficulties in interpersonal relationships than boys. 33 Given girls’ sensitivity to relational stress, the protective effect of family support on mental health might depend more on the direct provision of emotional support and relational security and less on building self-efficacy. Accordingly, it is reasonable to speculate that self-efficacy may play a weaker mediating role in the relationship between family support and mental health for girls. Hence, this study investigates whether there is a sex difference in the proposed model. Methods This study employed secondary data analysis of the Taiwan Database of Children and Youth in Poverty (TDCYP), the result of a panel study conducted by the Taiwan Fund for Children and Families (TFCF). The TDCYP was established to investigate the experiences and outcomes of children and adolescents in poverty, defined by the TFCF as those from families unable to meet basic living needs or maintain normal daily functioning. Utilizing a systematic sampling method, the TDCYP includes a representative sample of economically disadvantaged children and adolescents selected from 6,427 TFCF-supported individuals, aged 7 to 22, living in 23 counties and cities throughout Taiwan. The TDCYP comprises five waves of data collected between 2009 and 2017, with a 2-year interval between each round of data collection. The current analysis is based on data from Wave 2 (2011, T1) and Wave 3 (2013, T2), the only waves including information on all study variables. In the TDCYP, 1,792 adolescents aged 13 and above completed surveys in both waves. Measures Life satisfaction. Life satisfaction was assessed using the Satisfaction With Life Scale, 34 which comprises five items (e.g., “In most ways my life is close to my ideal,” “The conditions of my life are excellent”). The scale uses a 7-point Likert scale from 1 ( strongly disagree ) to 7 ( strongly agree ), with a higher score indicating a higher level of life satisfaction. Cronbach’s alphas of this scale at T1 and T2 were .83 and .83, respectively. Psychological distress. Psychological distress was evaluated using five items of the Brief Symptoms Rating Scale (BSRS-5), measuring respondents’ perceived levels of anxiety (feeling tense or keyed up), depression (feeling depressed or in a low mood), hostility (feeling easily annoyed or irritated), inferiority (feeling inferior to others), and insomnia (having trouble falling asleep) during the past week. 35 Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 ( not at all ) to 5 ( extremely ), with a higher score indicating a higher level of psychological distress. Cronbach’s alphas of this scale were .88 at T1 and .89 at T2. Family support. Four items were employed to assess adolescents’ family support levels (e.g., “When I’m frustrated, I can always seek consolation from my family,” “I can rely on my family when I need help or advice”). Each item is rated using a 4-point Likert scale from 1 ( strongly disagree ) to 4 ( strongly agree ), with a higher score representing a higher level of family support. Cronbach’s alphas of this scale were .87 for T1 and .88 for T2. Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was evaluated with the General Self-Efficacy Scale. 36 It consists of 10 items measuring an individual’s perception of his/her ability to manage difficult or unexpected situations. Sample items include “I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough” and “Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations.” Each item is rated using a 4-point Likert scale from 1 ( Not at all true ) to 4 ( Exactly true ). Cronbach’s alphas for these 10 items were .92 at T1 and .92 at T2. Analysis Plan First, IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 28.0 was used to calculate the descriptive statistics and bi-variate correlations between variables in this study. 37 Next, a half-longitudinal mediation model was conducted using structural equation modeling (SEM) in AMOS 26.0 software. 38-41 In this model, a multi-group comparison analysis was also performed to explore whether the interrelationships among family support, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, and psychological distress differ by sex. To assess model fit, we examined the normed fit index (NFI), incremental fit index (IFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). Previous studies have suggested the following criteria for satisfactory model fit: NFI, IFI, and CFI values greater than 0.90 and RMSEA values smaller than 0.08. 42,43 Results Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Analyses Among the 1,792 adolescents, more than half (56.9%, n=1020) were female. In Wave 2 (T1), 1,643 participants (91.7%) were students, and 149 participants (8.3%) were employed or stayed at home. In Wave 3 (T2), 1,414 participants (78.9%) were students, and 378 participants (21.1%) were employed or stayed at home. The means and standard deviations of the study variables and bivariate correlations between variables are shown in Table 1. The results show that a high level of family support at T1 was correlated with a high level of self-efficacy (r=.18, p<.01) and life satisfaction (r=.31, p<.01) and a low level of psychological distress (r=-.21, p<.01) at T1. Across time, family support at T1 was positively correlated with self-efficacy and life satisfaction (r range=.17–.24, p<.01) and negatively correlated with psychological distress (r=-.15, p<.01) at T2. Self-efficacy at T1 was positively correlated with life satisfaction (r=.17, p<.01) and negatively correlated with psychological distress (r=-.12, p<.01) at T2. These results suggest that greater family support at T1 correlated with higher levels of self-efficacy and life satisfaction but lower levels of psychological distress at T2. Higher self-efficacy at T1 correlated with greater life satisfaction and lower levels of psychological distress at T2. Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations among all study variables. Variables M (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1. T1 Family support 11.88 (2.46) ‒ 2. T2 Family support 11.98 (2.37) .53** ‒ 3. T1 Self-efficacy 24.14 (5.64) .18** .10** ‒ 4. T2 Self-efficacy 24.17 (5.42) .17** .21** .48** ‒ 5. T1 Life satisfaction 20.09 (6.10) .31** .22** .20** .12** ‒ 6. T2 Life satisfaction 19.11 (6.00) .24** .34** .17** .28** .44** ‒ 7. T1 Psychological distress 10.00 (4.42) -.21** -.15** -.16** -.09** -.30** -.22** ‒ 8. T2 Psychological distress 9.80 (4.42) -.15** -.23** -.12** -.15** -.25** -.34** .50** ‒ Note. Standard deviations are in parentheses. **p< .001, *p<.01. T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2. Half-longitudinal Mediation Analysis Figure 1 demonstrates the results of the half-longitudinal mediation model, which revealed that this model fit the data well: χ2(652)=2214.5, p <.001, CFI=0.96, IFI=0.96, NFI=0.95, and RMSEA=0.037. Within-time correlations between family support, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, and psychological distress were statistically significant at T1 (β=-.35–.37, p<.001). Similarly, at T2, significant within-time correlations were also found between family support, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, and psychological distress (β=-.28 to .29, p<.001). All autoregressive effects were significant for family support (β=.55, p<.001), self-efficacy (β=.49, p<.001), life satisfaction (β=.42, p<.001), and psychological distress (β=.48, p<.001) across time. Regarding the cross-time association, Figure 1 indicates that family support at T1 positively predicted life satisfaction at T2 (β=.10, p.01). In addition, family support at T1 significantly predicted self-efficacy at T2 (β=.09, p<.001), and self-efficacy at T1 significantly predicted life satisfaction at T2 (β=.07, p.01). Based on previous studies on the half-longitudinal mediation model, 38-40 the indirect effect of family support on life satisfaction through self-efficacy was represented by the product of these two paths. The significant mediation effect was supported by the bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals (CIs) based on 5,000 bootstrap resamples (β=.014, CI [0.004, 0.032], p<.01). In the same way, the indirect effect of family support on psychological distress through self-efficacy was represented by the product of these two paths, and the results were not significant [based on 5,000 bootstrap resamples (β=-.003, CI [-0.013, 0.003], p>.01]. In addition, life satisfaction at T1 significantly predicted psychological distress at T2 (β=-.10, p<.001), and psychological distress at T1 also predicted life satisfaction at T2 (β=-.08, p<.01), suggesting the reciprocal relationship between life satisfaction and psychological distress. Synchronous correlations between life satisfaction and psychological distress were significant at T1 (β=-.35, p<.001) and T2 (β=-.28, p<.001). Sex differences were examined using a multi-group comparison analysis within the half-longitudinal mediation model. Figure 2 demonstrates the results of the half-longitudinal mediation model by sex. Initially, all structural paths between T1 and T2 were constrained, and the model demonstrated acceptable fit to the data: χ²(1252)=2852.4, p<.001, CFI=0.96, IFI=0.96, NFI=0.93, and RMSEA=0.027. Subsequently, each constrained path was released one at a time, and the resulting model was compared to the fully constrained model. A significant change in χ² after releasing a particular path was interpreted as evidence of a sex difference in that structural path. The results revealed no significant difference in χ² values following any of the structural paths within the half-longitudinal mediation model, indicating no sex differences in the temporal relationships among family support, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, and psychological distress. Discussion Using two-wave longitudinal data from the TDCYP, this study investigated the mediating role of self-efficacy in the association of family support with mental health as well as sex differences in the tested model. The findings indicated that family support was associated with positive but not negative aspects of mental health over time. Moreover, self-efficacy mediated the relationship between family support and positive aspects of mental health. The mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationship between family support and a positive aspect of mental health (i.e., life satisfaction) is in line with findings of previous studies using cross-sectional data. 44 , 45 To our knowledge, this is the first study using longitudinal data to test the mediating effect of self-efficacy on the association between family support and mental health in adolescents. Building on previous evidence of associations among these variables, 15,17 our study further establishes the sequential pathway through which family support and self-efficacy contribute to positive aspects of mental health. In addition, with participants from financially strained families, our findings provide evidence for the family support effects on self-efficacy in the chronic stress context. The findings of this study suggest that family support affects the positive aspects, but not negative aspects, of mental health through self-efficacy over time. These findings support the argument that positive and negative aspects of mental health are different constructs. 25 Adding to previous studies’ findings suggesting the effect of family support and self-efficacy on mental health for adolescents and youths from low income families, 46–50 our findings advance our knowledge in this field by providing nuanced information. That is, family support might enhance self-efficacy, which in turn might motivate adolescents to develop life goals and optimistic views on their lives. Hence, the sequential impact of family support and self-efficacy on the positive aspects of mental health is prominent. However, for adolescents from economically disadvantaged families, financial hardship could create complex challenges, such as bully victimization, basic survival concerns (e.g., lack of food/safe housing), and lack of resources for academic achievement. 51 – 53 In such cases, support from family and self-efficacy might be insufficient to enable them to cope with stress and therefore not reduce psychological distress. Interestingly, the results of this study showed that although family support at T1 did not significantly predict psychological distress at T2, family support at T1 was correlated with psychological distress at T1. There are several potential explanations for the conflicting results between the cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. First, from a developmental perspective, adolescents’ coping abilities evolve over time, and adolescents may depend more on peer support for coping with stress as they grow. 54 Hence, the long-term impact of family support on psychological distress could diminish. Second, as stress levels rise in late adolescence, it is also possible that family support provides only temporary relief and cannot effectively alleviate psychological distress in the later life. Third, adolescents from families with financial hardships are often facing multiple stressful events. Given that stressful events can erode individuals’ perceptions of social support and amplify psychological distress, 55–57 the association between family support and psychological distress in the cross-sectional analysis may merely reflect the concurrent effect of stressors rather than the causal effect of family support. Regardless of the reason for the discrepancy, the findings underscore the importance of adopting a longitudinal design to achieve a deeper understanding of mental health contributors. Finally, our analysis revealed that sex does not alter the interrelationships among family support, self-efficacy, and mental health. This suggests that the mediating role of self-efficacy, as well as the influence of both family support and self-efficacy on mental health, operates similarly for males and females. Policy and Practice Implications The findings suggest that, for adolescents and youths in low-income families, policies and interventions should involve not only material assistance but also psychosocial strategies that promote positive mental health. While provision of material resources could address survival needs and relieve stress due to financial strain, psychosocial interventions might have longer-term effects on well-being. Given that family support and self-efficacy emerge as essential resources for sustaining adolescents’ long-term positive development, interventions should embed family-based components that explicitly strengthen self-efficacy. Because previous research has demonstrated that the effective utilization of personal resources and inherent strengths enhances self-efficacy, 58,59 professionals can assist families in applying strengths-based approaches to support adolescents. In addition, cognitive strategies aimed to help adolescents recognize family support and translate it into higher self-efficacy and overall mental health should be considered. The sequential effects for family support and self-efficacy on psychological distress were not significant in the analysis. Thus, to alleviate psychological distress for adolescents with financial difficulties, strategies other than enhancing family support and self-efficacy should be further explored. Finally, our study indicated no sex difference in the pathway from family support to mental health. Therefore, increasing family support and self-efficacy as a strategy for mental health enhancement applies to both female and male adolescents. Limitations Despite its important implications, this study has several limitations. First, although longitudinal data can inform temporal ordering, our reliance on secondary data constrained the design. As only two waves of data were available, we used a half-longitudinal mediation model for the analysis. Studies with three or more waves are needed to identify longitudinal relations and indirect effects more precisely. Second, the interval between waves (i.e., 2 years) was relatively long. While the results are consistent with causal interpretations, shorter lags may capture proximal dynamics that the present study could not. Thus, future work should employ tighter intervals to test the model’s applicability across time scales. Third, our sample comprised Chinese adolescents in Taiwan, so generalizability to Western adolescents from low-income families remains to be established. Fourth, we examined only one facet of self-concept (i.e., self-efficacy); future research should assess additional dimensions, such as self-esteem, to delineate their unique and joint effects. Conclusions Drawing on longitudinal data, this study examined how family support influences both positive and negative dimensions of mental health among Taiwanese adolescents from low-income families. The results indicated that greater family support predicts improved mental health outcomes over time. Moreover, self-efficacy served as a mediator in the association between family support and mental health. These findings suggest that policies and interventions aimed at promoting mental health in this population should prioritize strengthening self-efficacy. As no significant sex differences were observed, similar interventions for male and female adolescents should be conducted. Declarations Acknowledgement This study was supported by the International Research Collaboration Fund granted by the Department of Social Work, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Grant number: 19231105). Author Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate The data used in this study were obtained from a survey conducted by the Taiwan Fund for Children and Families, which is publicly available and has undergone prior ethical review. According to the Taiwan Fund for Children and Families, all participants provided informed consent, and the dataset was fully anonymized prior to release. This study analyzed publicly available, fully anonymized data from the Taiwan Database of Children and Youth in Poverty (TDCYP) accessed via the Survey Research Data Archive (SRDA), Academia Sinica. The study involved no interaction with participants and no access to identifiable private information; therefore, the present secondary analysis did not require informed consent or formal ethics committee review. The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Consent for publication Not applicable. Data availability The present analyses were based on the Taiwan Database of Children and Youth in Poverty collected in Taiwan in 2011 and 2013. Data and codebook are available from https://srda.sinica.edu.tw/plan/?idx=SRDA.AS021 Competing interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Funding This study was supported by the International Research Collaboration Fund granted by the Department of Social Work, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Grant number: 19231105). 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Mental health problems among economically disadvantaged adolescents in an increasingly unequal society: A Swedish study using repeated. Ssm-Popul Hlth. 2018;6:44–53. 10.1016/j.ssmph.2018.08.006 . cross-sectional data from 1995 to 2011. Tippett N, Wolke D. Socioeconomic Status and Bullying: A Meta-Analysis. Am J Public Health. 2014;104(6):E48–59. 10.2105/Ajph.2014.301960 . Mistry RS, Benner AD, Tan CS, Kim SY. Family Economic Stress and Academic Well-Being Among Chinese-American Youth: The Influence of Adolescents' Perceptions of Economic Strain. J Fam Psychol. 2009;23(3):279–90. 10.1037/a0015403 . Sun YL, Wu K, Wang L, et al. From parents to peers! Social support and peer attachment as mediators of parental attachment and depression: A Chinese perspective. J Affect Disorders. 2025;380:203–11. 10.1016/j.jad.2025.03.043 . Chang CW, Chang KC, Griffiths MD, Chang CC, Lin CY, Pakpour AH. The mediating role of perceived social support in the relationship between perceived stigma and depression among individuals diagnosed with substance use disorders. J Psychiatr Ment Hlt. 2022;29(2):307–16. 10.1111/jpm.12794 . Serido J, Almeida DM, Wethington E. Chronic stressors and daily hassles: Unique and interactive relationships with psychological distress. J Health Soc Behav. 2004;45(1):17–33. 10.1177/002214650404500102 . Gracia E, Herrero J. Personal and situational determinants of relationship-specific perceptions of social support. Soc Behav Personal. 2004;32(5):459–76. 10.2224/sbp.2004.32.5.459 . Loton DJ, Waters LE. The Mediating Effect of Self-Efficacy in the Connections between Strength-Based Parenting, Happiness and Psychological Distress in Teens. Front Psychol. 2017;8:1707. 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01707 . Tse S, Tsoi EWS, Hamilton B, et al. Uses of strength-based interventions for people with serious mental illness: A critical review. Int J Soc Psychiatr. 2016;62(3):281–91. 10.1177/0020764015623970 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 19 Mar, 2026 Reviews received at journal 19 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 Mar, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 09 Mar, 2026 Reviews received at journal 11 Feb, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Feb, 2026 Reviewers invited by journal 21 Jan, 2026 Editor invited by journal 19 Jan, 2026 Editor assigned by journal 15 Jan, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 15 Jan, 2026 First submitted to journal 10 Jan, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":42377,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Binder11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8565745/v1/e849e19d2b53581c52852fbb.png"},{"id":100889425,"identity":"2729a7c1-3938-499e-82d4-23ae07fc2039","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-22 13:03:18","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":52149,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Binder12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8565745/v1/cda47328209a2227f22181da.png"},{"id":100953031,"identity":"a06b667e-9180-4b53-a346-5fbfbc4fc31d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-23 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development and mental well-being.\u003csup\u003e2,3\u003c/sup\u003e Financial strain can also lead to feelings of social exclusion, shame, and lack of control over life circumstances, which can heighten emotional distress.\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e Furthermore, low-income status may increase adolescents’ and youths’ exposure to violence, discrimination, and social mistrust, making them more vulnerable to mental health issues.\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e Numerous studies have demonstrated a significant association between poverty and poor mental health within this population.\u003csup\u003e6,7\u003c/sup\u003e Given this heightened risk,\u0026nbsp;it is crucial to identify factors that can help mitigate poor mental health outcomes and enhance overall mental well-being in adolescents and youths from low-income families.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFamily support has been identified as a protective mental health factor in adolescents.\u003csup\u003e8,9\u003c/sup\u003e For example, emotional warmth and understanding from family members help alleviate feelings of loneliness and stress.\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e Parental support also fosters supportive parent–child relationships and enhances adolescents’ emotional regulation, which in turn promotes improved psychological functioning and mental health outcomes.\u003csup\u003e10-12\u003c/sup\u003e Moreover, perceived social support from family reduces adolescents’ likelihood of experiencing anxiety and depressive symptoms.\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe literature suggests that self-concept may be a key pathway through which family support exerts its impact on mental health.\u003csup\u003e14,15\u003c/sup\u003e Self-efficacy, which refers to an individual’s belief in their capacity to manage challenges, conduct tasks, and achieve success, is commonly viewed as a key indicator of self-concept.\u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e Family members can strengthen self-efficacy by modeling effective coping strategies; offering encouragement, comfort, and guidance; and reinforcing the belief that challenges are manageable.\u003csup\u003e17\u003c/sup\u003e They can also help individuals to achieve personal goals, thereby enhancing their self-efficacy, which in turn facilitates adaptive adjustment and promotes overall psychological well-being.\u003csup\u003e17,18\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, to the best of our knowledge, the mediating role of self-efficacy in the link between family support and mental health has never been tested in adolescents from low-income families; thus, whether it is applicable in this population remains unknown. According to the literature, chronic stress could erode an individual’s self-concept.\u003csup\u003e19-21\u003c/sup\u003e For adolescents from low-income families, prolonged exposure to limited resources and restricted opportunities due to financial strain can undermine their ability to pursue and achieve goals, thereby diminishing self-efficacy. Moreover, growing up in socioeconomically disadvantaged contexts often reduces adolescents’ sense of control over their lives,\u003csup\u003e22\u003c/sup\u003e which further contributes to lower levels of self-efficacy.\u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e In these circumstances, family support may not improve mental health outcomes, primary due to its insufficient influence on self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAccording to the World Health Organization, mental health is a “state of well-being in which an individual realizes their own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively, and is able to contribute to their community”.\u003csup\u003e24\u003c/sup\u003e This definition presents mental health as a multifaceted concept that extends beyond the mere absence of mental illness and comprises both positive and negative aspects. On the positive side, indicators like life satisfaction are commonly used to assess individuals’ well-being.\u003csup\u003e25\u003c/sup\u003e In contrast, the negative dimension encompasses a broad spectrum of mental health issues, including the presence of mental illness and elevated levels of psychological distress.\u003csup\u003e26\u003c/sup\u003e Research has demonstrated that the positive and negative dimensions of mental health are distinct yet interrelated constructs.\u003csup\u003e25\u003c/sup\u003e Moreover, researchers have proposed that the dual-factor framework, integrating well-being and distress, offers a more holistic and nuanced conceptualization of mental health.\u003csup\u003e27-29\u003c/sup\u003e Yet, most previous studies examining family support effects on mental health in adolescents from low-income families focused on only one facet of mental health.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo address the above-mentioned research gaps,\u0026nbsp;the current study aims to examine the mediating role of self-efficacy in the link between family support and both positive and negative facets of mental health (i.e., life satisfaction and psychological distress) in Taiwanese adolescents and youths from low-income families using short-term longitudinal panel data (two waves with a 2-year interval). Prior studies testing this mediation model predominantly used cross-sectional designs in the general adolescent and youth population, thereby limiting causal inference and weakening the validity of their empirical conclusions.\u003csup\u003e15,17\u003c/sup\u003e The present study utilizes longitudinal panel data to investigate the temporal association between family support, self-efficacy, and mental health outcomes. The current study holds significance in three respects. First, despite being a population at heightened risk for both diminished self-efficacy and poor mental health outcomes, adolescents and youths from low-income families have not yet been examined within this conceptual framework. By adopting a dual-factor perspective that integrates life satisfaction and psychological distress, this study offers a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of mental health in this population. Second, by using longitudinal data, it also provides evidence to support temporal relationships. This approach enables direct examination of the temporal dynamics implied by the conceptual framework, more clearly elucidating how the associations among these variables change over time compared to cross-sectional investigations. Given these first two points, the study findings strengthen the conceptual and empirical foundations for future research and provide insights on interventions targeting economically disadvantaged adolescents and youths. Third, recognizing financial hardship as a chronic stressor, the study elucidates whether social support promotes better mental health by strengthening self-efficacy, advancing our knowledge on the mechanism underlying the social support–mental health association in chronic stress contexts.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSex Differences\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research additionally explores the moderating effects of sex on the connection between family support and mental health via self-efficacy. Sex differences in adolescents’ mental health have been observed in previous studies. For example, adolescent girls have been found to have lower self-efficacy and poorer mental health compared to boys.\u003csup\u003e30,31\u003c/sup\u003e The relationship between interpersonal stress and mental health has also been shown to be stronger in female adolescents than males.\u003csup\u003e32\u003c/sup\u003e Additionally, it has been demonstrated that girls report greater difficulties in interpersonal relationships than boys.\u003csup\u003e33\u003c/sup\u003e Given girls’ sensitivity to relational stress, the protective effect of family support on mental health might depend more on the direct provision of emotional support and relational security and less on building self-efficacy. Accordingly, it is reasonable to speculate that self-efficacy may play a weaker mediating role in the relationship between family support and mental health for girls. Hence, this study investigates whether there is a sex difference in the proposed model.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study employed secondary data analysis of the Taiwan Database of Children and Youth in Poverty (TDCYP), the result of a panel study conducted by the Taiwan Fund for Children and Families (TFCF). The TDCYP was established to investigate\u0026nbsp;the experiences and outcomes of children and adolescents in poverty, defined by the TFCF as those from families unable to meet basic living needs or maintain normal daily functioning. Utilizing a systematic sampling method, the TDCYP includes a representative sample of economically disadvantaged children and adolescents selected from 6,427 TFCF-supported individuals, aged 7 to 22, living in 23 counties and cities throughout Taiwan. The TDCYP comprises five waves of data collected between 2009 and 2017, with a 2-year interval between each round of data collection.\u0026nbsp;The current analysis is based on data from Wave 2 (2011, T1) and Wave 3 (2013, T2), the only waves including information on all study variables. In the TDCYP, 1,792 adolescents aged 13 and above completed surveys in both waves.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeasures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLife satisfaction. Life satisfaction was assessed using the Satisfaction With Life Scale,\u003csup\u003e\u0026nbsp;34\u003c/sup\u003e which comprises five items (e.g., “In most ways my life is close to my ideal,” “The conditions of my life are excellent”). The scale uses a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (\u003cem\u003estrongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e) to 7 (\u003cem\u003estrongly agree\u003c/em\u003e), with a higher score indicating a higher level of life satisfaction. Cronbach’s alphas of this scale at T1 and T2 were .83 and .83, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePsychological distress. Psychological distress was evaluated using five items of the Brief Symptoms Rating Scale (BSRS-5), measuring respondents’ perceived levels of anxiety (feeling tense or keyed up), depression (feeling depressed or in a low mood), hostility (feeling easily annoyed or irritated), inferiority (feeling inferior to others), and insomnia (having trouble falling asleep) during the past week.\u003csup\u003e35\u003c/sup\u003e Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (\u003cem\u003enot at all\u003c/em\u003e) to 5 (\u003cem\u003eextremely\u003c/em\u003e), with a higher score indicating a higher level of psychological distress. Cronbach’s alphas of this scale were .88 at T1 and .89 at T2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFamily support. Four items were employed to assess adolescents’ family support levels (e.g., “When I’m frustrated, I can always seek consolation from my family,” “I can rely on my family when I need help or advice”). Each item is rated using a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (\u003cem\u003estrongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e) to 4 (\u003cem\u003estrongly agree\u003c/em\u003e), with a higher score representing a higher level of family support. Cronbach’s alphas of this scale were .87 for T1 and .88 for T2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSelf-efficacy. Self-efficacy was evaluated with the General Self-Efficacy Scale.\u003csup\u003e36\u003c/sup\u003e It consists of 10 items measuring an individual’s perception of his/her ability to manage difficult or unexpected situations. Sample items include “I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough” and “Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations.” Each item is rated using a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (\u003cem\u003eNot at all true\u003c/em\u003e) to 4 (\u003cem\u003eExactly true\u003c/em\u003e). Cronbach’s alphas for these 10 items were .92 at T1 and .92 at T2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnalysis Plan\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirst, IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 28.0 was used to calculate the descriptive statistics and bi-variate correlations between variables in this study.\u003csup\u003e37\u003c/sup\u003e Next, a half-longitudinal mediation model was conducted using structural equation modeling (SEM) in AMOS 26.0 software.\u003csup\u003e38-41\u003c/sup\u003e In this model, a multi-group comparison analysis was also performed to explore whether the interrelationships among family support, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, and psychological distress differ by sex. To assess model fit, we examined the normed fit index (NFI), incremental fit index (IFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). Previous studies have suggested the following criteria for satisfactory model fit: NFI, IFI, and CFI values greater than 0.90 and RMSEA values smaller than 0.08.\u003csup\u003e42,43\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDescriptive Statistics and Bivariate Analyses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmong the 1,792 adolescents, more than half (56.9%, n=1020) were female. In Wave 2 (T1), 1,643 participants (91.7%) were students, and 149 participants (8.3%) were employed or stayed at home. In Wave 3 (T2), 1,414 participants (78.9%) were students, and 378 participants (21.1%) were employed or stayed at home. The means and standard deviations of the study variables and bivariate correlations between variables are shown in Table 1. The results show that a high level of family support at T1 was correlated with a high level of self-efficacy (r=.18, p\u0026lt;.01) and life satisfaction (r=.31, p\u0026lt;.01) and a low level of psychological distress (r=-.21, p\u0026lt;.01) at T1. Across time, family support at T1 was positively correlated with self-efficacy and life satisfaction (r range=.17\u0026ndash;.24, p\u0026lt;.01) and negatively correlated with psychological distress (r=-.15, p\u0026lt;.01) at T2. Self-efficacy at T1 was positively correlated with life satisfaction (r=.17, p\u0026lt;.01) and negatively correlated with psychological distress (r=-.12, p\u0026lt;.01) at T2. These results suggest that greater family support at T1 correlated with higher levels of self-efficacy and life satisfaction but lower levels of psychological distress at T2. Higher self-efficacy at T1 correlated with greater life satisfaction and lower levels of psychological distress at T2.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations among all study variables.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"666\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM (SD)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1. T1 Family support\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.88 (2.46)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e‒\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2. T2 Family support\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.98 (2.37)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.53**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e‒\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3. T1 Self-efficacy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.14 (5.64)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.18**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.10**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e‒\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4. T2 Self-efficacy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.17 (5.42)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.17**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.21**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.48**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e‒\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5. T1 Life satisfaction\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.09 (6.10)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.31**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.22**\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.20**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.12**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e‒\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6. T2 Life satisfaction\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.11 (6.00)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.24**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.34**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.17**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.28**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.44**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e‒\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7. T1 Psychological distress\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.00 (4.42)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.21**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.15**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.16**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.09**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.30**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.22**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e‒\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 173px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8. T2 Psychological distress\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.80 (4.42)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.15**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.23**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.12**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.15**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.25**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.34**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.50**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e‒\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e Standard deviations are in parentheses. **p\u0026lt; .001, *p\u0026lt;.01. T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHalf-longitudinal Mediation Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFigure 1 demonstrates the results of the half-longitudinal mediation model, which revealed that this model fit the data well: \u0026chi;2(652)=2214.5, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;.001, CFI=0.96, IFI=0.96, NFI=0.95, and RMSEA=0.037. Within-time correlations between family support, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, and psychological distress were statistically significant at T1 (\u0026beta;=-.35\u0026ndash;.37, p\u0026lt;.001). Similarly, at T2, significant within-time correlations were also found between family support, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, and psychological distress (\u0026beta;=-.28 to .29, p\u0026lt;.001). All autoregressive effects were significant for family support (\u0026beta;=.55, p\u0026lt;.001), self-efficacy (\u0026beta;=.49, p\u0026lt;.001), life satisfaction (\u0026beta;=.42, p\u0026lt;.001), and psychological distress (\u0026beta;=.48, p\u0026lt;.001) across time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRegarding the cross-time association, Figure 1 indicates that family support at T1 positively predicted life satisfaction at T2 (\u0026beta;=.10, p\u0026lt;.001) but failed to predict psychological distress at T2 in a significant way (\u0026beta;=-.02, p\u0026gt;.01). In addition, family support at T1 significantly predicted self-efficacy at T2 (\u0026beta;=.09, p\u0026lt;.001), and self-efficacy at T1 significantly predicted life satisfaction at T2 (\u0026beta;=.07, p\u0026lt;.01) but not psychological distress at T2 (\u0026beta;=-.03, p\u0026gt;.01). Based on previous studies on the half-longitudinal mediation model,\u003csup\u003e38-40\u003c/sup\u003e the indirect effect of family support on life satisfaction through self-efficacy was represented by the product of these two paths. The significant mediation effect was supported\u0026nbsp;by the bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals (CIs) based on 5,000 bootstrap resamples (\u0026beta;=.014, CI [0.004, 0.032], p\u0026lt;.01). In the same way, the indirect effect of family support on psychological distress through self-efficacy was represented by the product of these two paths, and the results were not significant [based on 5,000 bootstrap resamples (\u0026beta;=-.003, CI [-0.013, 0.003], p\u0026gt;.01].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition, life satisfaction at T1 significantly predicted psychological distress at T2 (\u0026beta;=-.10, p\u0026lt;.001), and psychological distress at T1 also predicted life satisfaction at T2 (\u0026beta;=-.08, p\u0026lt;.01), suggesting the reciprocal relationship between life satisfaction and psychological distress. Synchronous correlations between life satisfaction and psychological distress were significant at T1 (\u0026beta;=-.35, p\u0026lt;.001) and T2 (\u0026beta;=-.28, p\u0026lt;.001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSex differences were examined using a multi-group comparison analysis within the half-longitudinal mediation model. Figure 2 demonstrates the results of the half-longitudinal mediation model by sex. Initially, all structural paths between T1 and T2 were constrained, and the model demonstrated acceptable fit to the data: \u0026chi;\u0026sup2;(1252)=2852.4, p\u0026lt;.001, CFI=0.96, IFI=0.96, NFI=0.93, and RMSEA=0.027. Subsequently, each constrained path was released one at a time, and the resulting model was compared to the fully constrained model. A significant change in \u0026chi;\u0026sup2; after releasing a particular path was interpreted as evidence of a sex difference in that structural path. The results revealed no significant difference in \u0026chi;\u0026sup2; values following any of the structural paths within the half-longitudinal mediation model, indicating no sex differences in the temporal relationships among family support, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, and psychological distress.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eUsing two-wave longitudinal data from the TDCYP, this study investigated the mediating role of self-efficacy in the association of family support with mental health as well as sex differences in the tested model. The findings indicated that family support was associated with positive but not negative aspects of mental health over time. Moreover, self-efficacy mediated the relationship between family support and positive aspects of mental health.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationship between family support and a positive aspect of mental health (i.e., life satisfaction) is in line with findings of previous studies using cross-sectional data.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e To our knowledge, this is the first study using longitudinal data to test the mediating effect of self-efficacy on the association between family support and mental health in adolescents. Building on previous evidence of associations among these variables,\u003csup\u003e15,17\u003c/sup\u003e our study further establishes the sequential pathway through which family support and self-efficacy contribute to positive aspects of mental health. In addition, with participants from financially strained families, our findings provide evidence for the family support effects on self-efficacy in the chronic stress context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study suggest that family support affects the positive aspects, but not negative aspects, of mental health through self-efficacy over time. These findings support the argument that positive and negative aspects of mental health are different constructs.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Adding to previous studies\u0026rsquo; findings suggesting the effect of family support and self-efficacy on mental health for adolescents and youths from low income families,\u003csup\u003e46\u0026ndash;50\u003c/sup\u003e our findings advance our knowledge in this field by providing nuanced information. That is, family support might enhance self-efficacy, which in turn might motivate adolescents to develop life goals and optimistic views on their lives. Hence, the sequential impact of family support and self-efficacy on the positive aspects of mental health is prominent. However, for adolescents from economically disadvantaged families, financial hardship could create complex challenges, such as bully victimization, basic survival concerns (e.g., lack of food/safe housing), and lack of resources for academic achievement.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR52\" citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e In such cases, support from family and self-efficacy might be insufficient to enable them to cope with stress and therefore not reduce psychological distress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterestingly, the results of this study showed that although family support at T1 did not significantly predict psychological distress at T2, family support at T1 was correlated with psychological distress at T1. There are several potential explanations for the conflicting results between the cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. First, from a developmental perspective, adolescents\u0026rsquo; coping abilities evolve over time, and adolescents may depend more on peer support for coping with stress as they grow.\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Hence, the long-term impact of family support on psychological distress could diminish. Second, as stress levels rise in late adolescence, it is also possible that family support provides only temporary relief and cannot effectively alleviate psychological distress in the later life. Third, adolescents from families with financial hardships are often facing multiple stressful events. Given that stressful events can erode individuals\u0026rsquo; perceptions of social support and amplify psychological distress,\u003csup\u003e55\u0026ndash;57\u003c/sup\u003e the association between family support and psychological distress in the cross-sectional analysis may merely reflect the concurrent effect of stressors rather than the causal effect of family support. Regardless of the reason for the discrepancy, the findings underscore the importance of adopting a longitudinal design to achieve a deeper understanding of mental health contributors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, our analysis revealed that sex does not alter the interrelationships among family support, self-efficacy, and mental health. This suggests that the mediating role of self-efficacy, as well as the influence of both family support and self-efficacy on mental health, operates similarly for males and females.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePolicy and Practice Implications\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings suggest that, for adolescents and youths in low-income families, policies and interventions should involve not only material assistance but also psychosocial strategies that promote positive mental health. While provision of material resources could address survival needs and relieve stress due to financial strain, psychosocial interventions might have longer-term effects on well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven that family support and self-efficacy emerge as essential resources for sustaining adolescents\u0026rsquo; long-term positive development, interventions should embed family-based components that explicitly strengthen self-efficacy. Because previous research has demonstrated that the effective utilization of personal resources and inherent strengths enhances self-efficacy,\u003csup\u003e58,59\u003c/sup\u003e professionals can assist families in applying strengths-based approaches to support adolescents. In addition, cognitive strategies aimed to help adolescents recognize family support and translate it into higher self-efficacy and overall mental health should be considered. The sequential effects for family support and self-efficacy on psychological distress were not significant in the analysis. Thus, to alleviate psychological distress for adolescents with financial difficulties, strategies other than enhancing family support and self-efficacy should be further explored. Finally, our study indicated no sex difference in the pathway from family support to mental health. Therefore, increasing family support and self-efficacy as a strategy for mental health enhancement applies to both female and male adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its important implications, this study has several limitations. First, although longitudinal data can inform temporal ordering, our reliance on secondary data constrained the design. As only two waves of data were available, we used a half-longitudinal mediation model for the analysis. Studies with three or more waves are needed to identify longitudinal relations and indirect effects more precisely. Second, the interval between waves (i.e., 2 years) was relatively long. While the results are consistent with causal interpretations, shorter lags may capture proximal dynamics that the present study could not. Thus, future work should employ tighter intervals to test the model\u0026rsquo;s applicability across time scales. Third, our sample comprised Chinese adolescents in Taiwan, so generalizability to Western adolescents from low-income families remains to be established. Fourth, we examined only one facet of self-concept (i.e., self-efficacy); future research should assess additional dimensions, such as self-esteem, to delineate their unique and joint effects.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eDrawing on longitudinal data, this study examined how family support influences both positive and negative dimensions of mental health among Taiwanese adolescents from low-income families. The results indicated that greater family support predicts improved mental health outcomes over time. Moreover, self-efficacy served as a mediator in the association between family support and mental health. These findings suggest that policies and interventions aimed at promoting mental health in this population should prioritize strengthening self-efficacy. As no significant sex differences were observed, similar interventions for male and female adolescents should be conducted.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by the International Research Collaboration Fund granted by the Department of Social Work, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Grant number: 19231105).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Declarations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data used in this study were obtained from a survey conducted by the Taiwan Fund for Children and Families, which is publicly available and has undergone prior ethical review. According to the Taiwan Fund for Children and Families, all participants provided informed consent, and the dataset was fully anonymized prior to release.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study analyzed publicly available, fully anonymized data from the Taiwan Database of Children and Youth in Poverty (TDCYP) accessed via the Survey Research Data Archive (SRDA), Academia Sinica. The study involved no interaction with participants and no access to identifiable private information; therefore, the present secondary analysis did not require informed consent or formal ethics committee review. The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe present analyses were based on the Taiwan Database of Children and Youth in Poverty collected in Taiwan in 2011 and 2013. Data and codebook are available from https://srda.sinica.edu.tw/plan/?idx=SRDA.AS021\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by the International Research Collaboration Fund granted by the Department of Social Work, The Chinese University of Hong Kong (Grant number: 19231105).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChing-Wen Chang (conceptualization; writing – original draft, review \u0026amp; editing).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLing Lin (formal analysis; writing - original draft)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJi-Kang Chen (conceptualization; funding acquisition; resources; writing - review \u0026amp; editing; supervision).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMatar JL, Laletas S, Lubman DI. 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Int J Soc Psychiatr. 2016;62(3):281\u0026ndash;91. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e10.1177/0020764015623970\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/0020764015623970\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Adolescent, Youth, Positive Psychology, Mental health, Psychological distress, Life satisfaction, Self-efficacy, Social support, Family support","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8565745/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8565745/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrevious studies have examined the correlation between social support and adolescent mental health, as well as the mediating role of self-efficacy in this association, primarily using cross-sectional data. However, few have employed longitudinal designs, considered both positive and negative aspects of mental health, or focused specifically on adolescents from financially strained families. This study aimed to investigate the mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationship between family support and both positive and negative dimensions of mental health among Taiwanese adolescents and youths from low-income families.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing two-wave longitudinal panel data, the study included 1,792 economically disadvantaged adolescents and youths across 23 counties and cities in Taiwan. Life satisfaction and psychological distress were used to indicate positive and negative dimensions of mental health, respectively. A half-longitudinal mediation analysis was conducted.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily support at T1 was positively associated with self-efficacy and life satisfaction but not psychological distress at T2. Self-efficacy at T1 was significantly related to life satisfaction but not psychological distress at T2. The half-longitudinal mediation analysis further supported the mediating role of self-efficacy in the association between family support and life satisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily support was predictive of positive, but not negative, aspects of mental health. In addition, self-efficacy served as a mediator in the link between family support and positive mental health. These findings underscore the importance of policies and interventions that strengthen both family support and self-efficacy while also highlighting the need for differentiated approaches to address the positive and negative dimensions of mental health among adolescents and youths from low-income families.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy in the Association between Family Support and Mental Health among Taiwanese Adolescents and Youths in Low-Income Families: A Half- Longitudinal Mediation Model ","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-22 13:03:13","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8565745/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-03-19T12:26:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-19T11:29:20+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"180879027447849339814339966990080018786","date":"2026-03-11T08:25:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"334879028706023705441201847985092794494","date":"2026-03-10T01:58:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"53806698286166153933379631303630549286","date":"2026-03-09T10:36:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-11T07:00:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"313074532828140378236695891624580991954","date":"2026-02-02T09:59:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-21T07:32:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-19T06:19:55+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-01-15T14:13:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-01-15T14:13:45+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Public Health","date":"2026-01-10T05:06:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-public-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"pubh","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Public Health](http://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/pubh/default.aspx","title":"BMC Public Health","twitterHandle":"@BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f0c226fc-6ec3-4750-953b-252a17be0bb1","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 22nd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-11T12:07:24+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-22 13:03:13","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8565745","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8565745","identity":"rs-8565745","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}