Hypothesis awareness confounds asynchronous control conditions in indirect measures of the rubber hand illusion.

Reports of changes in experiences of body location and ownership following synchronous tactile and visual stimulation of fake and real hands (rubber hand effects) are widely attributed to multisensory integration mechanisms. However, existing control methods for subjective report measures (asynchronous stroking and control statements) are confounded by participant hypothesis awareness; report may reflect response to demand characteristics. Subjective report is often accompanied by indirect (also called ‘objective’ or ‘implicit’) measures. Here we report tests of expectancies for synchronous ‘illusion’ and asynchronous ‘control’ conditions across two pre-registered studies (n = 140 and n = 45) for two indirect measures: proprioceptive drift (a change in perceived hand location) and skin conductance response (SCR; a measure of physiological arousal). Expectancies for synchronous condition measures were greater than for asynchronous condition in both studies. Differences between synchronous and asynchronous control condition measures are therefore confounded by hypothesis awareness. Indirect measures of rubber hand effects may reflect compliance, bias and phenomenological control in response to demand characteristics. Valid control measures are required to support claims of a role of multisensory integration for both direct and indirect measures of rubber hand effects.