Evaluation of locally available poultry feed resources and determination of their nutritional value in northern Ethiopia

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A multistage sampling technique was used to determine the sample size, resulting in 320 respondents from different agroecologies. The main feeds were classified using a ranking index, and fourteen different feed resources were evaluated for their nutritional values using proper scientific procedures. Maize (Index, 0.31) in the highlands, (Index, 0.27) in the midlands, and sorghum (Index, 0.27) in the lowland were ranked first. Significant variations in the nutritive values of the investigated feeds were observed (p < 0.05). Metabolizable energy was higher in maize (3777.32 ± 62.2 Kcal/kg DM) and cafeteria waste (4570.5 ± 170.9 Kcal/kg DM). Crude protein was higher in sesame cake (35.7 ± 4.3%) and blood meal (89.1 ± 2.6%). Calcium was higher in cactus (18.07 ± 13.5 g/kg DM) and potassium was higher in noug seed cake (20.07 ± 7.57 g/kg DM). Non-conventional feeds have moderate nutritive value and can be utilized as replacements for costly imported conventional feeds. However, further investigation using animals is needed to validate the current findings and determine appropriate inclusion rates in poultry rations. bloodmeal chemical composition conventional feeds local brewery non-conventional feeds Figures Figure 1 INTRODUCTION In Ethiopia, the rising demand for poultry meat and eggs has led to the establishment and expansion of modern, organized poultry farms, particularly in peri-urban areas (Sime, 2022 ). These emerging farms play a vital role in improving livelihoods, enhancing food security, reducing poverty, and providing attractive returns in urban and peri-urban regions of the tropics (Pica and Otte, 2010 ). With societal income growth and population increase, the demand for protein-rich foods is steadily rising. Animal sources, particularly poultry meat and eggs, are crucial for meeting these protein needs (FAO, 2010 ). Poultry production is especially important for fulfilling the nutritional requirements of the poorest segments of society (Reta, 2009 ). To achieve food self-sufficiency and combat malnutrition in developing countries like Ethiopia, increased attention to poultry production is essential (Melkamu, 2013 ). The shift from subsistence to commercial poultry keeping is a significant trend driven by urbanization and rising demand for animal products. Transitioning to commercial poultry production involves a comprehensive system change. Key challenges include feed, marketing constraints, diseases, and biosecurity (Matawork, 2016 ). Feed inadequacy, both in quantity and quality, significantly impacts poultry meat and egg production (Dessie et al., 2013 ; Development Initiatives, 2017). Feed costs account for approximately 70% of total production costs, and this proportion is increasing due to market instability and competition between human food and animal feed industries (Yegani, 2009 ). The high cost and scarcity of feed ingredients are major setbacks for the emerging small-to-medium commercial poultry sector in urban and peri-urban areas of Ethiopia. This could hinder the expansion of the poultry industry, which is crucial for providing income and high-nutrient products such as meat and eggs. Using alternative feed ingredients could alleviate this issue (Dale, 2009 ). Locally available feed resources are of great significance, especially in the Tigray region, where various feed resources are available but not yet properly assessed for their chemical compositions. Consequently, small-scale commercial poultry producers often feed their chickens without considering their nutritional requirements, leading to under-utilization of feed resources and improper feeding practices. This results in low productivity and hampers the sector's development. Therefore, this study aims to assess and investigate the chemical composition of locally available conventional and non-conventional poultry feed resources in Northern Ethiopia. MATERIALS AND METHODS Description of study area The study was conducted in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia, covering 13 districts: Tahtay-Koraro, Wukro-killite-Awlaelo, Laelay-Machew, Hawzen, Raya-Azebo, Hintalo-Wejerat, Tahtay-Adyabo, Tselemti, Kafta-Humera, Tsegede, Enda-Mekoni, Ofla, and Ganta-Afeshum. Tigray is situated at the northern limit of the central highlands of Ethiopia. The region's landform is complex, consisting of highlands with elevations ranging from 2300 to 3200 meters above sea level (masl), lowland plains ranging from 500 to 1500 masl, mountain peaks reaching up to 3935 masl, and high to moderate-relief hills between 1600 and 2200 masl. Sampling design All procedures involving sample collection and laboratory analyses were conducted in accordance with the guidelines and regulations of the Institutional Animal Research Ethics Committee and adhered to the ARRIVE (Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments) Guidelines. A multistage sampling technique was employed in this study. First, the study area was classified into three agro-ecological zones: Highland, Midland, and Lowland. Four districts from the highland, six districts from the midland, and three districts from the lowland were purposively selected based on their commercial poultry production practices. Within each district, production practices were stratified into three production systems: medium-scale, small-scale, and semi-intensive, based on the number of poultry kept on the farm (FAO, 2019 ; Wondmeneh et al., 2017 ). In each of the selected poultry farms, households were randomly selected. The number of districts within each agro-ecological zone, poultry producers per district, and producers per farm size were selected using a proportionate sample size method to ensure equal probability of selection, regardless of population size, as described by Cochran ( 1963 ). Consequently, 100, 150, and 70 poultry producers from the highland, midland, and lowland zones were selected, respectively, totaling 320 poultry producers for this study. Additionally, a Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was held with relevant stakeholders in each district. Each discussion session included approximately nine participants (five male and four female). Data collection Prior to the commencement of each interview, informed consent was obtained from all respondents. Participants were clearly informed about the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of their participation, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. Data collection was conducted only after obtaining their consent and in accordance with institutional ethical standards and internationally recognized research reporting guidelines. Feed resource assessment A combination of structured and semi-structured questionnaires was used to identify the main conventional and non-conventional poultry feed resources. Additionally, secondary data from Central Statistics Agency (CSA, Ethiopia) reports (2011–2021) were utilized to gather information on major cereal crops and the quantities used for animal feed. To supplement and validate the data collected through questionnaires, focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted to obtain more detailed information and confirm the accuracy of the responses. Feed quality assessment Sample feed collection and preparation The main locally available conventional and non-conventional feed resources prioritized by poultry producers were selected based on information obtained during home interviews and FGDs with poultry producers in the highland, midland, and lowland agroecologies. Nine conventional and five non-conventional feed samples were collected, comprising predominantly cereal crops and by-products, oilseed cake by-products, and locally available feeds. The feeds were collected from different parts of the study areas following appropriate procedures, and the samples were carefully labeled in the field to ensure full information. Three samples were taken from each feed type for laboratory analysis. For feed samples with high moisture content, such as cactus, cabbage waste, and tela residue (local beer residue, Atela), partial dry matter analysis was performed using the air-drying method. The samples were dried at 65°C for 72 hours and then ground in a Willy mill to pass through a 1 mm sieve. The milled samples were preserved in a proper place with two equal separate samples for each feed ingredient at Aksum University for a limited time pending chemical analysis. Samples were sent to the National Veterinary Institute in Bishofitu for chemical laboratory analysis and to the Mekelle soil laboratory for mineral content analysis, both in Ethiopia. Chemical analysis of feeds The feed samples were subjected to chemical analysis for the main nutrients. Dry matter (DM), ash, crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), and crude fiber (CF) contents were analyzed using standard methods (AOAC, 1990 ). Nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl procedure, and crude protein was calculated as N×6.25. Macro-elements Ca, P, Na, and K were determined using atomic absorption and mass spectrometry procedures (AOAC, 1990 ). The metabolizable energy content was determined by indirect methods described by Larbier et al. ( 1994 ) as follows ME (kcal kgG − 1 DM) = 3951 + 54.4EE-88.7CF-40.8 Ash Data management and analysis The data on the chemical composition were subjected to a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the R programming software package R i386 3.4.2. A significance level of p < 0.05 was used to compare individual means. Descriptive statistics, including mean values and standard error (SE), were calculated, and tables were used to organize the summarized results. Mean comparisons were performed using Tukey’s test. Ranking index The following method of ranking was used for conventional and non-conventional feed resources in the study areas, as employed by Musa et al. ( 2006 ) \(\:Index=Rn*C1+Rn-1*C2\dots\:.+R1*Cn/(\varvec{\Sigma\:}\mathbf{R}\mathbf{n}\mathbf{*}\mathbf{C}1+\mathbf{R}\mathbf{n}-1\mathbf{*}\mathbf{C}2\dots\:.+\mathbf{R}1\mathbf{*}\mathbf{C}\mathbf{n}\) ) Where; Rn= Value given for the lowest ranking level (for example, if the lowest rank is 8th, then R n = 8, Rn-1 = 7, Rn-2 = 6, Rn-3 = 5, Rn-4 = 4, Rn-5 = 3, Rn-6 = 2, Rn-7 = 1), C n = Counts of the least ranked level (in the above example, the count of the eighth rank = Cn and the count of the 1st rank = C1). RESULTS Main locally available poultry feed resources The main feed resources available across the agroecological zones of the study area were assessed and ranked by the respondents, as shown in Table 1 . Accordingly, nine conventional and five non-conventional feed resources were ranked based on their usage by poultry producers, availability, and importance. From the list of conventional feed resources, maize was ranked first in the highland (N = 31, Index = 0.31) and midland (N = 41, Index = 0.27), while it was ranked second in the lowland agroecology (N = 15, Index = 0.21). Sorghum was ranked first in the lowland (N = 19, Index = 0.27) and second in both the highland (N = 18, Index = 0.18) and midland (N = 35, Index = 0.23). Additionally, wheat bran and wheat middling were ranked third and fourth in the highland and midland, while sesame seed cake and wheat bran were ranked third and fourth in the lowland agroecology, respectively. Millet seed was ranked last in the highland agroecology, while wheat and barley were ranked last in the midland and lowland agroecologies, respectively. Table 1 Ranking of commonly used locally available poultry feed resources Highland Midland Lowland Conventional feed Ingredients N Index Rank N Index Rank N Index Rank Maize 31 0.31 1 41 0.27 1 15 0.21 2 Sorghum 18 0.18 2 35 0.23 2 19 0.27 1 Wheat 5 0.05 6 0 0.00 8 0 0.00 6 Barley 3 0.03 8 0 0.00 8 0 0.00 6 Millet seeds 0 0 9 4 0.03 7 0 0.00 6 Wheat bran 15 0.15 3 21 0.14 3 9 0.13 4 Wheat middling 13 0.13 4 18 0.12 4 8 0.11 5 Sesame seed cake 4 0.04 7 14 0.09 6 11 0.16 3 Noug Cake 11 0.11 5 17 0.11 5 8 0.11 5 100 1.00 150 1.00 70 1.00 Non-conventional feeds N Index Rank N Index Rank N Index Rank Blood meal 13 0.13 4 19 0.13 4 13 0.19 3 Prickly pear cactus 16 0.16 3 10 0.07 5 0 0.00 5 Cabbage wastes 23 0.23 2 37 0.25 2 17 0.24 2 Cafeteria wastes 37 0.37 1 56 0.37 1 33 0.47 1 Atela (a local brewery) * 11 0.11 5 28 0.19 3 7 0.10 4 100 1.00 150 1.00 70 1.00 Among the non-conventional locally available poultry feed resources, cafeteria wastes were ranked first in the highland, midland, and lowland agroecologies (N = 37, Index = 0.37; N = 56, Index = 0.37; N = 33, Index = 0.47, respectively). Cabbage wastes were ranked second across all agroecological zones. Moreover, prickly pear cactus (N = 16, Index = 0.16) in the highland, Atela (a local brewery by-product) (N = 28, Index = 0.19) in the midland, and blood meal (N = 13, Index = 0.19) in the lowland were ranked third. Blood meal was ranked fourth in both the highland and midland agroecologies. Annual trends in cereal crop production and the amount used for animal feed The annual production trends in metric tonnes and the percentage of maize, sorghum, wheat, barley, finger millet, and noug cake used as animal feed are presented in Fig. 1. Production in metric tonnes of these crops slightly increased over the last ten years from 2011 to 2021. However, except for noug, production in the year 2018/2019 significantly reduced for all crop types. In contrast, the amount used for animal feed increased slightly from year to year across the different crops. The percentage of sorghum used for animal feed increased from 2011/2012 to 2012/2013, then slightly decreased from 2013/2014 to 2017/2018, and increased again from 2018/2019 to 2020/2021. The highest amount of sorghum used for animal feed was 1.7% in 2012/2013, while the lowest was 0.71% in 2017/2018. The amount of maize used for animal feed was higher from 2011/2012 to 2015/2016, then slightly reduced from 2016/2017 to 2020/2021. The highest amount of maize used for animal feed was 2.9% in 2015/2016, while the lowest was 1.7% in 2011/2012. The amount of wheat used for animal feed fluctuated from year to year, with the highest amount of 0.56% in 2019/2020 and the lowest of 0.07% in 2016/2017. The highest amount of barley (0.59%) used for animal feed was in 2017/2018, while the lowest amount (0.06%) was in 2011/2012. The amount of finger millet used for animal feed slightly decreased from 2012/2013 to 2020/2021. The highest amount of finger millet (0.55%) used for animal feed was in 2012/2013, while the lowest was 0.08% in 2011/2012. The amount of noug used for animal feed slightly increased over the years, with the highest amount of 1.58% in 2019/2020, while no noug was used in 2015/2016, 2016/2017, and 2017/2018. Chemical composition and energy content of major feed resources The mean chemical composition and energy content (% DM) of the nine major conventional and five non-conventional poultry feed resources ranked in Table 1 are presented in Tables 2 and 3 . The results showed that the mean DM content of the nine main conventional feed resources ranged from 90.2 ± 1.0% in wheat bran to 93.4 ± 0.6% in finger millet. The DM content of the main feed resources did not show a significant difference (P < 0.05) among the conventional feeds. The highest ME content of 3777.32 ± 62.2 Kcal/kg DM was obtained in maize, followed by 3755.87 Kcal/kg DM in wheat, while the lowest ME content was 2452.91 Kcal/kg DM in noug seed cake, followed by 2895.46 Kcal/kg DM in wheat bran. The ME content of the main conventional feed resources showed a significant difference (P < 0.05). The highest ASH content of 8.77 ± 0.4%, 8.23 ± 0.9%, and 4.51 ± 0.8% was found in noug seed cake, sesame seed cake, and wheat bran, respectively. The lowest ASH content of 2.30 ± 0.6%, 3.03 ± 0.4%, and 3.15 ± 1.7% was found in wheat, maize, and sorghum, respectively. The ASH content of the main conventional feed resources showed a significant difference (P < 0.05). The highest crude protein (CP) content was measured in sesame seed cake (SSC) at 35.7 ± 4.3%, followed by noug seed cake (NSC) at 32.8 ± 0.9%, wheat bran (WB) and wheat middlings both at 16.0 ± 0.1%, and sorghum at 14.0 ± 0.6%. The highest ether extract (EE) content was obtained from SSC (7.78 ± 0.0%), while the lowest was found in wheat (2.16 ± 0.4%). The highest crude fiber (CF) content was reported in NSC (17.55 ± 0.4%), followed by WB (12.40 ± 0.0%) and SSC (9.19 ± 0.3%). Table 2 Chemical composition (% DM) of major conventional poultry feed resources in the study area Feed Type DM ME (Kcal/kg DM) ASH CP EE CF Maize 90.3 ± 0.3 a 3777.32 ± 62.2 d 3.03 ± 0.4 a 9.0 ± 0.4 a 4.30 ± 0.5 ab 3.20 ± 0.7 ab Sorghum 91.6 ± 1.0 a 3685.81 ± 87.2 cd 3.15 ± 1.7 a 14.0 ± 0.6 a 3.85 ± 0.3 ab 3.90 ± 0.4 ab Wheat 91.7 ± 1.7 a 3755.87 ± 76.9 d 2.30 ± 0.6 a 13.7 ± 2.7 a 2.16 ± 0.4 a 2.47 ± 0.8 a Barley 91.5 ± 0.2 a 3407.84 ± 73.2 bcd 3.20 ± 0.1 a 13.2 ± 1.2 a 2.63 ± 0.2 a 6.27 ± 0.9 bc FM 93.4 ± 0.6 a 3377.87 ± 218 bcd 4.03 ± 0.7 a 9.7 ± 0.9 a 3.24 ± 1.4 a 6.59 ± 1.5 bc WB 90.2 ± 1.0 a 2895.46 ± 32.9 ab 4.51 ± 0.8 ab 16.0 ± 0.1 a 4.20 ± 0.0 ab 12.40 ± 0.0 d WM 90.5 ± 0.2 a 3230.52 ± 133 bc 4.33 ± 0.3 ab 15.0 ± 0.4 a 2.77 ± 1.3 a 7.83 ± 0.8 c SSM 91.1 ± 0.8 a 3222.84 ± 11.2 bc 8.23 ± 0.9 bc 35.7 ± 4.3 b 7.78 ± 0.0 b 9.19 ± 0.3 cd NSC 92.2 ± 0.5 a 2452.91 ± 69.9 a 8.77 ± 0.4 c 32.8 ± 0.9 b 7.65 ± 1.4 b 17.55 ± 0.4 e SEM 91.5 ± 0.29 3307.8 ± 84.9 4.6 ± 0.5 17.7 ± 1.8 4.3 ± 0.4 7.7 ± 0.9 P value 0.338 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000 Means followed by different superscripts within a column for each feed type are significantly different at P < 0.05; SEM= standard error of means; DM = Dry matter; ME = Metabolizable Energy, ASH = Ashe: CP = Crude Protein; EE = Ether Extract; CF = Crude Fiber. The mean chemical composition and energy content of the non-conventional poultry feed resources, including dry matter (DM), metabolizable energy (ME), ASH, crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), and crude fiber (CF), showed significant differences (P < 0.05) between the non-conventional feed resources (Table 4 ). The highest DM content among non-conventional feed resources was reported in blood meal (93.4 ± 0.2%), followed by cafeteria waste (91.9 ± 1.1%), while the lowest DM content was in cabbage waste (8.4 ± 0.8%) and cactus (12.1 ± 1.3%). The highest ME content was found in cafeteria waste (4570.5 ± 170.9 Kcal/kg DM), followed by blood meal (4122.5 ± 84.7 Kcal/kg DM), whereas the lowest ME content was reported from a local brewery by-product (2333.4 ± 42.7 Kcal/kg DM). The highest ASH content was reported from cactus (19.4 ± 2.2%) and cabbage waste (13.8 ± 1.1%), while the lowest ASH content was found in blood meal (3.5 ± 0.4%). The highest CP content was measured in blood meal (89.1 ± 2.6%), followed by a local brewery by-product (18.6 ± 1.3%), cafeteria waste (17.5 ± 7.9%), cabbage waste (15.9 ± 1.9%), and cactus (4.6 ± 1.0%). The highest EE content was found in cafeteria waste (10.15 ± 1.5%), followed by a local brewery by-product (6.20 ± 0.4%), while the lowest EE content was reported in blood meal (1.08 ± 0.4%). The highest CF content was obtained from a local brewery by-product (20.10 ± 0.5%), followed by cactus (14.90 ± 3.3%) and cafeteria waste (4.67 ± 1.8%), while the lowest CF content was found in blood meal (1.24 ± 0.6%) and cabbage waste (3.43 ± 0.4%). Table 3 Chemical composition (% of DM) of major non-conventional poultry feed resources in the study area Feed Type DM ME (Kcal/kg DM) ASH CP EE CF Blood Meal 93.4 ± 0.2 b 4122.5 ± 84.7 b 3.5 ± 0.4 a 89.1 ± 2.6 b 1.08 ± 0.4 a 1.24 ± 0.6 a Cactus 12.1 ± 1.3 a 3309.5 ± 328 a 19.4 ± 2.2 c 4.6 ± 1.0 a 1.09 ± 0.7 a 14.90 ± 3.3 b Cabbage waste 8.4 ± 0.8 a 3351.9 ± 67.5 b 13.8 ± 1.1 b 15.9 ± 1.9 a 2.20 ± 0.2 ab 3.43 ± 0.4 a Cafeteria waste 91.9 ± 11 b . 4570.5 ± 170.9 b 6.2 ± 0.9 a 17.5 ± 7.9 a 10.15 ± 1.5 c 4.67 ± 1.8 a Atela 21.4 ± 7.1 a 2333.4 ± 42.7 a 6.1 ± 0.4 a 18.6 ± 1.3 a 6.20 ± 0.4 b 20.10 ± 0.5 b SEM 45.45 ± 10.4 2995.2 ± 1250.1 9.79 ± 1.6 29.16 ± 8.2 3.99 ± 0.9 8.72 ± 2.06 P value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Means followed by different superscript letters for each feed type are significantly different at P < 0.05; SEM = standard error of means; DM = Dry matter; ME = Metabolizable Energy, ASH = Ashe, CP = Crude Protein; EE = Ether Extract; CF = Crude Fiber. Mineral profile of conventional and non-conventional feed resources The macro-mineral profiles of conventional and non-conventional poultry feed resources are presented in Tables 4 and 5 . The concentrations of macro-minerals, except for Na, show significant variations (p < 0.05) among the major conventional feed resources. As presented in Table 5 , there is considerable variation in the mineral content of different conventional feed resources. The calcium content varied from 10.33 ± 5.27 g/kg DM in sesame seed cake (SSC) to 0.50 ± 0.11 g/kg DM in wheat middlings. The highest potassium content was observed in noug seed cake (NSC) (20.07 ± 7.57 g/kg DM), while the lowest was in maize (2.87 ± 0.09 g/kg DM). Sodium concentration across the conventional feed resources was relatively consistent. However, the highest sodium content was found in wheat middlings (0.40 ± 0.06 g/kg DM), while the lowest was in SSC (0.10 ± 0.00 g/kg DM). Wheat middlings had the highest phosphorus content (10.77 ± 2.22 g/kg DM), whereas the lowest phosphorus content was found in maize (3.30 ± 0.29 g/kg DM). Table 4 Mineral profile (% of DM) of major conventional poultry feed resources in the study area Feed Type Ca (g/kg DM) P (g/kg DM) Na (g/kg DM) K (g/kg DM) Maize 1.13 ± 0.40 ab 2.87 ± 0.09 a 0.27 ± 0.12 a 3.30 ± 0. 29 a Sorghum 0.60 ± 0.17 a 4.40 ± 0.47 a 0.317 ± 0.06 a 4.00 ± 0.62 a Wheat 1.73 ± 0.20 ab 5.43 ± 0.75 a 0.17 ± 0.03 a 3.90 ± 0.40 a Barley 0.70 ± 0.15 ab 5.20 ± 0.62 a 0.20 ± 0.06 a 4.40 ± 0.36 ab Finger millet 5.30 ± 0.46 ab 5.03 ± 0.58 a 0.15 ± 0.03 a 3.43 ± 0.45 a WB 1.57 ± 0.33 ab 11.73 ± 1.05 ab 0.37 ± 0.13 a 12.67 ± 0.79 b WM 0.50 ± 0.11 a 9.10 ± 0.64 ab 0.40 ± 0.06 a 10.77 ± 2.22 ab SSM 10.33 ± 5.27 ab 6.57 ± 2.06 a 0.10 ± 0.00 a 8.73 ± 3.36 ab NSC 10.33 ± 3.37 b 20.07 ± 7.57 b 0.20 ± 0.10 a 9.17 ± 2.90 ab SEM 3.66 ± 0.979 7.82 ± 1.230 0.24 ± 0.029 6.71 ± 0.821 P value 0.006 0.008 0.155 0.004 Means followed by different superscript letters for each feed type are significantly different at P < 0.05; SEM = standard error of means; WB = Wheat bran; WM = Wheat middling; SSM = Sesame seed cake; NSC = Noug seed cake; Ca = Calcium; P = Potassium; Na = Sodium; K = Phosphorus; g = gram; kg = kilogram. The concentrations of macro-minerals, except for P and Na, did not show significant variations (p > 0.05) in the non-conventional poultry feed resources. The highest Ca content was obtained from cactus (18.07 ± 13.5 g/kg DM), followed by cafeteria waste (9.67 ± 1.97 g/kg DM), while the lowest was found in cabbage waste (3.50 ± 0.25 g/kg DM). The highest potassium content was observed in a local brewery by-product (5.90 ± 0.78 g/kg DM), followed by cafeteria waste (5.87 ± 0.84 g/kg DM), whereas the lowest was in cactus (2.20 ± 0.61 g/kg DM). Table 5 Mineral profile (% of DM) of major non-conventional poultry feed resources in the study area Feed Type Ca (g/kg DM) P (g/kg DM) Na (g/kg DM) K (g/kg DM) Blood Meal 4.33 ± 2.11 a 4.80 ± 0.81 ab 3.823 ± 0.40 b 2.93 ± 0.68 a Cactus 18.07 ± 13.5 a 2.20 ± 0.61 a 0.54 ± 0.24 a 1.00 ± 0.50 a Cabbage waste 3.50 ± 0.25 a 2.97 ± 0.49 ab 0.15 ± 0.03 a 0.68 ± 0.46 a Cafeteria waste 9.67 ± 1.97 a 5.87 ± 0.84 b 0.20 ± 0.06 a 2.27 ± 0.34 a Atela 9.13 ± 1.67 a 5.90 ± 0.78 b 0.40 ± 0.15 a 2.93 ± 1.80 a SEM 8.94 ± 2.73 4.35 ± 0.49 1.02 ± 0.38 1.96 ± 0.43 P value 0.514 0.013 0.000 0.326 Means followed by different superscript letters for each feed type are significantly different at P < 0.05; SEM = standard error of means; Ca = Calcium; P = Potassium; Na = Sodium; K = Phosphorus; g = grams; kg = kilograms. DISCUSSION Poultry feed resources The majority of poultry producers in the study area, across different agroecologies, ranked maize as their primary source of chicken feed. Maize grain is commonly used as poultry feed by small-scale, medium, and large production systems. The main reason for its widespread use is its availability in every part of the study area and its use as a staple food and in local alcohol production. Poultry producers used maize for two main purposes: to meet the daily requirements of their chickens, especially during poultry compound feed shortages, and to adjust the yolk color to yellow using yellow maize. The potential supplementary feed resources for smallholder poultry farms in southern and northern Ethiopia, in general, were maize and sorghum (Kibreab et al., 2015 ; Bangu, 2016 ; Tsegay et al., 2017 ; Tekalegn et al., 2017 ). Sorghum is widely used as an energy source, especially in lowland agroecology areas. Wheat and barley are commonly used locally available feed resources in the highland areas, while finger millet is used in the midland study areas. This is supported by Bangu ( 2016 ) and Tekalegn et al. ( 2017 ), who reported that the major supplementary feeds for poultry production in the southern region of Ethiopia are sorghum, wheat, and finger millet, next to maize. Additionally, wheat middlings and wheat bran are commonly used energy sources across different agroecological areas. This is supported by Salo et al. ( 2016 ), who reported that farmers supplemented wheat bran to their chickens in addition to grain cereals. Moreover, sesame seed cake and noug cake are commonly used protein source supplementary feeds by poultry producers in the study area. As the price of conventional feed rose and competition between humans and animals increased, poultry producers in the study area turned to non-conventional feed resources. Among the major non-conventional feed resources used in the study area are cafeteria waste, cabbage waste, local brewery (Atela), and blood meal. Poultry producers, especially broiler producers, used cafeteria wastes from day 30 to the finishing period due to the high cost of conventional compound feed and the availability of cafeteria waste from hotels and governmental institutions like universities. Mammo ( 2012 ) reported that increasing cereal grain prices in Ethiopia make it unaffordable for poultry producers to feed their birds with such grains. Therefore, non-conventional feed resources and food processing by-products need to be investigated and utilized to ensure sustainable poultry production in the country. Blood meal is used as a poultry feed source in the study area. Poultry producers collect fresh blood from nearby abattoirs, cook it, and supply their chickens with a mixture of wheat bran or other available feed. The local brewery is also a non-conventional feed resource used as supplementary feed, especially when compound feed supply is limited in the market. Annual cereal crop production Among the major crops grown and used for animal feed in the study area are maize, sorghum, wheat, finger millet, and noug. The productivity of cereal crops and their use for animal feed increased from 2011/2012 to 2020/2021. Production of all major grains in Ethiopia increased in 2020/2021 due to better extension services, including mechanization, favorable weather conditions, and positive rainfall in the western and central highlands of the country's grain-producing areas (Rachel, 2021). According to the findings, maize and sorghum are the largest cereal commodities in terms of yield and the amount used for animal feed. The total production of maize and sorghum from 2011/2012 to 2020/2021 was 153,610.8 metric tonnes (MT) to 246,465.4 MT and 473,678.18 MT to 700,856.08 MT, respectively. About 1.7% to 2.1% of maize and 0.98% to 1.23% of sorghum were used for animal feed during these years. The trend of increasing cereal crop production and the amount of maize and sorghum used for animals is attributed to improved hybrid seeds, increased demand for food and feed, the expansion of poultry farms, livestock fattening, dairy development, and better market access for producers. This is supported by Rachel (2021), who reported increased productivity of maize and sorghum in Ethiopia due to improved hybrid seeds and increased demand for food and feed. Except for noug, the productivity of other crop commodities decreased in 2018/2019. Factors such as desert locusts and COVID-19 contributed to this low productivity. However, the amount of cereal crops used for animal feed showed a positive increment during the same year. Despite the increased production, the supply of poultry feed has decreased relative to demand, leading to higher ingredient prices. In recent years, the supply of feed and feed ingredients has steadily decreased, while prices have increased (Yosef et al., 2022 ). Feed mill processors and poultry producers in the study area used maize, sorghum, and noug as the main sources of poultry compound feed. This is supported by Yosef et al. ( 2022 ), who reported that the ingredients used by feed millers in different parts of Ethiopia are maize, sorghum, and noug. This was also corroborated by participants during group discussions. Chemical composition The study showed substantial differences in the chemical composition of locally available feed resources, which could be attributed to differences in management practices, soil fertility, species, variety of cereal crops, genotype, location of cultivation, and other factors (Tsehay et al., 2021 ; Tamene et al., 2022 ). The DM content of maize grain, finger millet, wheat middlings, and noug seed cake obtained in the current study aligns with Yilkal et al. ( 2018 ), who reported DM content of 90.9%, 94%, 91%, and 92%, respectively. The DM content of barley grain obtained in the current study agrees with Seid et al. ( 2020 ), while the DM content of maize and wheat reported by Panwar et al. ( 2016 ) was 86.49% and 88.66%, respectively, which is lower than the current study. However, Kahsu et al. ( 2020 ) reported lower DM content for noug seed cake (91.55%) and sesame seed cake (90.73%) compared to the current study, but the DM content of sorghum grain was comparable. The metabolizable energy (ME) of locally available major conventional feed resources ranged from 2452.91 ± 69.9 Kcal/kg DM in noug seed cake to 3777.32 ± 62.2 Kcal/kg DM in maize grain. The ME content of maize grains reported in the current study is slightly higher than that of Yilkal et al. ( 2018 ) and Seid et al. ( 2020 ), who reported ME content of 3665.40 and 3742 Kcal/kg DM, respectively. The ME content of barley grains, wheat middlings, and NSC was reported higher than in the current study. Additionally, the ME content of finger millet, wheat middlings, and noug seed cake was reported to be 3792 Kcal/kg DM, 3318.40 Kcal/kg DM, and 2370.96 Kcal/kg DM, respectively, higher than the current study (Yilkal et al., 2018 ). The ME content of wheat reported at 2691 Kcal/kg DM and 2850 Kcal/kg DM is lower than the current study (Mathlouthi et al., 2002 ; Panwar et al., 2016 ). The highest ME content from non-conventional feed resources was reported from cafeteria waste, followed by blood meals. The current study reported higher ME from cafeteria waste than Lamesgin et al. ( 2020 ), who reported 4170.74 Kcal/kg DM. However, the ME content in blood meal in the current study was lower than that reported by Heuzé and Tran ( 2016 ), who reported 5757.5 Kcal/kg DM ME in blood meals. The average ash content of major conventional poultry feed resources ranged from 2.30 ± 0.6% DM in wheat to 8.77 ± 0.4% DM in NSC. The ash content reported in the current study is higher than that of Seid et al. ( 2020 ), who reported ash content of 2.7%, 3.1%, and 4.1% DM in maize, barley, and wheat middlings, respectively, while NSC was reported at 9.2% DM, which is higher than the present study. However, the ash content of wheat bran and NSC in the current study agrees with Mamo et al. ( 2021 ), whereas Zinabu et al. (2019) reported a higher ash content of wheat bran (8.75% DM) than in the current study. The higher ash content from non-conventional feed resources was reported from cactus, while the lowest was reported from blood meals. The ash content reported in the current study aligns with Heuzé and Tran ( 2016 ), who reported 3% DM ash in blood meals. Mengistu et al. ( 2016 ) reported an ash content of 16.8% DM in cactus, which is lower than the current study. The CP content of major conventional locally available poultry feed resources ranged from 9.0 ± 0.4% DM in maize to 35.7 ± 4.3% DM in SSC in the current study. The CP content of maize and NSC is in agreement with Seid et al. ( 2020 ), who reported 9.8% DM in maize and 32.8% DM in NSC. In contrast, Panwar et al. ( 2016 ) reported lower CP contents of 8.55% DM in maize and 11% DM in wheat. On the other hand, the CP content of barley was reported at 11.8% DM, which is lower than that of the current study, while wheat middlings were reported at 17.5% DM, which is higher than the present study (Seid et al., 2020 ). Zinabu et al. (2019) also reported that 15.56% DM of wheat bran is lower than in the current study. When comparing the CP content of major locally available conventional poultry feed resources, the CP content of oilseed cakes was higher than that of cereal crops. This is in agreement with Mezgebu et al. ( 2019 ) and Tikabo and Shumuye ( 2021 ), who reported higher CP content in oilseed by-products than in cereal crop products. The highest CP content from non-conventional feed resources was reported from blood meals, followed by a local brewery, while the lowest was obtained from cactus. In contrast, the CP content reported in the current study is lower than that reported by Heuzé and Tran ( 2016 ), who reported 94.1% DM CP in a blood meal. However, the CP content of a local brewery is higher than that of Tikabo and Shumuye ( 2021 ), who reported 15.90% DM CP content in a local brewery. Additionally, Mengistu et al. ( 2016 ) reported 6.1% DM CP in cactus, which is higher than in the current study. Cactus feeding alone does not provide a sufficient diet for animals due to its limited crude protein content of approximately 5% (Nigus, 2018 ). Moreover, the nutritional content of blood meal in terms of ME and CP is higher, making it a viable option for replacing high-cost imported protein sources in poultry diets (Heuzé and Tran, 2016 ). The EE content of major locally available poultry feed resources in the current study ranged from 2.16 ± 0.4% DM in wheat to 7.78 ± 0.0% DM in SSC. The EE content of maize and wheat middlings in the current study was higher than that reported by Seid et al. ( 2020 ), who found EE content of 3.4% DM in maize and 2.5% DM in barley. In contrast, wheat middlings and NSC were reported higher in EE content, at 4.3% DM and 9.8% DM, respectively, than in the current study (Seid et al., 2020 ). Panwar et al. ( 2016 ) reported an EE content of 3.84% DM in maize, which is lower than in the current study, but the EE content of 2.18% DM in wheat was in agreement with the current study. The EE content of 5% DM in NSC reported by Yilkal et al. ( 2018 ) was lower than in the present study. In contrast, the EE content of 5.1% DM, 6% DM, and 5% DM in maize, finger millet, and wheat middlings, respectively, was reported higher than in the current study (Yilkal et al., 2018 ). The lowest EE content was reported in blood meals, while the highest was in cafeteria waste. Heuzé and Tran ( 2016 ) reported 0.8% DM EE in blood meals, which is lower than in the current study. The EE content in cafeteria waste was higher in the current study than reported by Lamesgin et al. ( 2020 ), who found 8.66% DM. The difference in EE might be attributed to the type of cafeteria waste ingredients. The CF content of major locally available conventional poultry feed resources ranged from 2.47 ± 0.8% DM in wheat to 17.55 ± 0.4% DM in NSC. The CF content in NSC was in agreement with Yilkal et al. ( 2018 ) and Seid et al. ( 2020 ), who reported CF content of 17.2% DM and 17.1% DM, respectively, in NSC. In contrast, CF content was reported at 4.6% DM in maize and 8% DM in wheat middlings, which was higher than in the present study, whereas CF content of 4% DM in finger millet was reported lower than in the present study (Yilkal et al., 2018 ). Additionally, Seid et al. ( 2020 ) reported CF content of 2.7% DM in maize and 5.3% DM in barley, which is lower than in the current study. The lowest CF content from non-conventional feed resources was obtained in blood meal, followed by cabbage waste. However, the CF content in blood meals is higher than reported by Heuzé and Tran ( 2016 ), who found 0.5% DM in blood meals. The highest CF content was reported from a local brewery. Mineral profiles The locally available conventional and non-conventional poultry feed resources in the study area varied in their mineral contents. Calcium and phosphorus are essential for the formation and maintenance of the skeleton of birds, while sodium and potassium function with phosphate and bicarbonate to maintain the homeostasis of osmotic relationships and pH throughout the body (NRC, 1994 ). Among the locally available conventional poultry feeds, SSC and NSC (10.33 ± 5.27 g/kg DM and 10.33 ± 3.37 g/kg DM, respectively) had the highest calcium content, which is equivalent to the level of calcium content expected in oilseed cakes (7–11 g/kg DM) (NRC, 2001 ). Additionally, the calcium content obtained in the current study aligns with Fekede et al. ( 2015 ), who reported 8 g/kg DM in noug seed cake. Excess dietary calcium interferes with the availability of other minerals, such as phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, and zinc. A ratio of approximately 2 calcium to 1 phosphorus is appropriate for most poultry diets, except for diets for birds that are laying eggs (NRC, 1994 ). Conversely, locally available conventional feeds such as wheat middlings, sorghum, and barley had low calcium values of 0.50 ± 0.11 g/kg DM, 0.60 ± 0.17 g/kg DM, and 0.70 ± 0.15 g/kg DM, respectively. However, the calcium content of wheat middlings obtained in the current study is equivalent to the recommended standards (NRC, 2001 ) and agrees with Fekede et al. ( 2015 ), who reported calcium content of 0.5 g/kg DM in wheat middlings. Additionally, Fekede et al. ( 2015 ) reported 2.2 g/kg DM calcium in wheat bran, higher than in the current study, while 11.4 g/kg DM in phosphorus (P), 0.5 g/kg DM in sodium (Na), and 13.2 g/kg DM in potassium (K) were in agreement with the current study. The range of mineral concentrations obtained from non-conventional locally available feed resources was 9.67 ± 1.97 g/kg DM calcium in cafeteria waste and 3.50 ± 0.25 g/kg DM in cabbage waste, 5.90 ± 0.78 g/kg DM phosphorus in a local brewery and 2.20 ± 0.61 g/kg DM in cactus, 3.823 ± 0.40 g/kg DM sodium in blood meal and 0.15 ± 0.03 g/kg DM in cabbage wastes, and 2.93 ± 0.68 g/kg DM potassium in blood meal and local brewery, and 0.68 ± 0.46 g/kg DM in cabbage wastes. Comparing the results obtained in the current study with NRC ( 1994 ) recommendations, the local brewery was found in agreement with the recommended levels of 6.9–44.2 g/kg DM, 3.8–6 g/kg DM, 0.3–0.7 g/kg DM, and 0.7–6.5 g/kg DM of Ca, P, Na, and K, respectively, for brewery by-products. The calcium content of 0.82 g/kg DM and 6.9 g/kg DM reported by Tikabo and Shumuye ( 2021 ) and Fekede et al. ( 2015 ) is lower than the current study. The reason for the difference in mineral concentration could be due to differences in raw materials used to make the local brewery. In contrast, Fekede et al. (2025) reported a higher concentration of sodium (0.7 g/kg DM) and potassium (6.5 g/kg DM) than the current study. The calcium and phosphorus content in cafeteria waste was reported lower than in the current study by Negasa ( 2015 ), who found 0.8 g/kg DM and 0.72 g/kg DM of Ca and P, respectively. Heuzé and Tran ( 2016 ) reported lower Ca (1.3 g/kg DM) and P (2.2 g/kg DM) in blood meal, while Na (4.5 g/kg DM) and K (3.8 g/kg DM) were higher than the current study. The concentration of mineral content in cactus was reported as 18.07 ± 13.5 g/kg DM Ca, 2.20 ± 0.61 g/kg DM P, 0.54 ± 0.24 g/kg DM Na, and 1.00 ± 0.50 g/kg DM K, aligning with Tikabo et al. ( 2006 ). CONCLUSION This study provides valuable information on the major feed resources, productivity trends, and nutritional profiles of conventional and non-conventional poultry feed resources available in Northern Ethiopia. Among the conventional feed resources, maize and sorghum are ranked first and second, respectively. Among the non-conventional feed resources, cafeteria waste, cabbage waste, and blood meal are prominent. The nutritive value of feeds varies widely. Wheat bran and wheat middlings have relatively poor feeding values, necessitating supplementation with high-quality feeds. Non-conventional feeds such as blood meal and cafeteria waste have high energy, protein, and reduced fiber content, making them potential protein sources to replace costly imported protein sources in poultry diets. Further research is needed to investigate the inclusion rates of these feeds in broiler and laying hen diets to validate the current findings and optimize poultry feeding systems. Declarations ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors are grateful to all participants in the study who generously gave their time and provided the relevant data needed to fulfill this study. The project was financially supported by the Ethiopian Ministry of Education and Aksum University (PhD/025/10). Special thanks to Professor Tegene Negessie and Dr. Mohamed Beyan for their invaluable supervision. ETHICAL STATEMENT The nature of the work does not require approval by a (bio) ethical committee. Informed consent was obtained from the farmers interviewed. CLINICAL TRIAL NUMBER Not applicable. DISCLOSURES We wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with this publication and there has been no significant financial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome. The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. 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Effect of supplementing graded levels of wet brewery grain by-products to natural pasture, hay, and wheat bran-based diet on the performance of Tigray highland sheep, Northern Ethiopia. Journal of Dairy, Veterinary and Animal Research , 8, pp. 205–214. http://doi.dx.10.15406/jdvar.2019.08.00268. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 19 Feb, 2026 Submission checks completed at journal 19 Feb, 2026 First submitted to journal 19 Feb, 2026 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8751981","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":593912591,"identity":"b32dd2af-1e40-48c4-8a4a-652079613d63","order_by":0,"name":"Dawit Mamo Zegeye","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA0ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCA2CSzY4fRCUUEK+FL1myAaTFgHgtcowbwAxitPAdP2P46EaNGbPx+dWJHx4YMMjzix3Ar0XyTI6xcc6xND6zG283SwAdZjhzdgJ+LQYH0tKkc9iOMZvdOLsBpCXB4DYhLeefAbX8+8+4ecbZzT+I03Ij+Zh0bhsb4wb+3m3E2SJ54/Fh49w+tmSJG7zbLBIMJAj7he98YuPjnG/AqOw/u/nmjwobeX5pAloQQAKsUoJY5SDAf4AU1aNgFIyCUTCSAAABcEa6NT7pCwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Aksum University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dawit","middleName":"Mamo","lastName":"Zegeye","suffix":""},{"id":593912592,"identity":"789489de-aae3-44b0-b37f-e222dda3ed34","order_by":1,"name":"Assen Ebrahim","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Aksum University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Assen","middleName":"","lastName":"Ebrahim","suffix":""},{"id":593912593,"identity":"5834d026-a897-45dc-bf4e-0af119c49081","order_by":2,"name":"Mewael Kiros Assefa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Aksum University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mewael","middleName":"Kiros","lastName":"Assefa","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-31 18:38:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8751981/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8751981/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":103203577,"identity":"49a1cf52-6d1d-4600-bd33-77412a7b4154","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-23 06:46:31","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":147868,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 3.1. \u003c/strong\u003eCrop feed production in (mt) and the amount used for animal feed (%) 2011 to 2021\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8751981/v1/6f8efb9c2f3a0431c642fbb7.jpg"},{"id":103505303,"identity":"b9070dcb-bac5-44fb-9fba-a2161ab82c03","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-26 13:29:38","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1245501,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8751981/v1/e7ee8385-fdc9-44c8-8715-b649a3015b07.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Evaluation of locally available poultry feed resources and determination of their nutritional value in northern Ethiopia","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn Ethiopia, the rising demand for poultry meat and eggs has led to the establishment and expansion of modern, organized poultry farms, particularly in peri-urban areas (Sime, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These emerging farms play a vital role in improving livelihoods, enhancing food security, reducing poverty, and providing attractive returns in urban and peri-urban regions of the tropics (Pica and Otte, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWith societal income growth and population increase, the demand for protein-rich foods is steadily rising. Animal sources, particularly poultry meat and eggs, are crucial for meeting these protein needs (FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Poultry production is especially important for fulfilling the nutritional requirements of the poorest segments of society (Reta, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). To achieve food self-sufficiency and combat malnutrition in developing countries like Ethiopia, increased attention to poultry production is essential (Melkamu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The shift from subsistence to commercial poultry keeping is a significant trend driven by urbanization and rising demand for animal products.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransitioning to commercial poultry production involves a comprehensive system change. Key challenges include feed, marketing constraints, diseases, and biosecurity (Matawork, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Feed inadequacy, both in quantity and quality, significantly impacts poultry meat and egg production (Dessie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Development Initiatives, 2017). Feed costs account for approximately 70% of total production costs, and this proportion is increasing due to market instability and competition between human food and animal feed industries (Yegani, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe high cost and scarcity of feed ingredients are major setbacks for the emerging small-to-medium commercial poultry sector in urban and peri-urban areas of Ethiopia. This could hinder the expansion of the poultry industry, which is crucial for providing income and high-nutrient products such as meat and eggs. Using alternative feed ingredients could alleviate this issue (Dale, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocally available feed resources are of great significance, especially in the Tigray region, where various feed resources are available but not yet properly assessed for their chemical compositions. Consequently, small-scale commercial poultry producers often feed their chickens without considering their nutritional requirements, leading to under-utilization of feed resources and improper feeding practices. This results in low productivity and hampers the sector's development. Therefore, this study aims to assess and investigate the chemical composition of locally available conventional and non-conventional poultry feed resources in Northern Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDescription of study area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia, covering 13 districts: Tahtay-Koraro, Wukro-killite-Awlaelo, Laelay-Machew, Hawzen, Raya-Azebo, Hintalo-Wejerat, Tahtay-Adyabo, Tselemti, Kafta-Humera, Tsegede, Enda-Mekoni, Ofla, and Ganta-Afeshum. Tigray is situated at the northern limit of the central highlands of Ethiopia. The region's landform is complex, consisting of highlands with elevations ranging from 2300 to 3200 meters above sea level (masl), lowland plains ranging from 500 to 1500 masl, mountain peaks reaching up to 3935 masl, and high to moderate-relief hills between 1600 and 2200 masl.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSampling design\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll procedures involving sample collection and laboratory analyses were conducted in accordance with the guidelines and regulations of the Institutional Animal Research Ethics Committee and adhered to the ARRIVE (Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments) Guidelines. A multistage sampling technique was employed in this study. First, the study area was classified into three agro-ecological zones: Highland, Midland, and Lowland. Four districts from the highland, six districts from the midland, and three districts from the lowland were purposively selected based on their commercial poultry production practices. Within each district, production practices were stratified into three production systems: medium-scale, small-scale, and semi-intensive, based on the number of poultry kept on the farm (FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Wondmeneh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In each of the selected poultry farms, households were randomly selected. The number of districts within each agro-ecological zone, poultry producers per district, and producers per farm size were selected using a proportionate sample size method to ensure equal probability of selection, regardless of population size, as described by Cochran (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1963\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, 100, 150, and 70 poultry producers from the highland, midland, and lowland zones were selected, respectively, totaling 320 poultry producers for this study. Additionally, a Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was held with relevant stakeholders in each district. Each discussion session included approximately nine participants (five male and four female).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrior to the commencement of each interview, informed consent was obtained from all respondents. Participants were clearly informed about the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of their participation, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence. Data collection was conducted only after obtaining their consent and in accordance with institutional ethical standards and internationally recognized research reporting guidelines.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eFeed resource assessment\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eA combination of structured and semi-structured questionnaires was used to identify the main conventional and non-conventional poultry feed resources. Additionally, secondary data from Central Statistics Agency (CSA, Ethiopia) reports (2011\u0026ndash;2021) were utilized to gather information on major cereal crops and the quantities used for animal feed. To supplement and validate the data collected through questionnaires, focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted to obtain more detailed information and confirm the accuracy of the responses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFeed quality assessment\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eSample feed collection and preparation\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main locally available conventional and non-conventional feed resources prioritized by poultry producers were selected based on information obtained during home interviews and FGDs with poultry producers in the highland, midland, and lowland agroecologies. Nine conventional and five non-conventional feed samples were collected, comprising predominantly cereal crops and by-products, oilseed cake by-products, and locally available feeds. The feeds were collected from different parts of the study areas following appropriate procedures, and the samples were carefully labeled in the field to ensure full information. Three samples were taken from each feed type for laboratory analysis. For feed samples with high moisture content, such as cactus, cabbage waste, and tela residue (local beer residue, Atela), partial dry matter analysis was performed using the air-drying method. The samples were dried at 65\u0026deg;C for 72 hours and then ground in a Willy mill to pass through a 1 mm sieve. The milled samples were preserved in a proper place with two equal separate samples for each feed ingredient at Aksum University for a limited time pending chemical analysis. Samples were sent to the National Veterinary Institute in Bishofitu for chemical laboratory analysis and to the Mekelle soil laboratory for mineral content analysis, both in Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eChemical analysis of feeds\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe feed samples were subjected to chemical analysis for the main nutrients. Dry matter (DM), ash, crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), and crude fiber (CF) contents were analyzed using standard methods (AOAC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). Nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl procedure, and crude protein was calculated as N\u0026times;6.25. Macro-elements Ca, P, Na, and K were determined using atomic absorption and mass spectrometry procedures (AOAC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). The metabolizable energy content was determined by indirect methods described by Larbier et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e) as follows\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eME (kcal kgG\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e DM)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3951\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;54.4EE-88.7CF-40.8 Ash\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData management and analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data on the chemical composition were subjected to a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the R programming software package R i386 3.4.2. A significance level of p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 was used to compare individual means. Descriptive statistics, including mean values and standard error (SE), were calculated, and tables were used to organize the summarized results. Mean comparisons were performed using Tukey\u0026rsquo;s test.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eRanking index\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following method of ranking was used for conventional and non-conventional feed resources in the study areas, as employed by Musa et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:Index=Rn*C1+Rn-1*C2\\dots\\:.+R1*Cn/(\\varvec{\\Sigma\\:}\\mathbf{R}\\mathbf{n}\\mathbf{*}\\mathbf{C}1+\\mathbf{R}\\mathbf{n}-1\\mathbf{*}\\mathbf{C}2\\dots\\:.+\\mathbf{R}1\\mathbf{*}\\mathbf{C}\\mathbf{n}\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eWhere;\u003c/b\u003e Rn= Value given for the lowest ranking level (for example, if the lowest rank is 8th, then R\u003csub\u003en\u003c/sub\u003e = 8,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRn-1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7, Rn-2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6, Rn-3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5, Rn-4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4, Rn-5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3, Rn-6\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2, Rn-7\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1), C\u003csub\u003en\u003c/sub\u003e = Counts of the least ranked level (in the above example, the count of the eighth rank\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Cn and the count of the 1st rank\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;C1).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMain locally available poultry feed resources\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main feed resources available across the agroecological zones of the study area were assessed and ranked by the respondents, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Accordingly, nine conventional and five non-conventional feed resources were ranked based on their usage by poultry producers, availability, and importance. From the list of conventional feed resources, maize was ranked first in the highland (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;31, Index\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.31) and midland (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;41, Index\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.27), while it was ranked second in the lowland agroecology (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15, Index\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.21). Sorghum was ranked first in the lowland (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19, Index\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.27) and second in both the highland (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18, Index\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.18) and midland (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;35, Index\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.23). Additionally, wheat bran and wheat middling were ranked third and fourth in the highland and midland, while sesame seed cake and wheat bran were ranked third and fourth in the lowland agroecology, respectively. Millet seed was ranked last in the highland agroecology, while wheat and barley were ranked last in the midland and lowland agroecologies, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRanking of commonly used locally available poultry feed resources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMidland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLowland\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConventional feed Ingredients\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndex\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaize\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSorghum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBarley\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMillet seeds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheat bran\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheat middling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSesame seed cake\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNoug Cake\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.00\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e150\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.00\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e70\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.00\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNon-conventional feeds\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eN\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIndex\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRank\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eN\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIndex\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRank\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eN\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIndex\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRank\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood meal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrickly pear cactus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCabbage wastes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCafeteria wastes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAtela (a local brewery) *\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e100\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.00\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e150\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.00\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e70\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.00\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the non-conventional locally available poultry feed resources, cafeteria wastes were ranked first in the highland, midland, and lowland agroecologies (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;37, Index\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.37; N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;56, Index\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.37; N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;33, Index\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.47, respectively). Cabbage wastes were ranked second across all agroecological zones. Moreover, prickly pear cactus (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16, Index\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.16) in the highland, Atela (a local brewery by-product) (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;28, Index\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.19) in the midland, and blood meal (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13, Index\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.19) in the lowland were ranked third. Blood meal was ranked fourth in both the highland and midland agroecologies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAnnual trends in cereal crop production and the amount used for animal feed\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe annual production trends in metric tonnes and the percentage of maize, sorghum, wheat, barley, finger millet, and noug cake used as animal feed are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;1. Production in metric tonnes of these crops slightly increased over the last ten years from 2011 to 2021. However, except for noug, production in the year 2018/2019 significantly reduced for all crop types. In contrast, the amount used for animal feed increased slightly from year to year across the different crops.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe percentage of sorghum used for animal feed increased from 2011/2012 to 2012/2013, then slightly decreased from 2013/2014 to 2017/2018, and increased again from 2018/2019 to 2020/2021. The highest amount of sorghum used for animal feed was 1.7% in 2012/2013, while the lowest was 0.71% in 2017/2018. The amount of maize used for animal feed was higher from 2011/2012 to 2015/2016, then slightly reduced from 2016/2017 to 2020/2021. The highest amount of maize used for animal feed was 2.9% in 2015/2016, while the lowest was 1.7% in 2011/2012. The amount of wheat used for animal feed fluctuated from year to year, with the highest amount of 0.56% in 2019/2020 and the lowest of 0.07% in 2016/2017.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe highest amount of barley (0.59%) used for animal feed was in 2017/2018, while the lowest amount (0.06%) was in 2011/2012. The amount of finger millet used for animal feed slightly decreased from 2012/2013 to 2020/2021. The highest amount of finger millet (0.55%) used for animal feed was in 2012/2013, while the lowest was 0.08% in 2011/2012. The amount of noug used for animal feed slightly increased over the years, with the highest amount of 1.58% in 2019/2020, while no noug was used in 2015/2016, 2016/2017, and 2017/2018.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eChemical composition and energy content of major feed resources\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean chemical composition and energy content (% DM) of the nine major conventional and five non-conventional poultry feed resources ranked in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e are presented in Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The results showed that the mean DM content of the nine main conventional feed resources ranged from 90.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0% in wheat bran to 93.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6% in finger millet. The DM content of the main feed resources did not show a significant difference (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) among the conventional feeds. The highest ME content of 3777.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;62.2 Kcal/kg DM was obtained in maize, followed by 3755.87 Kcal/kg DM in wheat, while the lowest ME content was 2452.91 Kcal/kg DM in noug seed cake, followed by 2895.46 Kcal/kg DM in wheat bran. The ME content of the main conventional feed resources showed a significant difference (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The highest ASH content of 8.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4%, 8.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9%, and 4.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8% was found in noug seed cake, sesame seed cake, and wheat bran, respectively. The lowest ASH content of 2.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6%, 3.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4%, and 3.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.7% was found in wheat, maize, and sorghum, respectively. The ASH content of the main conventional feed resources showed a significant difference (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The highest crude protein (CP) content was measured in sesame seed cake (SSC) at 35.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.3%, followed by noug seed cake (NSC) at 32.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9%, wheat bran (WB) and wheat middlings both at 16.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1%, and sorghum at 14.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6%. The highest ether extract (EE) content was obtained from SSC (7.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0%), while the lowest was found in wheat (2.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4%). The highest crude fiber (CF) content was reported in NSC (17.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4%), followed by WB (12.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0%) and SSC (9.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical composition (% DM) of major conventional poultry feed resources in the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeed Type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eME (Kcal/kg DM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaize\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3777.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;62.2\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSorghum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3685.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;87.2\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3755.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;76.9\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBarley\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3407.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;73.2\u003csup\u003ebcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3377.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;218\u003csup\u003ebcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2895.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;32.9\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3230.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;133\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSSM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3222.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.2\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.3\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2452.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;69.9\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3307.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;84.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.338\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eMeans followed by different superscripts within a column for each feed type are significantly different at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; SEM= standard error of means; DM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Dry matter; ME\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Metabolizable Energy, ASH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Ashe: CP\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Crude Protein; EE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Ether Extract; CF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Crude Fiber.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean chemical composition and energy content of the non-conventional poultry feed resources, including dry matter (DM), metabolizable energy (ME), ASH, crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), and crude fiber (CF), showed significant differences (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) between the non-conventional feed resources (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). The highest DM content among non-conventional feed resources was reported in blood meal (93.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2%), followed by cafeteria waste (91.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1%), while the lowest DM content was in cabbage waste (8.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8%) and cactus (12.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3%). The highest ME content was found in cafeteria waste (4570.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;170.9 Kcal/kg DM), followed by blood meal (4122.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;84.7 Kcal/kg DM), whereas the lowest ME content was reported from a local brewery by-product (2333.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;42.7 Kcal/kg DM). The highest ASH content was reported from cactus (19.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.2%) and cabbage waste (13.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1%), while the lowest ASH content was found in blood meal (3.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4%). The highest CP content was measured in blood meal (89.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.6%), followed by a local brewery by-product (18.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3%), cafeteria waste (17.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.9%), cabbage waste (15.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.9%), and cactus (4.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0%). The highest EE content was found in cafeteria waste (10.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5%), followed by a local brewery by-product (6.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4%), while the lowest EE content was reported in blood meal (1.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4%). The highest CF content was obtained from a local brewery by-product (20.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5%), followed by cactus (14.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.3%) and cafeteria waste (4.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8%), while the lowest CF content was found in blood meal (1.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6%) and cabbage waste (3.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChemical composition (% of DM) of major non-conventional poultry feed resources in the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeed Type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eME (Kcal/kg DM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eASH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood Meal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4122.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;84.7\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.6\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCactus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3309.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;328\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.2\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.3\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCabbage waste\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3351.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;67.5\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.9\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCafeteria waste\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4570.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;170.9\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.9\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAtela\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.1\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2333.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;42.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2995.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1250.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003eMeans followed by different superscript letters for each feed type are significantly different at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; SEM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standard error of means; DM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Dry matter; ME\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Metabolizable Energy, ASH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Ashe, CP\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Crude Protein; EE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Ether Extract; CF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Crude Fiber.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMineral profile of conventional and non-conventional feed resources\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe macro-mineral profiles of conventional and non-conventional poultry feed resources are presented in Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. The concentrations of macro-minerals, except for Na, show significant variations (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) among the major conventional feed resources. As presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, there is considerable variation in the mineral content of different conventional feed resources. The calcium content varied from 10.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.27 g/kg DM in sesame seed cake (SSC) to 0.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11 g/kg DM in wheat middlings. The highest potassium content was observed in noug seed cake (NSC) (20.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.57 g/kg DM), while the lowest was in maize (2.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09 g/kg DM). Sodium concentration across the conventional feed resources was relatively consistent. However, the highest sodium content was found in wheat middlings (0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06 g/kg DM), while the lowest was in SSC (0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00 g/kg DM). Wheat middlings had the highest phosphorus content (10.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.22 g/kg DM), whereas the lowest phosphorus content was found in maize (3.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29 g/kg DM).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMineral profile (% of DM) of major conventional poultry feed resources in the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeed Type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa (g/kg DM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP (g/kg DM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa (g/kg DM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK (g/kg DM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaize\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0. 29\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSorghum\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.47\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.317\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.62\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWheat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.20\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.75\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBarley\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.62\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.36\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinger millet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.45\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.33\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.05\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.13\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.79\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.64\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.22\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSSM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.27\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.36\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNSC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.37\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.57\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.90\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.979\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.230\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.029\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.821\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.155\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eMeans followed by different superscript letters for each feed type are significantly different at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; SEM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standard error of means; WB\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Wheat bran; WM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Wheat middling; SSM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Sesame seed cake; NSC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Noug seed cake; Ca\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Calcium; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Potassium; Na\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Sodium; K\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Phosphorus; g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;gram; kg\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;kilogram.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe concentrations of macro-minerals, except for P and Na, did not show significant variations (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in the non-conventional poultry feed resources. The highest Ca content was obtained from cactus (18.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.5 g/kg DM), followed by cafeteria waste (9.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.97 g/kg DM), while the lowest was found in cabbage waste (3.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25 g/kg DM). The highest potassium content was observed in a local brewery by-product (5.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.78 g/kg DM), followed by cafeteria waste (5.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.84 g/kg DM), whereas the lowest was in cactus (2.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61 g/kg DM).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMineral profile (% of DM) of major non-conventional poultry feed resources in the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeed Type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa (g/kg DM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP (g/kg DM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNa (g/kg DM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK (g/kg DM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood Meal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.11\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.81\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.823\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.68\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCactus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.5\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCabbage waste\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.49\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCafeteria waste\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.97\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.84\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.34\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAtela\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.67\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.78\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.80\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.514\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.326\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eMeans followed by different superscript letters for each feed type are significantly different at P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05; SEM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standard error of means; Ca\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Calcium; P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Potassium; Na\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Sodium; K\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Phosphorus; g\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;grams; kg\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;kilograms.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePoultry feed resources\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe majority of poultry producers in the study area, across different agroecologies, ranked maize as their primary source of chicken feed. Maize grain is commonly used as poultry feed by small-scale, medium, and large production systems. The main reason for its widespread use is its availability in every part of the study area and its use as a staple food and in local alcohol production. Poultry producers used maize for two main purposes: to meet the daily requirements of their chickens, especially during poultry compound feed shortages, and to adjust the yolk color to yellow using yellow maize. The potential supplementary feed resources for smallholder poultry farms in southern and northern Ethiopia, in general, were maize and sorghum (Kibreab et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Bangu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Tsegay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Tekalegn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSorghum is widely used as an energy source, especially in lowland agroecology areas. Wheat and barley are commonly used locally available feed resources in the highland areas, while finger millet is used in the midland study areas. This is supported by Bangu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and Tekalegn et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that the major supplementary feeds for poultry production in the southern region of Ethiopia are sorghum, wheat, and finger millet, next to maize. Additionally, wheat middlings and wheat bran are commonly used energy sources across different agroecological areas. This is supported by Salo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that farmers supplemented wheat bran to their chickens in addition to grain cereals. Moreover, sesame seed cake and noug cake are commonly used protein source supplementary feeds by poultry producers in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs the price of conventional feed rose and competition between humans and animals increased, poultry producers in the study area turned to non-conventional feed resources. Among the major non-conventional feed resources used in the study area are cafeteria waste, cabbage waste, local brewery (Atela), and blood meal. Poultry producers, especially broiler producers, used cafeteria wastes from day 30 to the finishing period due to the high cost of conventional compound feed and the availability of cafeteria waste from hotels and governmental institutions like universities. Mammo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) reported that increasing cereal grain prices in Ethiopia make it unaffordable for poultry producers to feed their birds with such grains. Therefore, non-conventional feed resources and food processing by-products need to be investigated and utilized to ensure sustainable poultry production in the country.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlood meal is used as a poultry feed source in the study area. Poultry producers collect fresh blood from nearby abattoirs, cook it, and supply their chickens with a mixture of wheat bran or other available feed. The local brewery is also a non-conventional feed resource used as supplementary feed, especially when compound feed supply is limited in the market.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAnnual cereal crop production\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the major crops grown and used for animal feed in the study area are maize, sorghum, wheat, finger millet, and noug. The productivity of cereal crops and their use for animal feed increased from 2011/2012 to 2020/2021. Production of all major grains in Ethiopia increased in 2020/2021 due to better extension services, including mechanization, favorable weather conditions, and positive rainfall in the western and central highlands of the country's grain-producing areas (Rachel, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the findings, maize and sorghum are the largest cereal commodities in terms of yield and the amount used for animal feed. The total production of maize and sorghum from 2011/2012 to 2020/2021 was 153,610.8 metric tonnes (MT) to 246,465.4 MT and 473,678.18 MT to 700,856.08 MT, respectively. About 1.7% to 2.1% of maize and 0.98% to 1.23% of sorghum were used for animal feed during these years. The trend of increasing cereal crop production and the amount of maize and sorghum used for animals is attributed to improved hybrid seeds, increased demand for food and feed, the expansion of poultry farms, livestock fattening, dairy development, and better market access for producers. This is supported by Rachel (2021), who reported increased productivity of maize and sorghum in Ethiopia due to improved hybrid seeds and increased demand for food and feed.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eExcept for noug, the productivity of other crop commodities decreased in 2018/2019. Factors such as desert locusts and COVID-19 contributed to this low productivity. However, the amount of cereal crops used for animal feed showed a positive increment during the same year. Despite the increased production, the supply of poultry feed has decreased relative to demand, leading to higher ingredient prices. In recent years, the supply of feed and feed ingredients has steadily decreased, while prices have increased (Yosef et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Feed mill processors and poultry producers in the study area used maize, sorghum, and noug as the main sources of poultry compound feed. This is supported by Yosef et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that the ingredients used by feed millers in different parts of Ethiopia are maize, sorghum, and noug. This was also corroborated by participants during group discussions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eChemical composition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study showed substantial differences in the chemical composition of locally available feed resources, which could be attributed to differences in management practices, soil fertility, species, variety of cereal crops, genotype, location of cultivation, and other factors (Tsehay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Tamene et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe DM content of maize grain, finger millet, wheat middlings, and noug seed cake obtained in the current study aligns with Yilkal et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), who reported DM content of 90.9%, 94%, 91%, and 92%, respectively. The DM content of barley grain obtained in the current study agrees with Seid et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), while the DM content of maize and wheat reported by Panwar et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) was 86.49% and 88.66%, respectively, which is lower than the current study. However, Kahsu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) reported lower DM content for noug seed cake (91.55%) and sesame seed cake (90.73%) compared to the current study, but the DM content of sorghum grain was comparable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe metabolizable energy (ME) of locally available major conventional feed resources ranged from 2452.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;69.9 Kcal/kg DM in noug seed cake to 3777.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;62.2 Kcal/kg DM in maize grain. The ME content of maize grains reported in the current study is slightly higher than that of Yilkal et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and Seid et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who reported ME content of 3665.40 and 3742 Kcal/kg DM, respectively. The ME content of barley grains, wheat middlings, and NSC was reported higher than in the current study. Additionally, the ME content of finger millet, wheat middlings, and noug seed cake was reported to be 3792 Kcal/kg DM, 3318.40 Kcal/kg DM, and 2370.96 Kcal/kg DM, respectively, higher than the current study (Yilkal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The ME content of wheat reported at 2691 Kcal/kg DM and 2850 Kcal/kg DM is lower than the current study (Mathlouthi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Panwar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The highest ME content from non-conventional feed resources was reported from cafeteria waste, followed by blood meals. The current study reported higher ME from cafeteria waste than Lamesgin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who reported 4170.74 Kcal/kg DM. However, the ME content in blood meal in the current study was lower than that reported by Heuz\u0026eacute; and Tran (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), who reported 5757.5 Kcal/kg DM ME in blood meals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe average ash content of major conventional poultry feed resources ranged from 2.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6% DM in wheat to 8.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4% DM in NSC. The ash content reported in the current study is higher than that of Seid et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who reported ash content of 2.7%, 3.1%, and 4.1% DM in maize, barley, and wheat middlings, respectively, while NSC was reported at 9.2% DM, which is higher than the present study. However, the ash content of wheat bran and NSC in the current study agrees with Mamo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), whereas Zinabu et al. (2019) reported a higher ash content of wheat bran (8.75% DM) than in the current study. The higher ash content from non-conventional feed resources was reported from cactus, while the lowest was reported from blood meals. The ash content reported in the current study aligns with Heuz\u0026eacute; and Tran (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), who reported 3% DM ash in blood meals. Mengistu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) reported an ash content of 16.8% DM in cactus, which is lower than the current study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CP content of major conventional locally available poultry feed resources ranged from 9.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4% DM in maize to 35.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.3% DM in SSC in the current study. The CP content of maize and NSC is in agreement with Seid et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who reported 9.8% DM in maize and 32.8% DM in NSC. In contrast, Panwar et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) reported lower CP contents of 8.55% DM in maize and 11% DM in wheat. On the other hand, the CP content of barley was reported at 11.8% DM, which is lower than that of the current study, while wheat middlings were reported at 17.5% DM, which is higher than the present study (Seid et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Zinabu et al. (2019) also reported that 15.56% DM of wheat bran is lower than in the current study. When comparing the CP content of major locally available conventional poultry feed resources, the CP content of oilseed cakes was higher than that of cereal crops. This is in agreement with Mezgebu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and Tikabo and Shumuye (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), who reported higher CP content in oilseed by-products than in cereal crop products. The highest CP content from non-conventional feed resources was reported from blood meals, followed by a local brewery, while the lowest was obtained from cactus. In contrast, the CP content reported in the current study is lower than that reported by Heuz\u0026eacute; and Tran (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), who reported 94.1% DM CP in a blood meal. However, the CP content of a local brewery is higher than that of Tikabo and Shumuye (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), who reported 15.90% DM CP content in a local brewery. Additionally, Mengistu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) reported 6.1% DM CP in cactus, which is higher than in the current study. Cactus feeding alone does not provide a sufficient diet for animals due to its limited crude protein content of approximately 5% (Nigus, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the nutritional content of blood meal in terms of ME and CP is higher, making it a viable option for replacing high-cost imported protein sources in poultry diets (Heuz\u0026eacute; and Tran, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe EE content of major locally available poultry feed resources in the current study ranged from 2.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4% DM in wheat to 7.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0% DM in SSC. The EE content of maize and wheat middlings in the current study was higher than that reported by Seid et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who found EE content of 3.4% DM in maize and 2.5% DM in barley. In contrast, wheat middlings and NSC were reported higher in EE content, at 4.3% DM and 9.8% DM, respectively, than in the current study (Seid et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Panwar et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) reported an EE content of 3.84% DM in maize, which is lower than in the current study, but the EE content of 2.18% DM in wheat was in agreement with the current study. The EE content of 5% DM in NSC reported by Yilkal et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) was lower than in the present study. In contrast, the EE content of 5.1% DM, 6% DM, and 5% DM in maize, finger millet, and wheat middlings, respectively, was reported higher than in the current study (Yilkal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The lowest EE content was reported in blood meals, while the highest was in cafeteria waste. Heuz\u0026eacute; and Tran (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) reported 0.8% DM EE in blood meals, which is lower than in the current study. The EE content in cafeteria waste was higher in the current study than reported by Lamesgin et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who found 8.66% DM. The difference in EE might be attributed to the type of cafeteria waste ingredients.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CF content of major locally available conventional poultry feed resources ranged from 2.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8% DM in wheat to 17.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4% DM in NSC. The CF content in NSC was in agreement with Yilkal et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) and Seid et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), who reported CF content of 17.2% DM and 17.1% DM, respectively, in NSC. In contrast, CF content was reported at 4.6% DM in maize and 8% DM in wheat middlings, which was higher than in the present study, whereas CF content of 4% DM in finger millet was reported lower than in the present study (Yilkal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, Seid et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) reported CF content of 2.7% DM in maize and 5.3% DM in barley, which is lower than in the current study. The lowest CF content from non-conventional feed resources was obtained in blood meal, followed by cabbage waste. However, the CF content in blood meals is higher than reported by Heuz\u0026eacute; and Tran (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), who found 0.5% DM in blood meals. The highest CF content was reported from a local brewery.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMineral profiles\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe locally available conventional and non-conventional poultry feed resources in the study area varied in their mineral contents. Calcium and phosphorus are essential for the formation and maintenance of the skeleton of birds, while sodium and potassium function with phosphate and bicarbonate to maintain the homeostasis of osmotic relationships and pH throughout the body (NRC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the locally available conventional poultry feeds, SSC and NSC (10.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.27 g/kg DM and 10.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.37 g/kg DM, respectively) had the highest calcium content, which is equivalent to the level of calcium content expected in oilseed cakes (7\u0026ndash;11 g/kg DM) (NRC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the calcium content obtained in the current study aligns with Fekede et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), who reported 8 g/kg DM in noug seed cake. Excess dietary calcium interferes with the availability of other minerals, such as phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, and zinc. A ratio of approximately 2 calcium to 1 phosphorus is appropriate for most poultry diets, except for diets for birds that are laying eggs (NRC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, locally available conventional feeds such as wheat middlings, sorghum, and barley had low calcium values of 0.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11 g/kg DM, 0.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.17 g/kg DM, and 0.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.15 g/kg DM, respectively. However, the calcium content of wheat middlings obtained in the current study is equivalent to the recommended standards (NRC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) and agrees with Fekede et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), who reported calcium content of 0.5 g/kg DM in wheat middlings. Additionally, Fekede et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) reported 2.2 g/kg DM calcium in wheat bran, higher than in the current study, while 11.4 g/kg DM in phosphorus (P), 0.5 g/kg DM in sodium (Na), and 13.2 g/kg DM in potassium (K) were in agreement with the current study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe range of mineral concentrations obtained from non-conventional locally available feed resources was 9.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.97 g/kg DM calcium in cafeteria waste and 3.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25 g/kg DM in cabbage waste, 5.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.78 g/kg DM phosphorus in a local brewery and 2.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61 g/kg DM in cactus, 3.823\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40 g/kg DM sodium in blood meal and 0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 g/kg DM in cabbage wastes, and 2.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.68 g/kg DM potassium in blood meal and local brewery, and 0.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46 g/kg DM in cabbage wastes. Comparing the results obtained in the current study with NRC (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e) recommendations, the local brewery was found in agreement with the recommended levels of 6.9\u0026ndash;44.2 g/kg DM, 3.8\u0026ndash;6 g/kg DM, 0.3\u0026ndash;0.7 g/kg DM, and 0.7\u0026ndash;6.5 g/kg DM of Ca, P, Na, and K, respectively, for brewery by-products. The calcium content of 0.82 g/kg DM and 6.9 g/kg DM reported by Tikabo and Shumuye (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Fekede et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) is lower than the current study. The reason for the difference in mineral concentration could be due to differences in raw materials used to make the local brewery. In contrast, Fekede et al. (2025) reported a higher concentration of sodium (0.7 g/kg DM) and potassium (6.5 g/kg DM) than the current study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe calcium and phosphorus content in cafeteria waste was reported lower than in the current study by Negasa (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), who found 0.8 g/kg DM and 0.72 g/kg DM of Ca and P, respectively. Heuz\u0026eacute; and Tran (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) reported lower Ca (1.3 g/kg DM) and P (2.2 g/kg DM) in blood meal, while Na (4.5 g/kg DM) and K (3.8 g/kg DM) were higher than the current study. The concentration of mineral content in cactus was reported as 18.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.5 g/kg DM Ca, 2.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61 g/kg DM P, 0.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24 g/kg DM Na, and 1.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50 g/kg DM K, aligning with Tikabo et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study provides valuable information on the major feed resources, productivity trends, and nutritional profiles of conventional and non-conventional poultry feed resources available in Northern Ethiopia. Among the conventional feed resources, maize and sorghum are ranked first and second, respectively. Among the non-conventional feed resources, cafeteria waste, cabbage waste, and blood meal are prominent. The nutritive value of feeds varies widely. Wheat bran and wheat middlings have relatively poor feeding values, necessitating supplementation with high-quality feeds. Non-conventional feeds such as blood meal and cafeteria waste have high energy, protein, and reduced fiber content, making them potential protein sources to replace costly imported protein sources in poultry diets. Further research is needed to investigate the inclusion rates of these feeds in broiler and laying hen diets to validate the current findings and optimize poultry feeding systems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eACKNOWLEDGMENTS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors are grateful to all participants in the study who generously gave their time and provided the relevant data needed to fulfill this study. The project was financially supported by the Ethiopian Ministry of Education and Aksum University (PhD/025/10). Special thanks to Professor Tegene Negessie and Dr. Mohamed Beyan for their invaluable supervision.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eETHICAL STATEMENT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe nature of the work does not require approval by a (bio) ethical committee. Informed consent was obtained from the farmers interviewed. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCLINICAL TRIAL NUMBER\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDISCLOSURES\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with this publication and there has been no significant financial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe first author was involved from the outset in data collection and analysis and was responsible for drafting the manuscript. The second and third authors contributed to revising and editing the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAOAC. 1990. Official Methods of Analysis, Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC), Washington, DC, USA, 1990.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBangu B. 2016. Assessment of Locally Available Poultry Feeds, Feeding Practices and Health in Sidama Zone and Halaba Special Woreda in SNNPR. Journal of Biology, Agriculture, and Healthcare. Vol.6, No.7, 2016. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.iiste.org/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.iiste.org/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCochran WG. Sampling techniques. 2nd ed. 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Journal of Dairy, \u003cem\u003eVeterinary and Animal Research\u003c/em\u003e, 8, pp. 205\u0026ndash;214. http://doi.dx.10.15406/jdvar.2019.08.00268.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-agriculture","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Agriculture](https://www.springer.com/journal/44279)","snPcode":"44279","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44279/3","title":"Discover Agriculture","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"bloodmeal, chemical composition, conventional feeds, local brewery, non-conventional feeds","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8751981/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8751981/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to assess the major sources of poultry feed and their nutritional composition in northern Ethiopia. A multistage sampling technique was used to determine the sample size, resulting in 320 respondents from different agroecologies. The main feeds were classified using a ranking index, and fourteen different feed resources were evaluated for their nutritional values using proper scientific procedures. Maize (Index, 0.31) in the highlands, (Index, 0.27) in the midlands, and sorghum (Index, 0.27) in the lowland were ranked first. Significant variations in the nutritive values of the investigated feeds were observed (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Metabolizable energy was higher in maize (3777.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;62.2 Kcal/kg DM) and cafeteria waste (4570.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;170.9 Kcal/kg DM). Crude protein was higher in sesame cake (35.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.3%) and blood meal (89.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.6%). Calcium was higher in cactus (18.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.5 g/kg DM) and potassium was higher in noug seed cake (20.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.57 g/kg DM). Non-conventional feeds have moderate nutritive value and can be utilized as replacements for costly imported conventional feeds. However, further investigation using animals is needed to validate the current findings and determine appropriate inclusion rates in poultry rations.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evaluation of locally available poultry feed resources and determination of their nutritional value in northern Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-23 06:46:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8751981/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-02-19T12:37:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-02-19T12:01:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Agriculture","date":"2026-02-19T11:56:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-agriculture","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Agriculture](https://www.springer.com/journal/44279)","snPcode":"44279","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44279/3","title":"Discover Agriculture","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"9defa5ed-cd48-4c32-b9b0-1d3adbf7a5dc","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 23rd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-05T10:38:36+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-23 06:46:26","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8751981","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8751981","identity":"rs-8751981","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}