Plant sexual and asexual contributions to the seed microbiome

Summary The seed microbiome plays a key role in the assembly of the plant microbiome, which has major impacts on plant functioning. Nonetheless, little is known about the origin of the seed microbiome. We investigated the relative contributions of two hypothesized transmission routes: sexual inheritance (via reproductive organs) and asexual inheritance (via the plant vascular system). To do that, we sampled shoot endophytes both before bloom and at seed maturity stages, apple flower ovaries and pollen sacs, and mature seeds from field-grown apple trees ( Malus domestica B orkh . cv ‘Gala Galaxy Selecta’). We showed that bacterial richness, diversity and composition differ among tissue types, with shoots before bloom harboring a higher diversity than ovary and pollen. Source tracking revealed that both sexual (30.3%) and asexual (23.8%) pathways contributed to seed microbiome assembly, with shoots at seed maturity being the dominant source. Notably, a large proportion (49.5%) of the seed microbiome originated from unknown sources. Lastly, the transmission pathways significantly differed among bacterial genera, with Pseudomonas primarily linked to shoots, Rhizobacter to pollen and Burkholderia to the ovary. Insights into seed microbiome origin offers new opportunities to enhance seed health and crop productivity through microbiome-assisted breeding.